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Our Western Empire ; 

OR THE 

NEW WEST 
BEYOND THE MISSISSIPPI 

THE LATEST AND MOST COMPREHENSIVE WORK ON THE 

States antr territories ®est of t^e Mississippi. 



CONTAINING 

THE FULLEST AND MOST COMPLETE DESCRIPTION, FROM OFFICIAL AND OTHER AtFTHENTIC 
SOURCES, OF THE GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, AND NATURAL HISTORY, (wiTH ABUNDANT 
INCIDENTS AND ADVENTURES,) THE CLIMATE, SOIL, AGRICULTURE, THE MINERAL 
AND MINING PRODUCTS, THE CROPS, AND HERDS AND FLOCKS, THE 
SOCIAL CONDITION, EDUCATIONAL AND RELIGIOUS PROGRESS, AND 
FUTURE PROSPECTS OP THE WHOLE REGION LYING BE- 
TWEEN THE MISSISSIPPI AND THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 

TO WHICH IS ADDED 

*/HE VARIOUS ROUTES, AND PRICES OF PASSAGE AND TRANSPORTATION FOR EMIGRANTS 
THITHER; THE LAWS, REGULATIONS AND PROVISIONS FOR OBTAINING LANDS FROM 
THE NATIONAL OR STATE GOVERNMENTS OR RAILROADS; COUNSEL AS TO 
LOCATIONS AND PROCURING LANDS, CROPS MOST PROFITABLE FOR 
CULTURE, MINING OPERATIONS, AND THE LATEST PROCESSES 
FOR THE REDUCTION OP GOLD AND SILVER, THE EXER- 
CISE OF TRADES OR PROFESSIONS; AND DETAILED 
DESCRIPTIONS OF EACH STATE AND TERRITORY ; 
WITH FULL INFORMATION CONCERNING MANITOBA, BRITISH COLUMBIA, AND THOSE REGIONS 
IN THE ATLANTIC STATES ADAPTED TO SETTLEMENT, BY THOSE WHO DO NOT WISH 
TO GO WEST ; AND STATISTICS OP CROPS, AREAS, RAINFALL, ETC. 



BY L. P. BROCKETT, A. M., M. D. 

M 
:»JE OF THE EDITORS OF THE " NEW AMERICAN ENCYCLOPEDIA," " APPLiTON'S ANNUAL," AND 
"JOHNSON'S UNIVERSAL ILLUSTRATED CYCLOPEDIA," ETC., ET\^„ ETC. 



BY THE MUST DISTINGUISHED AKTISTS. 

BRADLEY, GARRETSON^&SOO^^'^T'^^nt of Asricultare 

PHILADELPHIA, 66 NORTH FOURTH STREET; 
BRANTFORD, ONT. 



WILLIAM GARRETSON & CO. 

COLUMBUS. O.; CHICAGO, ILLS.; NASHVILLE. TENN. ; ST, LOUIS, MO.; 

SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. 

1882. 






COPYRIGHT BY DR. L. P. BROCKETT, iSSo. 



^' 56143 



•\v; 



Preface. 



'<^t* 



fN the summer of 1879 ^^^ publishers of this work entered into 
negotiations with the writer for the preparation of a work on 
the West; it was to be an octavo volume of about five hundred 
^ ^ pages ; and, having had considerable experience in geographical 
and historical works, the writer felt confident of its completion in the 
early spring of 1880. But as he proceeded with his work, both he 
and his publishers felt that their original plan was too circumscribed for 
the subject before them. The country to be described was vast, beyond our 
ordinary conceptions of vastness; much of it had never been adequately de- 
scribed, and the descriptions hitherto published were as far behind the existing 
facts as a ten-year-old almanac. The tide of immigration had doubled and 
quadrupled since 1876, and what was a howling wilderness, with only a half 
dozen straggling settlements, five years before, had already attained the popu- 
lation and organization of a State. The railways, which during the six years 
of financial depression, had added very little to their mileage in the new States 
and Territories, were now stretching their iron fingers across the continent,, 
pioneers instead of followers of settlement and civilization. The loaded traims 
groaned beneath the weight of the superabundant crops ; over all the hillsides 
the cattle roamed, fat, sleek and contented, in unnumbered thousands ; all the 
plains were spangled with millions of white-fleeced sheep. Along both slopes 
of the Rocky Mountains, from Texas to British America, in the summits and 
passes of the Sierra Madre, the Sierra Nevada and the Cascades, as well as in 
the smaller outlying ranges between, and even on the hills of the lower Coast 
Range, gold and silver, quicksilver and platinum, copper, lead and zinc, coal, 
salt and sulphur, were yielding up their treasures; and every day was adding 
largely to the amount. The population, which was pouring into this vast 
empire, was composed of almost every people under the sun; and while the 
leaven of sturdy law-abiding citizens from the Atlantic States was krge, it re- 
mained to be seen whether the amalgamation would result in an intelligent and 
patriotic citizenship; whether education, moral principle, and higher aims 
than mere money-getting, would gain the ascendency. 

(3) 



4 PREFACE. 

Then the year 1880 proved, from almost its beginning, to be an exceptional 
year, especially in its relations to the West. Our decennial census was to be 
taken, and it would be possible by the close of the year, but not earlier, to 
ascertain whether the boasted increase of these Western States and Territories 
was justified by the cold and careful enumerations of the census supervisors. 
Six hundred thousand emigrants reached our shores during the year, and more 
than twice that number of our own citizens migrated to the West. The railway 
kings were enlisting their syndicates and making their combinations, which 
have resulted in a twelvemonth in arrangements for the speedy completion of 
four new trunk routes to the Pacific on our own territory, and of the Canadian 
Pacific on our northern border. Eleven States and Territories, heretofore 
either in part or wholly inaccessible by rail, are now, or will be in a few 
months, provided with railroad transit across their entire breadth or length; 
and the year on which we have entered is only carrying out right royally the 
plans and project.s of its imperial predecessor. 

It was evident to both publishers and author that our plans required extension 
and enlargement, and so we went from ordinary octavo to royal octavo ; from 
500 to 700, to 1000, and finally to over 1300 pages. Resolved to represent 
what had never previously been even attempted, and what for lack of material 
could not have been attempted with success— ^the present condition of each 
of the States and Territories which go to make up "Our Western Em- 
pire " — no pains nor expense has been spared to gain from every source every 
fact which could illustrate their topography, geology and mineralogy, climate, 
soil, productions, mineral wealth, pastoral facilities, population, accumulated 
wealth, education and religion, with notices of the Indian tribes found in their 
borders. For these purposes, every book and pamphlet, official and other, 
every report, railroad publication, mining record, every newspaper and every 
telegraphic report affecting any of these States or Territories, has been carefully 
scanned to the number of more than three thousand, and a correspondence 
opened and maintained with many hundreds of officials and others. 

The result is before the public. It has been a labor of love, notwithstanding 
the toil it has required. That it is absolutely free from error is impossible ; but 
the great care which has been taken to secure accuracy leads to the hope that 
there are no errors of great magnitude. At all events, it could not have been 
completed with as great a measure of perfection as it now possesses, a day earlier 
than the present. 

No man was ever blessed with more kindly and thoughtful friends than the 
writer. Every request for information has been most promptly and heartily 



PREFACE. 5 

met by those to whom it was addressed ; and in many cases voluntary contribu- 
tions of great labor and value have been added. Two most valued and helpful 
correspondents have died while the work was in progress: his Excellency, Wil- 
liam A. Howard, Governor of Dakota, and Hon. Alfred Gray, Secretary of the 
Kansas State Board of Agriculture. Of the living, the warm and hearty thanks 
of the writer are due to his Excellency, Gen. John C. Fremont, Governor 
of Arizona, for valuable information relative to that Territory; to Hon. W. H. 
H. Beadle, of Yankton, Dakota, Superintendent of Public Instruction of Da- 
kota, for much information and valuable memoranda in regard to Southeastern 
Dakota and the Black Hills; to J. B. Power, Esq., of St. Paul, Minnesota, for 
a valuable essay, and many important documents in regard to Montana and 
Dakota; to H. H. Young, Esq., Secretary of Minnesota Board of Emigration, 
for documents, etc., relative to Minnesota; to Hon. Andrew McKinley, of St. 
Louis, President of Missouri State Board of Immigration, for letters and valu- 
able documents; to his Excellency, Albinus Nance, Governor of Nebraska, for 
many documents; to his Excellency, J. P. St. John, Governor of Kansas, and 
J. K. Hudson, Esq., Mr. Gray's successor as Secretary of the Board of Agricul- 
ture of that State, for documents; to Robert E. Strahorn, Esq., of Omaha, for 
valuable documents and descriptions; to A. L. Webber, Esq., of Hot Springs, 
and to United States Senator A. H. Garland, for aid in regard to Arkansas ; to 
A. L. Stokes, Esq., of Chicago, for valuable documents in regard to Oregon; 
to Edward J. Brockett, of Orange, N. J., for many valuable historical and de- 
scriptive works; to Charles C. Savage, Esq., of Brooklyn, for valuable docu- 
ments and information concerning Colorado; to Gen. N. A, Miles, U. S. A., 
for official reports of the exploration of the Yellowstone region ; and especially 
to Rev. Wayland Hoyt, D. D., of Brooklyn, for his invaluable aid in regard 
to Montana and the Yellowstone Park. There may be others whose aid ought 
to be acknowledged, but whose names are not now recalled. If so, they will 
please accept the grateful thanks of one whose memory of names is less tena- 
cious than of loving deeds. 

In the hope that this book may contribute to the honor and glory of our be- 
loved country, both at home and abroad, the writer subscribes himself the 
public's most humble servant. L. P. B. 

Brooklyn, February , 1881. 



Contents. 



Preface 3 

Table of Contents 7 

PART I.— OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

CHAPTER I. 

What it Comprehends— The West beyond the Mississippi— Its Area and Ex- 
tent Comparison with other Empires— Climate — Mountains — Natural 

Phenomena — Soil — The Alkaline, Volcanic and "Bad Lands"— Predomi- 
nance OF Arable and Pasture Lands— Nutritious Grasses in the Grazing 
Lands 33 

CHAPTER 11. 

The Great American Desert : Where is it ?— The Hundredth Meridian—" Eli 
Perkins's" Scare— The Facts in Reply— Colonel (Brevet Brigadier-General) 
Hazen on the Northern Pacific — Governor Howard's Answer, and other 
Facts — Dakota— Wyoming and its Agriculture — Montana — B. R. and Mr. Z. 
L. White on its Crops— The small modicum of Truth in these " Desert " 
Stories — The reported " Desert " beyond the Rockies — The Utah and Ne- 
vada Desert — Testimony of Surveyors-General — The Texan Deserts and 
Arizona — The Great American Desert a Myth 37 

CHAPTER III. 

The whole Region Abounding in Mineral Wealth — Production of Gold and 
Silver, other Metals, etc. — Forests — Grasses — Root Crops — Fruits — Vini- 
culture 5^ 

CHAPTER IV. 

Wild Animals and Game — Beasts of Prey — Grizzly and other Bears— Mr. Mur- 
phy's Grizzly Bear Story— The Cougar, Puma, or Panther— The Jaguar and 
other Felid^ — Lynxes— What sort of an Animal a Lynx is — The Marten 
and Weasel Tribe— The Gray Wolf— The Coyote— Is the Prairie Wolf a 
Coyote? — Colonel Dodge's Opinion — Amphibia — The Whale Tribe — Birds of 
Prey — Perchers and Song-Birds— Pigeons and Grouse — Waders and Swim- 
mers — Reptiles — Fishes — Mollusks and Crustaceans — Domestic Animals 56 

CHAPTER V. 

Population — The Increase since 1870 — Tables Showing the estimated Increase in 
EACH State and Territory — Notes in regard to each State and Territory. 63 

(7) 



8 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VI. 

The Nationalities and Races Represented— The Indians — Different Tribes, and 
THEIR Characteristics — The Moquis ok Arizona — Note concerning then- 
Africans and Colored Persons generally— Chinese and Japanese— Hispano- 
Americans — Europeans of different Nationalities— British, British Ameri- 
can, German, Scandinavian, French, Ijalj an, Spanish, etc. — Americans born 
IN THE States • 66 

CHAPTER VII. 

Characteristics and Peculiarities of the Population— Humorous Aspects of the 
Blending of different Nations— The New Dialect — Specimens of it— The 
Propensity to Humorous Exaggeration — Incidents, Manners and Habits of 
Ranch-owners and Ranchmen — Colonies of different Nationalities and 
Religions — Mennonites— Stundists — Mormons — Catholic Emigration — Asso- 
ciations of Capitalists for Mining, Herding, Wool-growing, or Farming Pur- 
poses — Other Modes of Settlement 71 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Variety of Soils and Surface — Alkaline Lands — The Llano Estacado — Mez- 
QUiTE Lands — The Plains— The Bad Lands— River-bottom Lands— Soils 
— The Mulatto Soils — The Chocolate Soils— Geography and Geognosy — 
Geology— Characteristics of the Rocky Mountains— Glacial Erosion^ 
Horse-shoe Moraines— Volcanic Remains of the Yellowstone Country — 
The Geysers— Wonderful Lava Fields— Volcanic Mounds— The Vicinity 
of Salt Lake— Professor Geikie's Summary of the Geology of the Central 
Region— Mineralogy— Mineral Wealth of the West, not Surpassed in any 
other part of the Globe — Wide diffusion of Gold and Silver — Lead, 
Copper, Zinc — Iron found Everywhere— Nickel — Rarer Metals — Salt in 
Brine Springs, Lakes, Salt Marshes, and Rock-Salt— Borax- Asphaltum 
AND Petroleum— Lignite— Coal— Building-Stones— Colored Rocks and 
Clays— Precious Stones of all kinds— Porcelain Clays— Baryta— Ochres 
— Mineral Springs 8' 

CHAPTER IX. 

Climates— Varieties of Climate— Causes— Climate of North-West Coast- 
Small Range of Temperature on the California Coast— Extremes of 
Heat and Cold between the Coast Range and Sierra Nevada— Cold in 
Northern Dakota— Protracted and intense Heat at Fort Yuma— The 
Soldier's Test— Temperature on the Plains— The Rocky Mountain Cli- 
mate—Hot AT mid-day, Cool at Night- Annual Range from 55° to 65°— 
Healthfulness of this Climate— Rainfall— Great Variations— Compari- 
son of different Sections— Western Oregon and Northern California, 
123 to 135 INCHES— San Diego and Fort Yuma, 3.80 to 2.00 inches— Gulf 
Coast 54 to 67 inches — Mississippi River to 97TH Meridian 45 to 28 

INCHES— 97TH to II7TH MERIDIAN 25 TO 1 1. 5 INCHES— FARTHER WeST, H TO 

42 INCHES— Causes of deficient Rainfall— Two-thirds of Arable Lands 
DO not require Irrigation— One-third do— Advantages of Irrigation- 
Crops larger and more uniform— Winds— Character and Effect of dip- 



CONTENTS. 

FERENT Winds— The Winds from the North— Gulf Winds— The Hot Winds 
FROM Mexico— Possibility of their mitigation as the Country becomes 
Settled 

CHAPTER X. 

The various Processes of Mining— Placer Mining— Gold Discovery in Califor- 
nia—Marshall's Specimens— Humphrey makes a Rocker— P. B. Reading's 
Experiment— John Bidwell's Discovery— Intense Excitement— The Pan— 
The Rocker— The Ditch and the " Tom "—The Sluice— Hydraulic Mining 
—Hydraulic Mining not ^stheti^-Desolation of the Regions where it 
HAS BEEN practised— Lode or QuUtz Mining— True Fissure Veins— The 
"Country" Rock— Chimneys, Chutes, or Bonanzas— Pockets— Cement De- 
posits—Contact Lodes— What is meant by a Contact Lode— Carbonates of 
Silver as rich as Sulphurets— Gold combined with Sulphurets— Mining 
AND Reducing Processes— Sinking a Shaft— Running an Adit— Cutting a 
Winze— Stoping— Depth of Mines— Great Heat of Deep Mines— The Water 
very Hot, 154° F. or more— Cost of Pumping out and Ventilating Mines— 
The Reduction of Pyritous and other Ores— Gold with Oxide of Iron- 
Cost of Reduction of Gold— Discoveries of Silver Ores— Silver widely 
diffused— Various Conditions and Combinations of Silver in the Ores- 
Modes of Reduction— The best Mining Regions— Placer Mining: the best 
Locations— Difficulties of Placer Mining— Difficulties of Lode or Vein 
Mining— The best Mines bought up by Capitalists— The best Locations for 
Experts 



94 



lOI 



CHAPTER XL 

Other Metals and Mineral Products— Quicksilver— Its Existence as Cinna- 
bar—Copper—Found IN Various Forms, as Malachite, Red, Blue, Yellow, 
AND Vitreous Carbonates and Oxides, Copper Glance, Pyrites, Native, etc., 
Occurs in nearly all the States and Territories— Lead and Zinc— Both 
Occur either as Galena (Sulphuret), Carbonate or Oxide, in most of the 
States and Territories— Iron— Everywhere and in all Forms in the Great- 
est Abundance— Can Supply the World with Iron and Steel— Platinum- 
Found Pure and in Combination with Gold, Iridium and Iridosmin in Cali- 
fornia, Oregon, Colorado, and Arizona— Tin— Occurs as Cassiterite or 
Oxide— Nickel— Found in Iron Ores— Iridium and Osmium— Tellurium— Rare 
Metals Found in Combination with Gold, and the latter also with Copper 
—Antimony— Arsenic— Manganese— The three Found in Various Forms in 
Combination with Silver, Copper, Lead, Zinc, and Iron— Sulphur— Found Na- 
tive AND in Various Combinations with most of the Metals— Extensive Beds 
IN California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Yellowstone Park, etc. 
—Borax— In California and Nevada— Soda— In California, Nevada, and 
Utah— Salt— Coal— Four Distinct Coal Fields: Eastern, Bituminous; Sec- 
ond, Lignite-Cretaceous; Third, Lignite-Tertiary, but changed by Volcanic 
Action to Anthracite; Fourth, Bituminous, and Farther North, Anthracite 
—True Anthracite Coal also in Arizona— Asphaltum and Petroleum in 
California, Nevada, Wyoming, Colorado, and Montana— Mica— Alum- 
Kaolin- Wood and Charcoal as Fuel— Mineral Springs "5 



lo CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XII. 

Agriculture— Arable Lands East of the Rocky Mountains— Minnesota Farming 
Lands and Products — Dakota Territory Farming Lands— Montana Farms- 
Iowa Farms— Missouri Farming Lands— Nebraska Farming Lands— Kansas 
Farming— Arkansas Farms— The Indian Territory as a Farming Region- 
Texas Farming, Grain, Cotton, etc.— Review of Farming Lands East of Rocky 
Mountains— Much Poor and Indifferent Farming — Revolution in Farming 
Produced kv Agricultural Machinery— Root Crops— Cotton— Sugar— Fruit 
Culture— Textile Fibres and Tobacco— The Rocky Mountain Region— Won- 
derful Results of Irrigation— Beyond the Rockies— From the Sierra Ne- 
vada TO THE Coast Range— CALiFORMfc\ — Viniculture in California — The 
Products of Oregon and Washington 131 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Timber and Lumber — Reckless Waste of the Forest Growths— Only eight States 
AND Territories have Sufficient Forests for their own Supply, and some to 
Spare — Tree-Planting — The Forest Growths in Different Sections— Cal- 
ifornia Forests — What Trees are Planted— Cotton-Wood — Osage Orange 
— Catalpa — Maple, ETC. — The Eucalyptus Globulus Should be Planted — 
Why ? — Horticulture and Fruit-Culture — Floriculture — Wild Flowers — 
Market-Gardening i47 

CHAPTER XIV. 

New Directions in which Agricultural Industry may be Developed, and in 

WHICH IT IS ALREADY DEVELOPING— MiLLET AND OTHER FORAGE CROPS — SlLK- 

CuLTURE — Rearing the Silk-worm— Stifling the Cocoons— Reeling — The 
Filature — ScHAPPfe or Spun-Silk — Cocoons do not bear Transportation well 
— Advantages of Silk-Culture in the West — The Silkville Experiment — 
Prices of Raw Silk and of Silk-worm Eggs — Probability of a Large Demand 
FOR Raw Silk — Textile Fibres— Flax and Hemp— Paper Stock : Esparto 
Grass, Tule, Marsh-Mallow, etc. — Ramie, Jute, Tampico— The Nettle— Dye 
Stuffs— Cochineal— Oil-Producing Plants— The Olive— Cotton-Seed Oil— 
Hemp-seed and Linseed Oil— Oil of Sunflower Seeds and other Seeds— Se- 
SAMUM Indicum — Tar Weed (Madia Sativa) — Pea-nut, Ground-nut or Goober 
— Castor Bean (Ricinus Communis and Sanguinarius)— Tea and Coffee Culti- 
vation—Fruit and Nut-bearing Trees and Shrubs— The Olive— Oranges 
and Lemons— Pomegranate— Fig— Banana, Plantain, Pineapple, Guava and 
OTHER Tropical Fruits— Papaw— Nut-bearing Trees and Shrubs— Introduc- 
tion OF Foreign Nuts— English Walnut — Italian Chestnut — Almond — 
Other Fruit-bearing Shrubs— Japanese Persimmon, Carob, Jujube, Mezquite, 
ETC. — Trees and Shrubs containing Tannin— The Sumacs— The Wattles— 
The SpiRiEAs or Hardhacks 152 

CHAPTER XV. 

Stock raising — Cattle-herding, and the rearing of PIorses and Mules — The 
Grazing Lands — The Stock-growing Region, par excellence — Winter Care of 
Stock— Number of Cattle in the West in 1879 — The Herdsmen or Cow-boys 
— Stock-raising profitable if well managed— Stock-raising in Texas— Cli- 



CONTENTS. II 

MATic Advantages — Pasturing on the Great Ranges, or on one's own Land — 
Expense of rearing Cattle in Texas — The two Extremes in Stock-raising in 
Texas — Examples — Beginning on a Small Scale — Growth of a Texas Stock- 
RANCHE — Stock-raising in Kansas and Colorado — Joint-Stock Management 
OF A Ranche — The Colorado Cattle Company's Estate of Hermosillo — 
Another Colorado Company — Statistics — The Estimate of Mr. A. A. Hayes, 
Jr. — The Difference of Profit between " Store " Cattle and " Fat " Cattle 

Mr. Barclay's Account — The English View of the Matter — Stock-raising 

IN the Northern and Northwestern States and Territories — Shelter 
AND Food for Stock — Future Advantages for Shipping Choice Stock from 
these States and Territories to Europe — Dairy- Farming — Stock-raising 
and Dairy-Farming in California — Horse-Farming and Rearing Mules — 
Camels f 165 

CHAPTER XVI. 

Sheep-Farming and Wool-Growing — Number of Sheep and Annual Increase of 
Lambs in each State or Territory — The Great Wool States — Improving 
the Breed — Merinos — Cotswolds — Southdowns — Leicesters — Tastes Dif- 
fer — Perils of the Flocks from Cold, Starvation, and Thirst — Winter 
Shelter and Winter Food Necessary in Kansas and farther North — Dis- 
eases OF Sheep — The Scab — The Tick — Grub in the Head — The Pale Disease 
— Paper Skin — The Foot-rot — The Black-leg — Pleuro- Pneumonia, etc. — The 
Sheep that Browse and the Sheep that Crop their Food — Shrubs and 
Plants Poisonous to Sheep — Sheep-Farming — The Shepherds — The Sheep- 
Farmer IN Colorado — The Purchase of the Sheep-Farm — Buying the Sheep 
— The Account — Beginning on a small Scale: the Man with only ^1,000 — 
Not Advisable to Marry, or bring a Family to a Sheep- Farm when starting 
WITH a very Small Capital — Crossing the Breed with the Big-Horn — The 
Angora and other Goats — The Rocky Mountain Goat 180 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Employments in Cities, Towns and Villages — "A Man's got to have Sand " — No 
Place for Men easily Discouraged — Energetic and Industrious Men can do 
WELL — Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture — How to Succeed in 
these Pursuits — Mercantile Business — The Road to Success for the Trades- 
man — Banking — The Professions, Clergymen, Lawyers, Physicians, En- 
gineers, Artists, Musicians, and Teachers of Music, Vocal and Instrumental 
— The Love of Music Illustrated — The Leadville Miner and his Piano — 
Teachers and Educators — Provisions for Education in the States and Terri- 
tories — Artisans of all Tradf^ — Machinists, Operatives, and Employes in 
Manufacturing Establishments — Employments connected with Mining, Re- 
ducing, Smelting and Refining Metals — Farming, Herding, and other Em- 
ployes — Day- Laborers — How to Spell " Lynx " — Facilities for Manufactur- 
ing — Water-Power, Steam-Power — Woollen Manufacture — Cotton Manu- 
factures AND Cotton Seed— -Other Textiles — Iron and Iron Wares — 
Machinery — Manufactures of Wood, etc 191 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

The Future, the Glorious Future of this Grand Empire of the West — The 
Causes which have led to its Growth — Bishop Berkeley's Prediction — The 



12 CONTENTS. 

"Empire " he saw — The Germ of the Great Republic — What the Empire is, 

AND what it is to BE — ItS GROWTH AND FUTURE CAPACITY — ThE FUTURE CLI- 
MATE — The Future Soil and Productiveness — Influence of Railroads in De- 
veloping this Region — The Gold and Silver Mines as aiding in the Devel- 
opment OF the Country — The Future of the Mines of the Precious Metals — 
The Western Slopes of the Rocky Mountains full of Gold and Silver — 
Results of Increased Production of Gold and Silver— Effect of Increased 
Production of other Metals — No Metal but Tin to be Imported — Mineral 
Earths and Elements to be Developed — Coal — Petroleum — Metallic and 
Mineral Products of the Far West in 1880 — The Production of a. d. 1900 
— Vegetable Products — Wheat — Two Thousand Millions of Bushels in 
1900 — Indian Corn — Corn Crop of 1879 — Influences affecting the Future of 
this Crop---Sorghum — Sorghum Sugar-^Its Future Production and- Consump- 
tion — Oats — Barley — Rye — Buckwheat — Egyptian Rice Corn — Rice, Note — 
Summing up of Cereal Products — Root Crops — Potatoes — Sweet Potatoes — 
Other Root Crops — Difficulty of Determining their Amount — Orchard 
Products — Textiles — Cotton — The Future Demand for Cotton — Wool — 
Wool Clip in a. d. 1900 — Silk — Probability of the large Production of Raw 
Silk here — Other Textiles — The Hay Crop — Dairy Products — Tobacco — 
Sugar, not from Sorghum — Hops — Oil-bearing Plants and Seeds — Summary 
of Vegetable Products, exclusive of Cereals — Fisheries of the Pacific and 
THE Gulf, of the Lakes and Rivers of the Interior — Fish-Culture, Present 
AND Prospective — Live-Stock in 1880 and 1900 — Forest Products— Various 
Ways in which Wood is used and destroyed — Probable Value of Forest 
Products in 1900 — Manufactures — Future of Manufactures — Commerce — 
Internal and Interstate Commerce — Its indescribable Extent — General 
Summary — Character of Future Population — Little Danger of War — 
Indians — Probable Early Extinction of Indian Tribes — The Colored 
Race — The Mexicans, Chinese and Japanese — Probability of a large Influx 
of Chinese on the Pacific Coast in the near Future — European Immigrants 
— Emigrants from the Eastern United States — The Character of its Citi- 
zens THE best Guaranty of its Future 206 



PART II.— IMMIGRATION. 

CHAPTER I. 

Who Should Migrate to this Western Empire, and the Reasons Why — Desira- 
bleness OF Accurate Information— What English and Irish Farmers are 
Saying— This Book thoroughly Trustworthy, and written with no Inter- 
est but the Immigrant's TO Serve — Intentional and Unintentional Misrep- 
resentation — Who should not come — The Land-Grant Railway Companies, 
AND THE Emigration Societies — The Hardships to which the Immigrant was 
Subjected Thirty or Forty Years ago— The comparative Ease and Comfort 
OF THE Immigrant's Lot now — The Immigrant should not buy his Land before 
seeing it — All Lands not equally Desirable— Railway Pamphlets and Em- 
igration Society Circulars sometimes Overstate Advantages — The Immigrant 
should Examine for Himself — Age beyond which Emigration is Undesirable 
-^Other Classes who ought not to come — Invalids — Lazy People— Fickle 



CONTENTS. 13 

People — Those who have no Money — Amount of Capital Necessary — This 

VARIES with the OCCUPATION — WHAT ARE NECESSARY EXPENSES — ALTERNATIVES 

FOR Men who have only ;^ioo or less, and a Family — Single Men can get 

ALONG, THOUGH NOT WITHOUT HARDSHIPS AND PRIVATIONS — WhY SOME EMIGRANTS 

ARE Dissatisfied — "Our Western Empire" preferred to other Countries by 

THE EmIGRANT-^WhY ? 237 

CHAPTER II. 

The Routes by which "Our Western Empire" is Reached — What the Immigrant 
should do on reaching Castle Garden — The Journey at best a Wearisome 
ONE — The Northeastern Region — Chicago the Point of Departure for this 
Region — Cautions and Advice to the Immigrant when Travelling — The Cen- 
tral Region — St. Louis, Omaha, St. Joseph, Atchison, or preferably Kansas 
City the Points of Departure for this Region, and for most of the South- 
ern, Southwestern and Pacific Regions also — The Southern and Southwest- 
ern States and Territories also reached by Steamers on the Mississippi and 
the Gulf, and these and the Pacific States by Ocean Steamers from New 
York — The Southern Region— The Southwestern — The Pacific States and 
Territories — Time occupied by the Emigrant Trains and the Steamers — 
Table of Destinations, Routes, Points of Departure and Fares in the Autumn 
of 1879 248 

CHAPTER III. 

The Selection of a Farm — How to obtain Land — Various Ways in which an Im- 
migrant with Capital may obtain a Farm very Reasonably — Advice to the 
Immigrant who has but little Capital — In what States and Territories, or 
parts of States, are there Arable Government Lands ? — How to obtain Gov- 
ernment Lands — Prices of Arable or Farming Lands — Purchase at Auction 
or Private Entry — Purchases and Locations with Bounty or Military Land- 
Warrants — Locations with Agricultural College Scrip — Pre-emption — The 
Homestead Sales — Laws extending the Homestead Privilege — Provisions 
FOR THE Benefit of Soldiers and Sailors of the late War, their Widows and 
Minor Orphan Children — Homestead Lands Exempt from Liability for Debts 
Previously Contracted — Fees for Homestead Entries — Land- Warrants — 
The Timber-Culture Act — Terms and Mode of Purchase of Timber and 
Stone Lands — The Desert Land Act — Purchases under it — Grazing Lands : 
how Secured 254 

CHAPTER IV. 

Mining and Mineral Lands — The United States Laws and Regulations of the 
Land Office in regard to them — Extent of Claim — Rights of Claimants — 
Veins — How Controlled — Tunneling — Requirements of Location and Labor 
— How to Secure a Patent for them — Provisions for Placer Claims — Limita- 
tions and Liens — Placer and Lode Claims Jointly — Fees to Surveyors — 
Proof of Claims — Veins Crossing — Sites for Mills — Drainage, Easements, 
etc. — Vested Water-rights — Homesteads — Agricultural Lands — General 
Provision — Coal Lands — Who can Claim — Registering Claims — Conflicting 
Claims — The Act of 1874 — The Act of 1875 — Rules of the U. S. Land Office 
— Effect of the Act of 1872 — Extent of Surface Ground — Surface Rights — 
The Miner's Laws or Rules— Interpretation of the Statutes by the Land 
Office — General Instructions from Surveyor-General — Placer Claims— 



14 CONTENTS. 

Mill Sites— Deputy-Surveyor's Fees — Proofs of Citizenship of Mining Claim- 
ants — State, Territorial and Local Rules or Laws — Nevada Statutes — Vir- 
ginia District, Nevada — Reese River District, Nevada — Statutes of Oregon 
— Quartz Statute of Idaho — Statute of Arizona — Mining Laws of Colorado 
— Supplementary Act to these Laws passed in 1874 — The Colorado Acr of 
1877 — Mining Laws of New Mexico 270 

CHAPTER V. 

Other Lands in some of the States more Desirable for Emigrants than Govern- 
ment Lands — State and Territorial Lands — Agricultural College, Uni- 
versity, AND School Lands — The Quantity, Prices, and Terms of Purchase 
— Other State Lands — Lands Granted to Benevolent Institutions — Desert 
and Swamp Lands — Lands held Under Mexican Titles in California, New 
Mexico, and Arizona — Some Danger of Conflict of Titles in these — The 
Texas Land System — Three Modes of Securing Homes in Texas under its 
Land Laws, viz. : By Settlement under the Homestead Donation Law ; By 
Locating a Certificate; or by Purchase from the State of Common School, 
University or Asylum Lands — No United States Government Lands in Texas 
— Railroad Lands — Extent of these in the different States and Terri- 
tories — Range of Prices — Methods of Selling for Cash — On Short Credit — 
On Long Credit — The Discounts for Cash Payments — Examples — Range of 
Prices — The Union Pacific, Central Pacific, Western Pacific, and Southern 
Pacific Lands — Their Rules for Selling — Their Terms higher and more 
Vigorously Enforced — Buying an Interest in a Mine — This does not Neces- 
sarily include Ownership of the Land over it — Buying Partially improved 
Farms — They Should not be Bought at too High a Price 345 

CHAPTER VI. 

Farming Life — Management of a Farm at the West — The Best Farming Regions — 
What Crops are Best — The Immigrant Farmer should decide what Crops he 
wishes to Cultivate, beforehand — If Small Grains and Root Crops, he should 

DECIDE between SPRING WhEAT AND WiNTER WHEAT — SPRING WhEAT BeST IN 

THE Northern Tier of States and Territories — Why ? — Winter Wheat in 
the Middle Tier — Other Crops — Indian Corn — Sorghum — Oats — Root Crops 
— The Region of Moderate or Small Rainfall — Necessity of Irrigation on 
These — Its Advantages — Crops Certain — Requires more Capital but Gives 
BETTER Results — Hints to Immigrant Farmers — Deep Plowing Needed — Ro- 
tation of Crops — Some Manuring an Advantage — Agricultural Machinery — 
The Gang-Plow — Seed-Drill — Horse-Hoe — Cultivator — Reaper and Binder 
or Harvester, Mower, Horse-rake, etc., etc. — Should keep what Stock he 
CAN Feed — Sowing Grain in Drills, instead of Broadcast — Too much Seed 
Sown and not enough Care of its Quality — Hallett's Pedigree Wheat — 
The Immigrant in the South or Southwest — The Best Crops for him — Cot- 
ton IF HE chooses, but VEGETABLES, SMALL FrUITS, SwEET POTATOES, AND GENER- 
ALLY Market-Garden Produce, more Profitable on Account of its Earliness 
— Often Two Crops can be raised in a Season — Some of the Cereals and In- 
dian Corn do well in Northern Texas and Arkansas — Need of Fertilizers 
here — Their Accessibility — Semi-Tropical Fruits most Profitable in Ari- 
zona, Southern New Mexico, and Southern California — How Farming can be 

MADK MOST PROFITABLE 363 



CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Western Farming Continued— What Capital is Necessary for a Comfortable 
Beginning on a New Farm at the West — What the Railway Men say ^1,000 
WILL do — This Sum hardly Sufficient under Homestead or Timber-Culture 

Acts, avithout Great Privations — Fifteen Hundred Dollars Better A 

Larger Amount Needed in some States or Territories than in others — Less 
Money Needed in Arkansas or Texas than Elsewhere, but the Land Less 
Productive — The Disasters and Drawbacks to which the Western Farmer 
IS Liable before he is fairly Established — Drought— Grasshoppers or Bee- 
tles, Gophers — Cattle Diseases — Swine Plague — Cyclones — Prairie Fires or 
Floods — The Remedy or Preventive to be found in varied Locations — Varied 
Crops, or the Addition of Stock-raising to his other Farming — Buying a Par- 
- TiALLY Improved Farm — What is Bought — The Price varying in different 
Locations — Advice to those who are unable at first to Buy and Stock a 
Farm — Incidents of Farm-Life — Renting Land unadvisable — Great Farms 
objectionable — Why? — The Homestead and other Exemptions in the dif- 
ferent States 

CHAPTER VIII. 

The Immigrant as a Cattle-breeder and Stock-raiser — Methods of Stock-breed- 
ing in different States and Territories — The Texas Cattle-Ranche — The 
Large Ranche and the Small one — $15,000 to ;?25,ooo for the Former, and 

$4,500 TO $5,000 FOR THE LaTTER — ThE RaNCHE IN COLORADO ONLY LaRGE 

Ranches Profitable as a Rule' — How a Man with a Small Capital may 

EVENTUALLY HAVE A CaTTLE-RaNCHE OF HIS OWN — ThE HeRDER'S LiFE A LONELY 
ONE AND NOT WITHOUT ITS PERILS — WYOMING, MONTANA, CALIFORNIA — " THE 

Bulls of the Blessed Trinity " — Dangers from Grizzly Bears, Panthers, 
Jaguars — Dangers of the Great and continued Snow Storms — Necessity of 
A Shelter and Fodder for the Cattle in Winter — Joint-Stock Cattle- 
Ranches in Montana — Cattle easily Fatted there— In California the 
Stock choice and in Demand, both for Breeding and Dairy-farming — Cat- 
tle-breeding in New Mexico, Utah, Arizona — In Washington, Oregon, Ne- 
vada, and Idaho — Minnesota, Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, and Ar- 
kansas AS Cattle-breeding States — Lands best Adapted to this Pursuit — 
Different Methods Advisable in Different Sections — The Cow-boys or Her- 
ders : THEIR Care of their Herds — Their isolated, half-savage Life — Round- 
ing UP — Branding — Selecting the Steers and Heifers for Market — The Cap- 
ital Necessary for Success — Combining Dairying with Cattle-breeding, less 
Capital required — Good Management Necessary — Becoming Manager of a 
Joint-Stock Cattle-Farm in Montana or Dakota — A Fortune acquired in a 
Few Years by a Shrewd and Skilful Man— How a Poor Man can acquire a 
Cattle-Ranche in time — Statistics of the Cost of a Moderately Large 
Ramche 

CHAPTER IX. 

Sheep-farming and Wool-growing — The Best Regions and the Best Beeeds — Thk 
Most Direct Routes thither — The Methods of Sheep-farming in our West- 
ern Empire — The Texas Sheep-farms — Large Flocks Preferred — Small Ones 
less Profitable— The Experience of Texan Sheep-farmers — Col. James' 
Statement — The Kansas Policy that of Small Sheep-farms with other Farm- 



379 



390 



l6 COJVTENTS. 

ING Carried on with it — Testimony ok Messrs. McIntosh, Uhl, Bryan, Hos- 

TETTER, GrINNELL, MaTHIES AND WaDSWORTH — ThE YoUNG COLORADO SHEEP-FaR- 

MER — Capital Requireh in different Sections — The Shepherds — Antagon- 
ism of THE Herders and Shepherds — Improving the Breeds — Wintering the 
Sheep — Water in Abundance a Necessity — Destruction of the Herds from 
Thirst — Snowing Under — Fatal Effects of a Severe Norther — The Shep- 
herd's Life more Isolated and with less Excitement than that of the 
Herder or Cow- Boy — Its Risks and Dangers — New Mexico the best Region 
for Large Sheep-farms, and Kansas and Nebraska for Small ones — How to 
Buy and Stock a Sheep-ranche — The Amount of Capital Necessary — The 
Cost and the Profits — Mr. Gray on the different Breeds of Sheep — Char- 
acter of the Varieties most Popular in the West — Diseases of Sheep — Mr. 
F. D. CuRTis's Essay — Parasites — Liver-rot— Pale Disease — Hydatids — 
Worms in the Head — Scab — Sheep-ticks — Foot-rot — Constipation — Colics 
— Diarrhcea and Scours — Inflammation of the Lungs — Snuffles and Snoring 
— Poisons — Abortion — Black-leg — Paper-Skin — Lung-Worm — Stricana — 
Sheep healthier in the North than in the South — The Enemies of the 
Sheep — How a Poor Man can become a Sheep-master 402 

CHAPTER X. 

Other Farm Animals — Breeding Swine — Swine Husbandry less Popular in the 
Great West than East of the Mississippi — The States and Territories most 
largely engaged in it — Southern Swine generally of Poorer Breeds than 
those in the more Northern States — The Best Breeds — Berkshire, Poland- 
China, and Chester-White — Modes of Management — The Margin of Profit 
IN the Business — Diseases to which Swine are Liablb — The Hog-Cholera — 
Swine Plague or Hog- Fever — Great Destruction of Swine caused by this 
Disease — The Researches of Drs. Detmers, Law, Voyles, and Salmon into 
the Causes, Character, Symptoms, and Fatal Results of this Disease, and 
the Possibility of its Prevention or Cure — Swine-farming in Kansas and 
Iowa — Reports of Messrs. Coburn, LiNscorr Brothers, Prindle, Johnson, 
Sutton, and Keagy on Methods and Success in Swine-farming — Breeding of 
Horses, Asses, and Mules for the Market — This Pursuit very Profitable 
— The Mustang, the Broncho and the Burro — Dogs — The Shepherd Dog — 
Dogs for Hunting — The Greyhound ; Different Varieties — Pointers, Set- 
ters, Bull-Dogs, Coach-Dogs, Terriers — Mongrel Hunting Dogs — Indian 
Cur-Dogs — Crosses between Dogs and Wolves — W^orthless Dogs very De- 
structive of Sheep — The Raising of Poultry — Different Breeds — The Cross 

OF THE common BaRN-YARD FOWL WITH THE BrAHMA, HoUDAN, HAMBURG, BlACK- 

Spanish or Plymouth Rock the best — Bantams good Layers — Mr. A. P. Ford's 
Directions and Statistics — Other Fowls — Enemies of Fowls — Chicken-Chol- 
era — The Croup 440 

CHAPTER XL 

Special Crops — Rice Corn — Pearl Millet — Other Millets — Alfalfa — Hungarian 
Grass — Sweet Potatoes— Pea-Nut or GroundNut — The Sugar Question 
once more — Ts NOT Corn worth more than Twenty Cents a Bushel to Man- 
ufacture into Sugar?— The Cultivation of Textiles — Flax, Hemp, Ramie, 
Jute, Tampico, Tule^ Nettle, Esparto Grass, the Brake or Swamp Cane — 
Some of the Cacti — Cultivation of Oil- Producing Plants — The Pea-Nut or 



CONTENTS. 



n 



Ground-Nut — Castor Bean, Olive, Flax, Rape, Hemp and Cotton Seed, Tar 
Weed, Sesame, Peppermint, Spearmint, Bergamot — Cultivation of Nut- 
bearing and Fruit-bearing Trees and Shrubs — English Walnut, Black 
Walnut, Hickory-Nut, Common Chestnut, Italian Chestnut, Almond, Fil- 
bert, Pecan, Hazel-Nut, Pawpaw, Persimmon, Japanese Persimmon, Pomegran- 
ate, Mandrake, Apricot, Medlar, Orange, Lemon, Shaddock, etc. — Ordinary 
Fruits, Apples, Pears, Quinces, Peaches, Plums, Cherries, Prunes, etc. — 
Small Fruits, Grapes, Zante Currants, Currants, Gooseberries, Straw- 
berries, Raspberries, Blackberries, Dewberries, Partridgeberries, Whortle- 
berries — Market Garden Vegetables — Employment for Professional Men, 
Artisans, Tradesmen, Florists, Market-Gardeners, Factory Operatives, 
etc. — Importance of Sustaining Schools and Churches 478 



PART III.— THE SEVERAL STATES AND TERRITORIES 

DESCRIBED. 

CHAPTER I. 

ARIZOMA. 

Its Location — Extent — Addition to its Area by the Gadsden Treaty — Date of 
Organization — Only one-twelfth of its Area yet Surveyed — Topography — 
Mountains, Rivers, Lakes, Canons — Remarkable Character of these 
Canons — They Drain the Mesas of their Moisture — The Canons of the 
Colorado— Their Descent by Major J. W. Powell and his Companions in 
1869 and 1 87 1 — The Grand Canon of the Colorado one of the Wonders of 
the World — Table- lands — General Fremont's thorough Acquaintance with 
Arizona — His Proposition to Restore the Great Inland Sea in Southeastern 
California — A Moister Climate Secured to Arizona by this Measure — Soil, 
Climate, Temperature and Rainfall — Yuma the Hottest and Driest Place 
IN " Our Western Empire" — Wonders and Peculiarities of Arizona — Miner- 
als and Mines — Zoology — Adventures with Wild Animals — The Bite of the 
Skunk — Rabid Wolves— Productions, Mineral, Animal, Vegetable — Popu- 
lation — The Indians — Their large Number — Different Races — Some of 
them Industrious and Honest, others Thievish and Murderous — Nearly 
Extinct Races — The Extensive Ruins of Ancient Dwellings Inhabited 
BY Races now Nearly or Quite Extinct — The Casa Grande — Other Ruins 
— The Ancient Province of Tusayan — The Narratives of Colonel 
Powell and Professor Newberry — Situation of the Moquis Villages on 
Lofty Mesas — Their Dwellings usually Three or Four Stories High, and 
Terraced in Front — The Rear Walls Blank — The Lower Story a Granary 
— Windows of Selenite — The Neatness of their Apartments — Their Mode 
of Life — Hospitality — Politeness — Occupations — Economy — Industry — 
Their Bread of Different Colors — Virgin Hash — Ceramic Art — Blankets 
— Other Manufactures of Wool— Taste in Dress— Dressing the Hair — 
Salutations — Sunrise Worship — Theology — Gymnastic Exercises — Sacri- 
fices of Fruits and Seeds Only — Language Peculiar— Probably of Toltec 
Origin — White Inhabitants — Present Condition, and the Advantages and 
Facilities it Affords to Settlers— Letters and Communications ^ from 
Major-General J. C. Fremont, Governor of Arizona, and Colonel J. W. 



1 8 CONTENTS. 

Powell, United States Army, Explorer of the Colorado, etc. — Probable 
Future — Biographical Sketch of Major-General Fremont, the Present 
Governor of Arizona 492 

CHAPTER II. 

ARKAJ{SAS. 

Its Situation, Area, Extent — Topography — Mountains, Rivers, Lakes, Valleys — 
Navigable Rivers and Railways — Soil — Climate — Rainfall — Minerals and 
Mineral and Hot Springs — Analysis of the Hot Springs — The Village of 
Hot Springs — The Inhabitants of the Adjacent Country — Vegetation — 
Woodland — Forest Growths and their Size — Fruits — Wild and Cultivated 
Grapes — Animals — Insect Pests — ArcH/Eology — Productions, Mineral, Vege- 
table and Animal — Crops — Live-stock — Manufactures — Commerce — Popula- 
tion — Origin of Population — Education — Religious Denominations — 
Exemptions — Donated Lands — Views of Hon. Charles S. Keyser, Hon. 
David Walker, W. A. Webber, Esq., and Hon. A. H. Garland, U. S. Senator, 
on the History and Probable Future of Arkansas 530 

CHAPTER III. 
CALIFORJTIA, 

Its Situation — Topography — Mountains, Valleys, Lakes, Rivers, Harbors, 
Islands — Arable, Grazing, Timber and Worthless Lands, and the Probable 
Quantity of Each— Geology and Mineralogy — Gold and Silver in very 
MANY Forms — Quicksilver, Platinum, Lead, Copper, Tin, Arsenic, Iron in 
MANY Forms, Tellurium, Graphite, Borax, Salt, Soda, Sulphur, Gypsum, 
Barytes, Antimony, Ochre, etc., among the Metals and Minerals of the 
State — Mines and Mining Industry — Immense Production of the Precious 
Metals in the State — Twenty-one Counties Produce either Gold or Silver 
OR both — Increased Production in 1880 — Soils and Vegetation — Red, Adobe, 
Buff, Sandy, Tule, Desert and Alkaline Soils — The Forest Trees — The 
Sequoias, Redwoods and other Trees Peculiar to California — Description 
of the Giant Trees by Mr. Whitehill — Zoology — Great Variety of Animal 
Life — Beasts of Prey — Rodents Destroying Crops — Ground Squirrels and 
Gophers — Wonders — Professor Whitney's Description of the Yosemite 
Valley — Other Descriptions of the Adjuncts of Yosemite — Cloud Rest — " I 
Salute the Grandest View in the World " — The Tuolumne Valley — The 
Eight or Nine Groves of Giant Sequoias — The Calistoga Geysers — Natural 
Bridges — Caves — Grottos — Bell-sounding Rocks — Lakes, Salt and Fresh — 
The Death Valley — Professor E. W. Hilgard on Climates of the State- 
Mean Temperatures and Semi-annual and Annual Rainfall of Nine Locali- 
ties — Agricultural Products — Cereals — Professor Hilgard's Account of 
Wheat-growing— The " Giant-header," Thresher and Sacking-wagon — Dis- 
posing of the Straw — The Other Cereals — Beans — Potatoes— Other Vege- 
tables — Hops— Pea-nuts — Other Special Crops — Market Garden Crops and 
Small Fruits— California Fruit — Grapes and Wine— Forage Crops— Alfalfa 
Grasses — Stock-breeding and Dairying — Butter — Eggs — Apiaculture — Silk 
Culture— Manufactures — Railroads — Steamers — Commerce and Naviga- 
tion, Imports and Exports, Banks, etc. — California as a Health Resort — 
Population, how Classified — Education — Churches — Counties and Princi- 
pal Towns — History and Probable Future 55* 



CONTENTS. 19 

CHAPTER IV. 

COLORADO. 

Situation, Boundaries, Area — Topography — Mountains — Six Distinct Ranges be- 
sides MANY Spurs and Isolated Summits — Fifty-two Peaks over 13,000 Feet, 
AND Several Hundred 10,000 Feet or more — Ten Towns or Mines over 10,000 
Feet above the Sea, and Sixty-one over 5,000 Feet — Mountains Covered 
WITH Pine, Fir and Spruce up to the Timber Line— Valleys, Plains, Parks — 
North, Middle, South, San Luis, Estes, Egeria, Animas and Huerfano Parks 
the Largest, and Best Known; but there are Hundreds of Smaller Ones of 
great Beauty — Rivers — The North and South Platte, the Arkansas, Rio 
Grande, the Grand, Green, San Juan, Tributaries of the Rio Colorado, and 
THEIR Affluents — Lakes — Many of these at Great Elevations, as the Green 
Lakes, Chicago Lakes, etc. — Canons — Canons of the Arkansas, of the Gun- 
nison, of the Grand and the Green Rivers — Climate and Rainfall — Soil 
and Vegetation — Arable Lands — Nearly 16,000,000 Acres of these — A Part 
Require Irrigation — Great Facilitif^ for this — Crops as Affected by Irri- 
gation — Hon. Mr. Barclay's Statement about it — What an Intelligent 
En.gwsh Agriculturist and Member of Parliament thinks of Farming in 
Colorado — Present Forest Area of Colorado — Geology, Mineralogy — All 
the Geologic Formations of the Continent laid bare in the Canons or on 
the Precipitous Sides of the Mountains^Coal — The Lignite of the Terti- 
ary, AND THE Bituminous and Anthracite of the Coal Measures Found at 
Various Places in the State — Wonders Produced by Erosion — Mr. Pang- 
born's Descriptions — The Fossils of Talbott Hill — The Coal Mines o*' 
Canon City — The Grand Canon of the Arkansas — The Ancient Ruins in 
Southwestern Colorado — Animals — Mines and Mining Industry — Early 
Mining History of the State — Mining Product Prior to 1880 — The same by 
Counties — The Regions which are not known to Possess Mineral Deposits 
— The Extraordinary Development of Mining in the State since 1875 — 
Mining Districts — Description of each County known to Possess Min- 
eral Wealth — Its Mines and their Product — Farming — Extent of 
Arable Lands — Irrigation Largely Practised — Its Advantages — Rapid In- 
crease of Farming Products — Excellence of Colorado Cereals — Dairy- 
farming — Raising Horses and Mules — Wages of Farm-hands — Immense Yield 
of Irrigated Crops — High Farming — Stock-raising — Hon. Mr. Barclay's 
Description of Stock-raising in the State — Dairy-farming — Cattle should 
BE Fatted in Colorado and Kansas — Mr. Stratten's Experience — Wool- 
growing — Sheep-farming Profitable in Colorado — Its Rapid Increase — 
Growth of the Live-stock Interest in the State — Railroads — Education — 
Commerce — Population — Cities, Counties and Towns — Increase since 1870 — 
Counties — Churches — The Future of Colorado 623 

CHAPTER V. 

DAKOTA. 

Boundaries, Area and Topography of Dakota — First Settlements — Organization 
— Rivers — Lakes — Dakota Divided into Four Sections: Northern, Central, 
Southeastern and Black Hills — Characteristics of each — The Bad Lands — 
Fossils there — Governor Howard's Description of these Sections — His 



20 CONTENTS. 

Address — His Report to the Secretary of the Interior — The Surveyor- 
General's Report— Northern Dakota — The Description of it by Hon. 
James B. Power — The First Considerable Attempts to Cultivate the Red 
River Lands in Dakota — Wheat Culture there and its Success — Other 
Crops — The Towns of Northern Dakota — The Climate and Rainfall — The 
Facilities for the Transportation of Crops — Beyond the Missouri — 
Charles Carleton Coffin's Description in the Chicago Tribune — The Cor- 
respondent OF the Chicago Journal — Other Testimony — Bishop Peck, 
Messrs. Reed and Pell — Central Dakota — The Account of the Chicago 
and Northwestern Railway Commission — Southeastern Dakota — Rev. 
Edward Ellis's Letter — Hon. W. H. H. Beadle's Description — His Compe- 
tency AS A Witness — Peculiarities of the Topography of Southeastern 
Dakota — Meteorology of Southeastern Dakota — The Black Hills — Mr. 
Zimri L. White's Description of this Region — Climate and Meteorology of 
the Black Hills — Gold-mining there — Four Classes of Minf^ — Cheapness 
OF Mining and Milling — Altitudes in the Black Hills — Population of 
Towns — Farming, Grazing and Market-gardening in the Black Hills — 
Social Life and Morals there — Railroads in Dakota — Indian Tribes and 
Reservations — Population of the Territory and its Character — Churches 
AND Religious Teachings — The Future of Dakota 7*1 

CHAPTER VI. 

IDAHO TERRITORY. 

Topography — Boundaries — Length and Breadth — Area — Latitude and Longi- 
tude — Distribution of Area — Arable Lands — Grazing Lands — Timber Lands 
— Mining Lands — Desert Lands — Topography — Mountains — Valleys — Lakes 
— Rivers — Almo.st Wholly Drained by Affluents of the Columbia — Climate 
— Meteorology of Boise City — Geology and Mineralogy — The Precious 
Metals — Gold in Impalpable Powder on the Snake and Salmon Rivers — In 
the Bear River Region— On and Near Wood River — In the Salmon or Saw- 
tooth Range and along the Western Slope of the Bitter Root Mountains 
— Silver on East Fork of Salmon River and along Wood River — Copper 
AT Several Points — Other Metals and Minerals — Mineral Springs — Natu- 
ral Wonders — Sulphur Lake and Deposits — Salt Springs — Ice Cave — Soil 
and Vegetable Productions — Forest Trees — Zoology — Mines and Mining — 
Production of Gold and Silver since 1862 — Present Falling off — Great 
Mineral Wealth — Stock-raising — Sheep- Farming — Indians — Only 4,175 in 
THE Territory — The Culture of Arable Lands — Obstacles to the Progress 
of Growth of Idaho — The Lack of Railroads and of Wagon-roads — The 
Lack of Capital — Mormon Influence the Greatest Obstacle of all 778 

CHAPTER VII. 

THE INI)IAJ{ TERRITORY. 

Minute Details concerning the Indian Territory not Necessary at the present 
time in this work — Why? — A few General Points in view of the Ultimate 

POSSIHILITY of a CHANGE, WHICH MAY PERMIT IMMIGRATION — TOPOGRAPHY — 

Length and Breadth —Latitude and Longitude — Area — Boundaries — Divis- 
ion INTO Indian Reservations or Nations — Areas of most of these — Tracts 
not yet allotted, and Indian Bands not permanently located — Number of 
Indians in the Territory in 1878 — Present Number — The Five leading 



CONTENTS. 

a 

Tribes, Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks and Seminoles-Their 
Progress in Civilization-The Capitals of their Respective Nations-Their 
Farm Products in 1879-THEIR Live-Stock- Valuation of Real and Per- 
sonal Estate-Schools, Churches, Benevolent Institutions-Newspapers- 
Post-Offices-The Smaller Tribes and Bands less Civilized-Surface of 
THE Country-Mountains, Rivers, Lakes-Climate-Meteorology of Forts 
Gibson and Sill-Geology and Mineralogy-Soil and Vegetation-Forests 
— Railroads-The Character of the Population— Rev. Timothy Hill's Ac 
count of the Territory-The Indian Title to the Territory-History of 
THE Removal OF the Five Tribes and other Indians-Re-purchase of some 
of their Lands by the Government-Efforts to drive them from this Ter- 
ritory-The Outlook for the Future-Possession of their Lands in Sev- 
eralty their only hope— Indian Annuity Funds 

CHAPTER VIII. 

The Situation of Iowa-Meaning of the Name-Migration of the Pau-hoo-chees 
thither in X690-C0NTEMPORANEOUSLY Claimed by the French on Account of 
Father Hennepin's Discovery- Wars of the Pau-hoo-chees, or Iowas with 
the Sioux-French Trading-Posts on the River-Sale of the Province of 
Louisiana to the Spanish in 1763— Retrocession to France in x8oo-S^le to 
the United States in i8o3-Settlement of Julian Dubuque-The W^rs of 
the Iowas and Sioux-A New Enemy-The Sacs and Foxes Attack them and 
Drive them across the Missouri, about i828-Great Reduction in Numbers 
OF THE Iowas— White Settlement Commenced in 1832— Death ok Black 
Hawk— The Events in Civil History of Iowa to its Organization as a State 
in 1846-TopoGRAPHY and Extent of Iowa-Its Surface-Rivers-Lakes— 
Prairie and Timber Lands— Black Walnut Shipped to England— Geology 
and Mineralogy-The Drift, Loess and Alluvium-Cretaceous Rocks-Coal 
Measures-The Character of Iowa Coal-Comparison with European and 
OTHER Coals— No Gold or Silver in the State— Lead, Iron, Copper and 
Zinc-Lime— Building Stone— Gypsum Clays— Soil— Mineral Paint-Spring 
AND Well-water-Natural Curiosities-Climate, General Remarks-Pro- 
fessor Parvin's Tables— The Signal Service Statistics of the River Cities— 
Zoology— Soil and Agricultural Productions— Iowa an Agricultural State 
—Statistics of its Crops— Spring and Winter Wheat— Stock-raising— Dairy 
Farming— Population of Iowa at Different Periods— Railroads and Steam- 
boat Lines-The State Easy of Access-Public Lands-Railroad Lands- 
State Lands— Partially Improved Farms— Manufactures— Iowa as a Home 
FOR Immigrants— Education— Churches— Future Prospects of the State.. .. 814 

CHAPTER IX. 

Kansas Geographically the Central State— Its Boundaries— Latitude, Longi- 
tude, Length, Breadth and Area— Its Surface, Declination and Elevation 
at Various Points— Rivers— L'akes-Hills— No Mountains in the State- 
Geology AND Mineralogy— The Geological Formations— The Quaternary, 
Tertiary, Cretaceous and Carboniferous and Lower Carboniferous Systems' 
Represented— Fossils— Great Variety of these— Economic Geology— Coal— 



42 CONTENTS. 

Salt — Lead and Zinc — Gypsum — Building-Stone, etc., etc. — Gas or Burning 
"Wells— Soil and Vegetation — Native Trees — Trees Planted under the 
Timber-Culture Acts — Increase of Rainfall Produced by Breaking up the 
Soil — Evidence of this — Flowers — Zo5logy — Natural Curiosities and Phe- 
nomena — The Monument Rocks — The Pulpit Rock — The Rock City — The 
Perfc^vted Rock — The Fossil Moss Agates — The Selenite Beds — Climate 
and Meteorology — Meteorological Statistics — Rainfall — Agricultural 
Productions — Tables of Productions of 1877, 1878, 1879 — Grains — Special 
Crops — Orchards and Vineyards — Apiaculture — Live-Stock — Prices of 
Necessary Merchandise — Boarding — Valuations of Real and Personal Es- 
tate — School Statistics — No Mines or Mining except Coal, Lead and Zinc — 
Manufactures — Railroads — Lands for Immigrants — Population — Indians — 
Sources from which Population is Derived — Counties, Cities and Towns — 
Area and Population of Counties in 1879 — Schools and Education — 
Churches — Kansas a Home for Immigrants — Biographical Notice of Hon. 
Alfred Gray 854 

CHAPTER X. 

LOVISIAJ^A. 

Louisiana not wholly within "Our Western Empire" — Its Location — Its Ex- 
tent AND Area — Its Surface and Topography — Rivers, Lakes and Bayous — 
Geology and Mineralogy — Iron, Salt, Sulphur — Other Minerals — Soil and 
Vegetation — Forest Trees — Zoology — The Jaguar or American Leopard, or 
Tiger, Alligators and Crocodiles — Climate — Malarial Fevers in the 
Delta — The Uplands Healthy but Hot — Meteorology of New Orleans and 
Shreveport — Agricultural Productions — Cotton, Sugar, Rice and Corn — 
The Soil Fertile, but the Farming Poor — Live-Stock — Manufacturing and 
Mining Industries — Commerce — Exports and Imports of 1880 — The great 
Facilities enjoyed by the State for Foreign and Coastwise Commerce — 
Railroads — Finances — Population — History as bearing on Population — 
Mixed Races largely Prevalent — The State not greatly increased by 
recent Immigration — Parishes or Counties — Principal Towns — Education — 
Churches — Not specially attractive to Immigrants at Present 887 

CHAPTER XI. 

MIKJ^ESOTA. 

Minnesota the Centre of North America — Its Situation, Boundaries, Dimen- 
sions AND Area — Surface of the Country — The Three Slopes — Rivers, 
Lakes, etc. — The Lake State — Seven Thousand Lakes — Geology and Min- 
eralogy — Some Gold and Silver, more Iron and Copper — Minnesota an 
Agricultural State — Soil and Vegetation — Rich Soil — Forests — The Big 
Woods — The Prairie Lands — Tree-planting in Minnesota — Fruits — 
Zoology — Climate — Its Salubrity — Advance of the Annual Temperature as 
THE Country is Settled — Peculiarities of the Climate — Meteorology — 
Navigable Rivers and Railways — More than 3,000 Miles of Railroad in the 
State — Projected Railways — Land Grants — Agricultural Products — The 
Crops of 1878, 1879 and 18S0 — Special Crops — General Le Due's Efforts to 
Introduce the Amber Cane — Statistics of Crops — Grazing Lands — Live- 
stock — Statistics of Live-Stock — Dairy Farming — Statistics of Butter and 



CONTENTS. 

Cheese — Manufactures — Lumber and Flour, the Leading Articles — Immense 
Quantities of both Produced — Other Manufactures — Valuation and 
Wealth — Population — Statistics of Increase in Thirty Years — Nation- 
alities — The Indian Population — Education — School Fund — Public Schools 
— Universities, Normal Schools, etc. — Counties and Cities — Valuation — 
Population of Cities and Towns at Different Periods — Religious Denomi- 
nations — History — Conclusion 



23 



900 



CHAPTER XII. 

MISSOVBI, 

Missouri's Situation — Boundaries and Extent of Latitude and Longitude — Face 
of the Country — Mountains and Hills — Valleys — Rivers and Lakes — 
Geology and Mineralogy — Economic Minerals — Lead — Zinc — Copper — Iron 
— Coal — Baryta — Cabinet Minerals — Building Materials — Mineral Springs 
— Zoology — Climate — Meteorology — Soil and Vegetation — Agricultural 
Products — Tables of Crops, 1878 and 1879 — Notes on the Crops — Live-Stock 
— Tables, 1879, 1880 — Adaptation of Missouri for Grazing and Dairy-Farm- 
ing — Manufactures — Mining Products— Railroads — Population — Notes on 
Population — Counties and Cities— Table of Cities— St. Louis — Kansas City 
— Lands for Immigrants — Immigration in the Past — Why it has largely 
passed by Missouri — The State now a Desirable one for Immigrants — Edu- 
cational Advantages — Public Schools— Normal Schools — Universities — 
Colleges and Professional Schools — Special Institutions — Religious De- 
nominations AND Churches — Historical Data 927 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Situation — Boundaries— Extent — Mountains— Timber— Lakes— Rivers— Geol- 
ogy AND Mineralogy — Gold in Extensive Placers and Lodes— Silver — 
Copper— Lead— Iron— Other Minerals— Soil and Vegetation — Arable Lands 
— Grazing Lands— Timber Lands— Mining Lands— Desert Lands —Zoology — 
Climate — Blizzards— The " Chinook " Wind— Meteorology of Fort Keogh 
— Fort Benton — Helena — Virginia City — Mining— Enormous Yield of the 
Placers— Gold Lodes— Silver Lodes— The Stempi.e District— Last Chance 
Gulch, now Helena — Phillipsburg—Wickes— Butte— Peculiarities of the 
Butte Mines— Other Mines — Trapper District— Mining thus far almost Ex- 
clusively IN Western Montana — Probabilities of Mines in Southern and 
Southeastern Montana— Agricultural Productions — Testimony of Z. L, 
White— of Robert E. Strahorn— of Thomson P. McElrath— Enormous 
Crops, of Excellent Quality— Stock-Raising— Sheep-Farming— Breeding 
Horses and Mules — Gov. Potts' Experience — Manufactures— Objects of 
Interest— The Madison River— The Upper Yellowstone Valley— The 
Struggle of the Waters to Force a Passage Through— Other Wonders— 
Railroads— Best Routes for Immigrants at Present — Indian Reservations 
and their Population— Population of Montana- Counties and Assessment- 
Principal Towns of Montana— Prices of Articles of General Use— Average 
Wages — Education — Religious Denominations — Conclusion 955 



24 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XIV. 
KEBEASKA. 

Area and Extent — Boundaries — Comparative Area — Its Riverine Boundaries — 
Surface of the Country — Sense in which it is a Prairie — Its Gradual Ele- 
vation to the Base of the Rocky Mountains— The Nebraska "Bad Lands" 

The Rivers of Nebraska — The Missouri and Niobrara — The North and 

South Platte and their Affluents— The Loup and its Forks— The Republi- 
can River — General Direction of these Rivers— Geology and Mineralogy 

The Loess or Drift — Alluvial Deposits — The Great Pre-historic Lake — 

Tertiary Formation — Carboniferous Strata — The Coal Measures — Lignite 
IN THE Tertiary — Not much Economic Value to the Coals of Nebraska — 
The Peat Beds of the State — Soil and Vegetation— Fertility of the Loess 
Trees of the State— Zoology — Climate and Meteorology— Table — Agri- 
cultural Productions — Crops of 1877, 1878 and 1879— Wild and Cultivated 

Fruits Mr. E. A. Curley on the Wild Fruits — Grazing — The Live-Stock of 

THE State — Manufacturing Industry — Railroads — Population — Rapid 
Growth of the State — Indians— Financial Condition — Education — Lands 
FOR Immigrants — Government, School, University and Railroad Lands — 
Advice to Immigrants — Prices— Counties, Cities and Towns — Religious De- 
nominations — Historical Data — Nebraska as a Home for Immigrants 1004 

CHAPTER XV. 
?fEYAI)A. 

Its Boundaries, Extent and Area — Its Topography and Surface— Mountains, 
Lakes and Rivers— Its Climate and Meteorology— Geology and Mineralogy 

Minerals— Gold and Silver— Other Metals and Minerals — Permanency 

of its Mines — Their Great Depth — Mining Industry — The Counties Con- 
taining Mines considered in Detail— The Product of the Precious Metals 
IN Nevada since their First Discovery there — The Sutro Tunnel — Its Pur- 
pose AND Object— Its First Success less than was expected— Its probable 
Future Triumph — Zoology— Agricultural Productions— Adaptation of con- 
siderable Sections to Grazing— Extent of Arable, Grazing, Timbered and 
Mineral Lands— Tables of Agricultural Products and Live-Stock— Manu- 
facturing Industry— Railroads— Valuation — Population — Indian Reserva- 
tions—Counties AND Cities— Religious Denominations— Historical Data — 
Conclusion '^'^Z'h 

CHAPTER XVI. 

J^EW MEXICO. 
Topography — Boundaries (enlarged by the Gadsden Treaty) — Extent and Area 
— Mountains— Rivers and Lakes— Climate — Variety in Temperature— Mr. 
Z. L. White on the Summer Climate of the Territory— New Mexico as a 
Health Resort— Meteorology and Rainfall of various Points in the Ter- 
ritory—Geology and Mineralogy— Mineral Wealth of the Territory- 
Gold AND Silver— Other Metals and Minerals— Turquoise— Hot Springs— 
Coal— Bituminous, Lignite and True Anthracite— Coal found in New 
Mexico of the Best Quality and in Inexhaustible Quantities— Arable 
Lands — Their Quantity and Quality— Native Agriculture— Grazing Lands 
— New Mexico best Adapted to Sheep-Farming — Number of Sheep — Crops of 



CONTENTS. 25 

1879 — Mining Industry — Governor Wallace on the Mining Districts — The 
Gold and Silver Production — Objects of Interest — The Canons and Ter- 
rible Dark Valleys and Caves of the Territory — The Seven Cities of 
Cibola — Evidences of Volcanic Action — Buried Cities — Abo and its Ruins 
— The Indian Skeleton Overwhelmed by Volcanic Ashes — The Vast Crater 
— Rock Cities— The Pueblo Pottery — How it was and is Made— The Zuni 
Blankets — Manufactures — Railroads — Great Development of Railways — 
Population — Table — Chief-Justice Prince on the Three Civilizations Found 
There— The Indian Tribes — The Pueblos — The Apaches- The Navajoes — 
Counties and Principal Towns — Education— Religion and Morals— Histori- 
cal Data — Conclusion 1056 

CHAPTER XVII. 

orego:n'. 

Boundaries, Area and Ex'tent — Face of the Country — Mountains, Rivers, Lakes 
— The Valleys of Oregon — The Willamette Valley — Umpqua Valley — Rogue 
River Valley — The Numerous Valleys of Eastern Oregon — The Elevated 
Plains of Middle and Central Oregon— Mr. Tolman's Description of East- 
ern Oregon — Soil and Vegetation — Fertility of the Soil — The Great 
Wheat Valleys of Eastern Oregon — Forest Growths — Great Size of Forest 
Trees — Water Supply— Climate and Rainfall of different Sections- 
Meteorological Table of Portland, Roseburg, Umatilla, Astoria and Cor- 
vALLis — Geology and Mineral Wealth — Fossils — Gold and Silver — Lead 
AND Copper — Iron and Coal — Excellence of the Coal — Zoology — Oregon 
Fishes — Agricultural and Pastoral Products — Table of Crops and Live- 
stock — Fisheries — The Salmon Trade — Timber and Lumber Production and 
Exports — Wheat and Flour Exports — Wool — Total Exports — Manufac- 
tures — Labor — Wages — Price of Land and Facilities for Obtaining it- 
Railroads and River Navigation — Finances — Educational Facilities — 
Higher and Special Education— Population — Table— Characteristics of the 
Population — Indian Reservations and Tribal Indians — Counties and Princi- 
pal Cities and Towns — Religious Denominations — Historical Data — The 
Title of the United States to Oregon 1091 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

TEXAS. 

Situation and Boundaries of Texas— Its Area and Extent — Vastness of its 
Area— Comparisons with other States and Countries— Face of the Country 
— Mountains in the Northwest — Isolated Summits and Ridges Elsewhere — 
Elevations of Various Points — Rivers, Bays and Estuaries in their Order 
from East to West — Texas Rivers not Navigable— Geographical Divisions 
of THE State and their Characteristics — Geology and Mineralogy— Min- 
erals — Forests and Vegetation — Zoology — Climate — Meteorological Table 
giving the Temperature, Rainfall, etc., at Eight Points in the State — 
Mining and Manufacturing Industries — Agricultural Productions — Tables 
of Agricultural Products and Live-Stock — Not all the Arable Lands of 
Texas of the First Quality — The Live-Stock of the State Commands Lower 
Prices than that of States and Territories farther North — Why ? — Rail- 



ig CONTENTS. 

roads and navigable waters— population — table of population— statistics 

Nativities of the Population — From Whence the Emigration — Counties 

AND their Finances and Valuation — Principal Cities and Towns — Education 
—Public Schools— Contradictory Statistics— Lack of Interest in them — 
Universities, Colleges and Professional Schools— Institutions for Blind 
and Deaf Mutes — Lands for Immigrants — Religious Denominations — His- 
torical Data — Early Settlements in Texas— Its Revolt and Independence 
of Mexico The Republic — Annexation to United States — Progress — Seces- 
sion ^Reconstruction — Present Constitution — Conclusion 1120 

CHAPTER XIX. 

VTAE TERRITORY. 

Utah a Peculiar Territory— Its Location, Boundaries, Area and Extent — 
Forests and Vegetation — Altitude of its Mountains and Valleys — Zoology 

Geology — Mineralogy — Topography and General Reatures — The Great 

Salt Lake Basin — Cache, San Pete and Sevier Valleys — The Colorado 
Basin, East of the Wahsatch Mountains — Climate — Meteorology of Salt 
Lake City and Camp Douglas— Notes on the Temperature, Rainfall, 

ETC., OF other parts OF THE TERRITORY ADVANTAGES OF UtAH AS A SANI- 
TARY Resort — Diseases for which its Climate is Beneficial — Opinion of 
Eminent Army Surgeons on the Subject — Soil and Agriculture — Irrigation 

VERY generally REQUIRED — IMMENSE CrOPS WHERE IT IS PRACTISED — NoN-IRRI- 

gable Lands sometimes Productive with Deep Plowing — Timber — Yield of 
Cereal and other Products — Fruit-Culture — Stock-Farming — Sheep-Farm- 
ing — Evils of Migratory Herds — Gov. Emery's Complaints of California 
Flocks— Mines and Mining Products — Wide Distribution of Gold, Silver, 
Lead, Copper, Iron, Coal, Sulphur, Soda, Salt and Borax — The Mines of 
the Precious Metals in the Salt Lake Basin very Rich and easily ac- 
cessible — Railroads — Objects of Interest — The " Temple of Music " on the 
Colorado — Temples on the Rio Virgen — The American Fork Canon — It is 
called the " Yosemite" of Utah — The Great Salt Lake Mineral and Hot 
Springs — Finances — Population-Table — The Population of Utah peculiar — 
Its Early Settlement by the Mormons — Motives which led to their Migra- 
tion — Mormonism a Religious Oligarchy — Its Despotic Rule — Its Crimes — 
Polygamy its Corner-Stone — Its Defiance of the Government — Its Propa- 
gandism — Religious Denominations — Education — Moral and Social Con- 
dition — Counties and Principal Towns — Historical Data 1 154 

CHAPTER XX. 

WASKIMGTON TERRITORY. 

Situation of Washington Territory — Boundaries — The Boundary Line at the 
Northwest and North — Its Area — Length and Breadth — Comparative Size 
— Topography and Divisions— Western Washington — The Puget Sound 
Basin — What Puget Sound Includes — The Beauty, Value and Importance of 
this Great Inland Sea — The Lowlands and the Mountain Slopes of West- 
ern Washington — Rivers and Harbors of Western Washington — Eastern 
Washington — Its Rivers — Its Lakes — The Great Plains of the Columbia — 
River Valleys — Geology — Mineralogy — Zoology — Climate — Meteorology 
ot Western Washington — Governor Ferry's Remarks on the Mildness of 



CONTENTS. 27 

THE Climate, and the Reasons for it — The Climate of Eastern Washington 
— The Chinook Wind — Soil, Vegetation and Agricultural Productions — 
The Alluvial Farming Lands — Table Lands — Forest Growths — Agricultu- 
ral Products — Timber and Lumber — Soil and Productions of Eastern 
Washington — The Yakima County — Remarkably Fat Cattle — From Whence 

THEY COME — ThE WONDERFUL FERTILITY OF THE SoiL — THE MOUNTAIN SLOPES 

AND Mountain Tops as Rich as the Valleys — The Immense Yield of Wheat 
— Thirty-five to Fifty Bushels to the Acre — Exports — Population-Table — 
Indian Tribes and their Reservations— Partial Civilization of the Indians 
— Their Industry — Education — Counties and Principal Towns — Table of 
Population and Valuation of Counties — Chief Towns — Religious Denomina- 
tions and Public Morals — Historical Data — The American Title to Wash- 
ington AND Oregon — The Arbitration in regard to the Islands in the Gulf 
OF Georgia— The Early Settlers — Indian War in 1S55— Conclusion— Wash- 
ington Territory Desirable for Immigrants — The Best Routes thither — 
The Early Completion of the Northern Pacific probablj 1 189 

CHAPTER XXI. 
WYOMIJfG TERRITORY. 

Situation — Boundaries — Length and Breadth — Form — Area —Topography — 
Mountains — Elevation of Various Points — Rivers, Lakes, etc. — Remarkable 
Character of its Drainage — Its Waters Discharged into the Pacific by the 
Columbia River, into the Gulf of California by the Colorado, into the 
Salt Lake Basin by the Bear River, into the Upper Missouri by the Madi- 
son and Gallatin, into the Middle Missouri by the Yellowstone and Big 
Cheyenne, into the Lower Missouri by the Niobrara and Platte, and into 
the Gulf of Mexico bt all these — Geology and Mineralogy — Coal — Petro- 
leum— Gold and Silver — Other Metals — Mining of Precious Metals not 
much Developed — Marble and other Mineral Products — Forests, Soil and 
Vegetation— Zoology — Climate — Mpzteorology of Cheyenne — Agricultural 
Productions and Stock-Raising — Manufactures and Mining — Mining Pro- 
ducts—Railways, Existing and Projected — Population and its Distribution 
— Education — Religious Denominations — Counties— Area — Population in 
1880, AND Valuation in 1877— Principal Towns— Objects of Interest — The 
Yellowstone National Park made a Separate Chapter — Historical Notes 
— Early Spanish Occupation of Wyoming — Discovery of Arastras and Span- 
ish Buildings— Father de Smet — Captain Bridger — His Occupation running 
back to a time "When Laramie Peak hadn't begun to Grow" — Organization 
of the Territory — Indian Conflicts — The Custer Massacre — Advantages 
of Wyoming for certain Classes of Immigrants — Prospects in the Near 
Future 1213 

CHAPTER XXII. 
THE YELLOWSTOJ^E J{AT10KAL PARK. 

Situation — Boundaries and Area — Its Recent Discovery and Exploration— Thk 
Act of Congress setting it apart as a National Park — The Park drained 
into the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico— Its Volcanic Character— Not of 
much Value as an Agricultural Region — Inaccessible except from thk 



88 CONTENTS. 

North and West— Eastern Part not fully Explored— No Mineral Wealth 
YET Discovered except in the Northeast Corner — The Approach to the 
I'ARK AT the North — The Canon ok the Yellowstone, outside the Park — 
Cinnabar Mountain — "The Devil's Slide"— Entrance to the Park— Rapid 
Review ok the Objects to ke Visited — Sepulchre Mountain — Canon ok Gar- 
diner's River— Mammoth Hot Springs — Tower Creek and Falls— The 
Columns and Towers ok Tower Creek Canon — Mount Washburn— The 
Grand Canon of the Yellowstone — Yellowstone Lake — The Lakes of the 
Southern Tour, Heart, Lewis and Shoshone — The Cross Cut which avoids 

-PHESE The Upper and Lower Geyser Basins of the Eire Hole or Upper 

Madison River — The Geyskr Basins ok Gibbon's Eork— The Wonders of 
Beaver Lake and the Obsidian Clikks — Return to Mammoth Hot Springs — 
Time in which the Trip can be made — The Wonders in Detail — Mammoth 
Hot Springs — Mr. Strahorn's Description — The Route to Tower Creek 
Ealls and Canon — Hon. N. P. Langford and Lieutenant Doane's Eulogy 
ok them — The Ascent to Mount Washburn — Rev. Dr. Hoyt's Eloquent Pic- 
ture OK the View krom its Summit — The Descent krom Mount Washburn — 
The Old and the New Trail — The Grand Canon ok the Yellowstone — Its 
Bed Inaccessible at most Points — The Upper and Lower Falls ok the Yel- 
lowstone — The Latter at the Head of the Grand Canon — Dr. Hoyt's 
Eloquent Description of the Falls and the Canon — The Trail to Yellow- 
stone Lake — The Lake Itself — Its Shape Compared to the Human Hand — 
Professor Raymond's Criticism of the Comparison — The Elevation of the 
Lake — Professor Hayden's Statement only Correct if applied to Large 
Lakes — Height ok Colorado Lakes — The Yellowstone River Flows 
through the Lake — The Lake not its Source — Affluents of the Lake — 
Mineral and Hot Springs on its Banks — Its Waters generally very Pure 
and Sweet — The Trout Infested with Worms — Beauty of the Lake — Mar- 
shall's Description — Strahorn's Poetical Picture — Professor Raymond's 
Eulogy — Rev. Dr. Hoyt's Pen Portraiture of it — Moving Forward — The 
Upper and Lower Geyser Basins — Explanations in regard to Geysers — 
Those of Iceland the only others of Note in the World — Character of 
the Geyser Eruption — Old and Recent Geysers — The Upper Geyser Basin — 
Rev. Edwin Stanley's " Parade of the Geysers " — The Geysers not all in 
Action at once — Lieutenant Barlow on the Fan and Well Geysers — The 
Grotto — Mr. Norton's Description — Lieutenant Doane on the Grand 
Geyser — Professor Raymond on the Lower Geyser Basin — The Laugs or 
Extinct Geysers — Geyserdom not Paradise — Dr. Hoyt's Description of the 
Desolation — The Geysers and Hot Springs ok Gibbon's Fork — Beaver Lake 
— The Obsidian Cliffs — Mountains of Glass — Review of the whole — Accessi- 
bility of the Park — Its Future Attractions — Its Quiet and Beautiful 
Valleys and Glades — Distances within the Park 1227 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

ALASKA. 

Relation of Alaska to Our Western Empire — Another Kamschatka — Absurdity 
of the Stories told of its Present or Prospective Productiveness — Its 
Furs, Fisheries and Timber somewhat Valuable — Peculiar Form of the 
Territory — The Bull's Head with two Long Horns — Its Three Divi- 



CONTENTS. 



29 



SIGNS, Sitka, Yukon and the Islands — Area — Population — Topography — 
Mountains — Rivers — The Limits and Area of each Division — Geology — Vol- 
canoes and Glaciers — Mineralogy — Coal — Metals — Minerals — Gold and 
Silver — Recent Discoveries — Zoology — The Divisions in Detail — The Sit- 
KAN Division— Its Fur Trade, Fisheries and Timber — Its Agricultural Pro- 
ductions confined to a few Vegetables — 2. The Yukon District of little 
Value, except for its Fur Trade, Whale and other Fisheries on the Coast 
— 3. The Island District — Some Arable Land on the Larger Islands, and 
A possibility of Future Dairy-farms there, though at too great Cost for 
^UCH Profit — The Capture of the Fur Seal on the Pribyloff Islands the 
Principal Industry, though Fisheries may Increase — Detailed Account of 
THE Fisheries — The Population, Nationalities and Character — The Natives 
— KoLOSHiAN Tribes — Kenaian Tribes — The Aleuts — The Eskimo— Prin- 
cipal Towns and Villages — Meteorology of Fort St. Michael's and Una- 
lashka — Objects of Interest to the Tourist — Historical Notes — Can it be 
Commended to Immigrants ? 1266 



PART IV.— THE LANDS OUTSIDE OF "OUR 
WESTERN EMPIRE." 

CHAPTER I. 

THE JVORTHWESTERM PROVIJfCES OF THE DOMIJ^'IOJf OF 

CANADA. 

I. British Columbia — Boundaries — Area— Islands — Soil of Islands and Coast — 
Soil and Surface of the Interior — Mountains — Rivers — Geology and Min- 
eralogy—Coal — Gold, Silver, etc. — Fisheries — Timber — Fur-Trade — Popu- 
lation — Indians — Chief Towns — II. The Northwest Territories — Extent 
— Recent Division — Lakes — Rivers — Mountains — Sdil — Clim.a.te Warmer 
THAN Manitoba — Wild Animals and Game Plenty — Rivers and Lakes 
Stocked with Fish — Population— Indians— Religion — III. Keewatin — The 
New Territory — Not much known of it — IV. Manitoba — Its Territory too 
Small — No Good Reason for this — Its Boundaries — Its Rivers — The 
Province Nearly a Dead Level — Climate — Rainfall — Meteorology of 
Fort Garry — Agriculture — Conflicting Accounts — Report of an " English 
Farmer" — Reply of "a Canadian" — Climate very Severe in Winter — Mr. 
Vernon Smith's Description of the Rivers and Lakes and their Future 
Usefulness — Earl Dufferin's Description — Mr. Vernon Smith on the 
Crops — Later Statistics not Available — Transportation — The Canadian 
Pacific — Its Present Condition and Prospects — Religion, Education, etc. — 
Principal Towns — Historical Notes — The Red River Settlement — Pembina 
— Assiniboia — Riel's Revolution— The Rapid Growth of the Province since 
IT became a Part of the Dominion 1282 



^o CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER II. 

HOMES FOR IMMIGRANTS <9JV THE ATLAJYTIC SLOPE. 

Why many Immigrants do not like to go to the West— Views of many of 
OUR OWN People on the Subject— Are there not Homes for these on the 
Atlantic Slope ?— Advantages of the East— Wisconsin and Michigan — 
Ohio, Indiana and Illinois — Tennessee — Maine, New Hampshire and 
Vermont— Massachusetts and Connecticut— Northern New York— Long 
Island— Advantages of New System of Ensilage here and in New Jersey — » 
New Jersey— The Southern Counties— West Virginia — North Carolina — 
East Tennessee— Northern Georgia— Florida— Conclusion 1303 



/ 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE; 

OR, 

The New West Beyond the Mississippl 



PART I. 

OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



CHAPTER I. 

What it Comprehends — The West beyond the Mississippi — Its Area and 
Extent — Comparison with other Empires — Climate — Mountains — 
Natural Phenomena — Soil — The Alkaline, Volcanic and " Bad Lands " 
— Predominance of Arable and Pasture Lands — Nutritious Grasses in 
the Grazing Lands. 

" Our Western Empire " is of greater extent than any other 
Empire of Christendom except Russia and Brazil, and in 
population, enterprise, and advantages for future growth is the 
peer of any ; but it has no monarch, hereditary or elective, to 
rule its wide domain. It forms a large part — more than two- 
thirds of the Great Republic of the United States of America, and 
over all its vast extent, an intelligent and industrious, moral and 
capable people rule themselves. Their chief magistrates, their 
governors and executive officers, are men of the people, selected 
by the people, for short terms of service, and replaced by others, 
when those terms expire. 

What, then, do we understand "Our Western Empire" to 
comprehend ? All of that portion of the United States lying 
west of the Mississippi, and including the new Territory of Alaska. 
Its northern boundaries are the Arctic Ocean and Behrin^'s 
Sea and Straits west of the 140th meridian; and east of that, 
British America; its western limit the Pacific Ocean; Its southern, 
Mexico and the Mexican Gulf; its eastern, the Mississippi river 
3 (33) 



34 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

from its mouth to the Canada line, and the west line of British 
America, above the fifty-fourth parallel. It has an area of 
2,671,884 square miles, of which 577,390 or about one-fifth, 
belongs to Alaska. It extends over 42° of latitude, and in its 
farthest western boundary, " by Ounalaska's lonely shore," over 
103° of longitude. 

Leaving Alaska out of the question, as a mere dependency, 
the remainder of "Our Western Empire" comprises 24° of latitude 
and 36° of longitude, having a breadth of nearly 2,000 miles 
from east to west, and a length from north to south of 1,700 
miles, with an area of 2,094,494 square miles. The whole of 
Europe except Russia, including the great German Empire, the 
Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Republic of France, the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Kingdoms of Turkey, 
Italy, Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Norway and Denmark, and the 
minor States and principalities, have in all only an area of 
1,678,791 square miles, about four-fifths of "Our Western 
Empire " exclusive of Alaska, or including it, less than three-fifths. 
Its population is of course much less than that of the larger 
European States, though somewhat greater than that of the 
Brazilian Empire, and increasing at a rate never equalled in the 
world's history. 

No empire in tlie world has a greater diversity of climate ; 
from the more than six months' winter of the northern border, 
and the mountainous regions, on some of which rest eternal snows, 
to the tropical heats of Arizona and Southern Texas, there is the 
greatestpossiblediversity of moisture and drought, of heatand cold, 
of moderate, equable and health-giving temperature, and of rapid 
change, and fickle, inconstant skies. Like other large empires, it 
has great diversities of surface. Three ranges of lofty mountains 
traverse it from north to south with their numerous outlying 
spurs, their broad plateaux and table-lands rising to a height of 
6,000 to 9,000 feet, their mesas or isolated flat-topped mountain 
summits, their deep and terrible canons, and their long valleys, 
sometimes narrow and precipitous, sometimes broad seas of ver- 
dure and flowers. These are: the Rocky Mountains, appropri- 
ately named "the backbone of the Continent," and occupying a 



THE WEST BEYOND THE MISSISSIPPI. ^5 

position about midway between the Mississippi river and the 
Pacific Ocean ; west of these, and parallel with them, the Sierra 
Nevada, or Snowy Range, whose peaks tower up into heights 
corresponding with those of the Alps ; and still farther west, and 
looking out upon the Pacific, the Coast Range, generally of lower 
altitude, but containing some lofty summits, whose snow-clad 
tops are the landmarks of the coast. Between the Rocky Moun- 
tains and the Sierra Nevada, is the great Utah or Salt Lake 
Basin, a vast depressed tract, none of whose streams flow out- 
ward, and some of whose lakes are salt and bitter. It has also 
its volcanic regions, and areas of erosion, where Dame Nature has 
played most fantastic tricks, now rearing lofty statues, monu- 
ments, castles, cathedrals, gateways, now scooping out vast series 
of basins of mineral waters either hot or cold, such as put all 
artificial baths to shame ; anon sending at intervals its eeyser- 
fountains two hundred and fifty feet into the air; or filling the 
quaking and trembling earth with jets of hot steam, reeking with 
sulphurous odors. At some points, after a fearful descent into 
some apparently dark and gloomy ravine or canon, all the hills 
or mountains around one seem to have put on their holiday 
attire; one has donned for its bridal veil a beautiful and semi- 
transparent waterfall, whose height Is so great that the water 
seems pulverized Into glittering dust ere it reaches the valley; 
another, with a greater supply of water, forms four or five gigantic 
cascades, each higher than Niagara, In Its downward career; 
while sdll another. In a rift between the mountain summits, forms 
a stream of moderate size In a perpendicular fall, a thousand feet 
or more, sheer down Into the valley. Broad lakes, some of them 
salt and some fresh, with many outlets or with none, are found 
on mountain tops or In the centre of wide valleys; while, as we 
have said, one vast basin has Its own system of lakes and rivers 
which find no way of reaching the sea. 

Like other empires, not all the land has a rich and fertile soil. 
There are mountains, where the rocks are cold, bleak, bare and 
precipitous ; there are canons and ravines, whose nearly perpen- 
dicular walls, from 3,000 to 6,000 feet In height, only let In the 
sunlight at midday, and their clayey and rocky sides, of parti- 



26 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

colored hues, afford no hold for weed, vine, shrub or tree. There 
are plains, plateaux and mesas covered with alkaline powder, and 
having as their only vegetation the gray, lichen-hued sage-brush; 
plains on which the gentle rain and soft falling dew seldom or never 
descends — yet these monotonous and apparently barren plains, 
under the influence of irrigation, yield most abundant crops, and 
even the despised sage-brush furnishes a delicious pasturage for 
cattle. There are also considerable tracts where, in former times, 
the eroding influences of mountain streams have cut the det^p 
strata of clay into the most fantastic forms — lands so utterly 
barren, that no toil could extract from them the least vestige of 
a crop — the " Bad Lands " of the Canadian trappers ; and there 
are also some stretches of volcanic lands, for one of which the 
foul and mephitic vapors, and the earthquake shocks, have 
prompted the expressive name of Death Valley. 

But while these extraordinary displays of the power of natural 
forces render this Great West a true Wonderland, they really 
comprise but a small proportion of its surface, and no region of 
equal extent has a larger proportion of available and productive 
lands. The quantity of arable soil is immense. The wheat 
fields of Iowa, Minnesota, Northern and Southeastern Dakota, 
Kansas and Nebraska, the lands suited to the growth of Indian 
corn in these States and Territories, and in Missouri, Arkansas 
and the Indian Territory, and in portions of Colorado and New 
Mexico, the cotton lands of Texas, Arkansas and New Mexico, 
and, on the Pacific slope, the wheat and barley fields and the 
vineyards and orchards of California, the wheat and corn fields 
of Oregon and Washington, are beyond all comparison for ex- 
cellence, on this continent or any other. 

In the way of grazing lands, no other country can compare 
with them. There are not only the cattle upon a thousand hills 
or plains, but thousands and tens of thousands of catde on each 
vast plain or mountain slope. The States and Territories of 
Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, North- 
western Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Cali- 
fornia, can furnish, within a few years, all the beef and mutton 
needed to feed the rest of the world. The grasses here are 



THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT: WHERE IS IT? yj 

more nutritious and fattening, and give to the flesh of the cattle 
a more gamey flavor than those of any other known country; and 
even those lands which were at first reckoned as portions of the 
Great American Desert, lands given over to alkaline deposits 
and sage-brush, and on which there was but very little rainfall, 
now prove admirably adapted to pasturage, and, either with or 
without irrigation, most bounteous in their production of grain 
and root crops. And in this connection we may well raise the 
question which we next discuss. 



CHAPTER II. 

The Great American Desert : Where is it? — The Hundredth Meridian 
— "Eli Perkins's" Scare — The Facts in Reply — Colonel (Brevet Brig- 
adier-General) Hazen on the Northern Pacific — Governor Howard's 
Answer, and other Facts — Dakota — Wyoming and its Agriculture — 
Montana — B. R. and Mr. Z. L. White on its Crops — The small Modicum 
OF Truth in these "Desert" Stories — The reported "Desert" 
beyond the Rockies — The Utah and Nevada Desert — Testimony of 
Surveyors-General — The Texan Desert and Arizona — The Great 
American Desert a Myth. 

Thirty or forty years ago all our maps had a wide space, and 
some of them two or three wide spaces, inscribed, "Great Amer- 
ican Desert." Nearly the whole of the present States of Kansas, 
Nebraska and Colorado, and Western Minnesota ; the Territories 
of Wyoming, Dakota, Montana, and Idaho, Western Texas, 
and after we had conquered " a piece " from Mexico, Arizona, 
most of New Mexico, Utah and Nevada, were included in this 
comprehensive designation. By and by silver, and some gold, 
were found in Nevada, and in the neighborhood of Pike's Peak, 
in what is now Colorado ; but though the existence of the pre- 
cious metals there could not be denied, yet the terrors of the 
desert to be passed through (terrors of whose reality the wagon- 
trail marked at almost every step by skeletons of cattle, and too 
often, alas ! by the bones of emigrants, gave most ghastly proof) 
were such that only the most stout-hearted could brave them. 

After some years the tide of emigration, which at first had 



28 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

been confined to the eastern counties of Kansas and Nebraska, 
and had not reached the western counties of Iowa, and still less 
those of Minnesota, began to rise and overflow the adjacent 
counties and districts. The Union Pacific, the Northern Pacific, 
the Kansas Pacific, and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe 
Railways had plunged into this desert, and being all land grant 
roads, had made the discovery that these lands were not really a 
desert, but were capable of yielding excellent crops, and of fur- 
nishing superior pasturage to cattle and sheep. The line of 
settlement has advanced with each year till now it has reached 
the loist meridian west from Greenwich, in Kansas, Nebraska 
and Dakota, and overleaping all barriers has extended to the 
foothills and peaks of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, 
Wyoming and Montana, and with moderate irrigation has pro- 
duced from these supposed desert-lands the most astonishing 
crops, and has furnished, as we have already said, pasturage so 
rich and abundant, to hundreds of thousands of cattle and sheep, 
that their flesh is more highly prized than any other in the 
market. 

Yet there have not been wanting those who from one motive 
or another, have sought to depreciate these lands, and have 
declared, in the face of the most conclusive evidence, that the 
■whole region west of the looth meridian was a barren desert, 
incapable of producing crops or furnishing pasturage sufficient 
for the subsistence of men or animals, and that it would remain 
so until God changed the physical laws which govern the distri- 
bution of clouds, and rain, levelled the mountains, and made the 
climate like that of the East. It is very easy to theorize on these 
matters, and to demonstrate that because, according to certain 
premises, a certain result should follow, therefore it will inevitably 
follow ; but he is not a wise man who neMects to test the truth 
of his theories by facts. 

The two regions, which, within the past decade, have been per- 
sistently denounced by these pseudo-scientific theorists as portions 
of the Great American Desert, rainless, treeless, barren and 
incapable of ever being inhabited, are the regions lying near the 
lOOth meridian west from Greenwich and westward indefinitely, 



THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT: WHERE IS IT? 30 

though some of these pessimists admitted that there might be 
some fertile valleys among the Rocky Mountains ; and second, 
the region from about the 107th meridian westward to the 114th. 
The first tract includes Western Texas, at least two-thirds of the 
Indian Territory, the western Uiird of Kansas, almost half of 
Nebraska, Eastern New Mexico, more than half of Colorado, 
nearly all of Wyoming, more than half of Dakota, and the 
wliole of Montana. In regard to Kansas, Nebraska, and Colo- 
rado, as late as the winter or early spring of 1879, Mr. Landon, 
a popular lecturer, better known to the public under his nom de 
plume of Eli Perkins, published in the Cincinnati Enqui7^er^ and 
soon after in the New York Siui^ the following article : 

LET EMIGRANTS WESTWARD LOOK OUT! 

An awful trap is being set for credulous emigrants. Thousands of these 
emigrants are settling west of the rain belt, and they don't know it. They are 
going out too far on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa P'e, the Kansas Pacific, 
the Union Pacific, and the Northern Pacific Railroads. 

" Where is the drought line? " asks the reader. 

" Draw a line from Austin, Texas, to Bismarck, Minnesota, on the Northern 
Pacific, and all west of that line is the drought country. Five years out of eight, 
crops will entirely fail west of this line. Last year was an exception to the rule, 
and this is why so many emigrants are venturing too far West this year. The 
land-sharks are deceiving them, and are pushing a vast army of emigrants into 
a famine region." 

"What makes this region west of the looth parallel a desert region?" 

" Because it rains just as much water as there is water evaporated each year. 
If it rained more water than is evaporated, it would run down into the ocean, 
and the land would soon be covered with water. Rains run to the ocean in 
rivers, and the air evaporates the water of the ocean and carries it inland. 
Clouds form rainfalls, and back goes the water on to the earth, then into the 
ocean again. Now, before the air from the Gulf or ocean reaches Bismarck, 
or the middle of Nebraska or Kansas, this wet air which started from the ocean 
becomes dry. There is no water in it ; the water has all fallen out of it in 
rain, and it has run back to the sea." 

" But why is San Antonio subject to drought when it is so close to the Gulf? " 

" Because the air of San Antonio, on the Staked Plains in Texas, and in 
Arizona, comes up through Mexico. It is dry before it starts. It does not 
come from the Gulf, Mexico is hot. A perpetual current of hot, dry air blows 
over Mexico and fans Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Colorado with atmos- 
phere as dry as wind from the Desert of Sahara. This dry-air current, blowing 



40 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

up from Mexico and Arizona, strikes the high mountains in Colorado. Here, 
in the centre of the continent, within seventy-five miles of Pike's Peak, is the 
source of the Red, Colorado, Rio Grande, Arkansas and Missouri rivers. This 
is the backbone of North America. The high, cold peaks condense any mois- 
ture that there may be in the air coming up from the south, and make it into 
snow. Then this cold, dry air passes on up the centre of the continent, making 
a perpetual desert. It prevents any damp air from coming east of the looth 
parallel. When we reach the Northern Pacific and Manitoba another current 
of wind, a damp current, blows from the Pacific Ocean. There is no desert 
there, where the Pacific wind heads off the wind from Mexico. Now, I say, 
thousands of innocent emigrants have taken up farms during the last year west 
of the rain parallel. Of course they will be ruined, and you will see them 
coming back broken-hearted and discouraged." 

" Will it always be a desert west of the looth parallel ? " 

" Yes, until the Almighty changes the course of the winds, takes down the 
mountain-peaks, and stops the clouds from raining all their water out in the 
East before they get to the desert." 

Eli Perkins. 

We will not stop here to notice the deplorable ignorance 
manifest in almost every line of this article of Eli Perkins, 
ignorance which would cause any intelligent school-boy of twelve 
years old to blush with shame, such as persistently speaking of 
meridians of longitude as parallels ; locating Bismarck in 
Minnesota, mistaking the longitude of the places of which he 
speaks, and contradicting himself by saying in one sentence that 
the air which reaches Bismarck is dry, and there is no rain in it, 
and in the next that " when we reach the Northern Pacific and 
Manitoba, another current of wind, a damp current, blows from 
the Pacific Ocean, There is no desert there, where the Pacific 
wind heads off the wind from Mexico." Yet Bismarck is on that 
Northern Pacific Railroad, and just south of Manitoba. It would 
be as well for " Eli Perkins" to eo to school for a few months before 
he attempts to write for the papers. Now please note the follow- 
ing facts. In Kansas, the rainfall at Fort Wallace, ninety miles 
west of the looth meridian, averaged yearly in 187 1, 1872, 
1873, and 1874, 13.47 inches; in 1875, 1876, 1877, and 1878, 
15.05 inches; an average gain of 1.58 inches yearly. In 1879, 
it was 15.30 inches in the first three-quarters of the year, and 
would undoubtedly reach 18 inches or more in the full year. This 



THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT: WHERE IS IT? ^j 

can hardly be called a rainless region. As to the crops in Kansas, 
this region west of the looth meridian has only been settled 
from three to eight years, and in that time there has been but 
one failure of the crops, and that not from drought, but from 
grasshoppers. The average yield of wheat in these counties 
was from nineteen to twenty-four bushels to the acre, and of 
corn forty bushels to the acre. The dairy products were much 
beyond the consumption. 

Colorado is between the I02d and the 109th meridians, and so, 
according to Mr. Landon, entirely in the desert ; yet its rainfall 
for 1876, 1877 ^""^ 1878, average 15.78 inches, and was much 
more than that in 1879, and in the lower and more arable lands 
ranged from nineteen to twenty-one inches. Owing to its vast 
mining wealth, but a very small portion of its surface has yet 
been cultivated; but in 1878, 66,691 acres yielded 1,310,000 
bushels of excellent wheat, an average of 19.6 bushels to the 
acre, while the southern counties, which are the driest, yielded 
22.6 bushels to the acre. In the same year, there were raised 
750,000 bushels of other cereals, 450,000 bushels of potatoes and 
50,000 tons of hay. The agricultural products of the State were 
valued at $3,515,000, aside from its live-stock, which was nearly 
five times as much. So far from being " ruined and coming back 
broken-hearted and discouraged," the agriculturists of Kansas 
and Colorado, west of the lOOth meridian, in 1879 broke up 
twice as much ground as the previous year and planted it in full 
faith of more abundant crops than the previous year, and were 
not disappointed. 

" Eli Perkins " seems to be a little in doubt whether the Great 
American Desert reaches as far north as the Northern Pacific Rail- 
road. He thinks there may be some Pacific moisture there, though 
how it manages to come over the Rocky Mountains, without having 
all its moisture squeezed or frozen out of it, he does not 
explain. But another of these scientific theorists entertains no 
doubts that the whole course of the Northern Pacific Railroad, 
from Minnesota westward through Dakota and Montana, and 
probably Idaho, and for fifty miles each side of that railway, is a 
perfectly barren desert and must ever remain so. He denounces 



^2 OUR WESTERN' EMPIRE. 

(or did in 1874) the projectors and managers of the Northern 
Pacific Railway, as a company of swindlers, who were under- 
taking to palm off these worthless lands on unsuspecting 
emicrrants. A thousand acres of these lands would not, he 
thinks, yield a support for a single family. This voluble 
denouncer of a great public enterprise was Colonel W. B. Hazen, 
U.S.A., Brevet Brigadier-General, stationed for three years at Fort 
Buford, in Northwestern Dakota, and his only knowledge of the 
lands of this region, which he proclaimed to be a portion of the 
Great American Desert, was derived from three or four journeys 
up and down the Missouri river, in a steamboat. Colonel Hazen 
has undoubtedly heard of the " Bad Lands of Dakota," and 
might possibly have seen a portion of them, as they are near the 
Missouri, at one part of its course, but he was not warranted in 
concludinor that the whole of these grreat territories was of the 
same description. "The Bad Lands," lands where the mountain 
streams have eaten their way through beds of clay and have 
cut them Into most fantastic forms, are undoubtedly barren, and 
will probably produce nothing except minerals and fossils ; but 
they are of very moderate extent. Colonel Wm. H. H. Beadle, 
Superintendent of Public Instruction in Dakota, and late Private 
Secretary to Governor Howard, a man who has explored very 
thoroughly all parts of Dakota, says that " the Bad Lands " in 
Dakota do not exceed 75,000 acres of barren land (only about 
three townships), the rest being either arable or good grazing 
lands. Governor Howard, of Dakota, has well said in his report 
to the Secretary of the Interior, in September, 1879: 

It is but a short time since vast herds of buffalo roamed undisturbed 
over these prairies ; now farms stocked with cattle and sheep everywhere abound. 
It is not long since we were taught in our Eastern homes and in our schools, 
and learned from our geographies the story of the Bad Lands, the "Great 
American Desert," and were left to believe that Dakota for barrenness was only 
/equalled by the Desert of Sahara, and that its chilling blasts were equal to the 
cold of Greenland ; but since it has been demonstrated that Dakota has a soil 
exceedingly rich, has more arable and less waste land in proportion to its size 
than any State or Territory in the whole Union, and since millions of 
bushels of grain are already waiting transportation to the markets of the world, 
capital, proverbially timid, is stretching out its arms, and, with hooks of steel, 
is drawing to itself the carrying trade of an empire. 



THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT: WHERE IS IT? 43 

In Northeastern Dakota alone in 1879 there were 375,972 
acres of land under cultivation, of which 266,618 acres were 
devoted to wheat, and yielded 5,332,360 bushels of the best 
grade of wheat, an average of 22 bushels to the acre, though 
40 bushels were often produced. Corn yielded 75 bushels and 
upwards to the acre, and oats from 60 to 75 bushels, while from 
300 to 600 bushels of potatoes, and corresponding amounts of 
other root crops rewarded the farmer's toil. Southeastern 
Dakota is equally prolific in its crops ; and even in the Black 
Hills, which were supposed to possess no agricultural value, and 
were only prized for their mineral wealth, the husbandman's toil 
'is rewarded by the most abundant returns. Wyoming, though 
largely a grazing Territory, has yet much arable land, and though 
this bugbear of a Great American Desert has in the past greatly 
hindered the settlement of this large and valuable Territory, 
which is destined to be in the not distant future one of the richest 
of all the Western States and Territories, settlers are beeinninsf 
to discover that some of the best lands on the condnent are to 
be found in its valleys and along its mountain slopes. The 
crops, on these apparently barren lands, when ferdlized by one 
or two irrigations annually, or even without them, by deep plow- 
ing, are almost incredible. Even the most unpromising of these 
lands are found by the stock-raisers to furnish the most nutri- 
tious pasturage. "The raising of cattle on an extensive scale is 
becoming important and profitable in Wyoming," says the Land 
Office Report for 1878. 

In regard to Montana we shall have more to say when we 
come to speak of its productions and climate as a separate 
Territory. The following item, however, is conclusive of the fact 
that it is not a desert agriculturally. The Land Office estimates 
the arable lands of the Territory at about 6,500,000 acres, and 
the grazing lands at nearly three times that amount. 

The crop correspondent of the New York Bulletiji sends the 
following from Chicago, Nov. 27th: "The United States consul 
at Winnepeg has lately published a letter in the St. Paul Pioneer 
Press with reference to the wheat-producing belt of the 'Far 
West.' The ardcle is full of interestine facts. He savs : 'The 



44 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

most favored of all the territorial organizations Is Montana.* I 
have to-day received the following ' crop note ' from my corre- 
spondent there, which I send you Intact : 

"'BozEMAN, Gallatin county, Montana, Nov. 6, 1879. 
" 'Grain in tliis county nearly all threshed. A larger acreage of wheat and 
oats than ever before ; yield rather more than average. One field of spring 
wheat averaged fifty-three bushels per acre ; thirty acres in Jefferson valley 
averaged fifty-nine bushels. Fifty-five acres winter wheat averaged fifty-six 
bushels; six and a quarter acres of the same averaged sixty-nine bushels. The 
wheat crop of the county — winter and spring — will average at least thirty-eight 
bushels per acre. Many crops are nearly or quite as good as those mentioned. 
Many crops of oats turned out sixty to one hundred bushels per acre. In one 
field 1,030 bushels were threshed from nine acres. The oat crop of the county 
will average fully fifty bushels per acre. A very small area was sown in barley 
last spring ; will average about forty-five bushels. Quality of all kinds of grain 
good. B. R.'" 

Mr. Zimrl L. White, the accomplished, careful and conscien- 
tious correspondent of the New York Tribune, whom no one 
will accuse of the least tendency to overstatement, says of Mon- 
tana farming, after spending nearly two months there In the 
summer and autumn of 1879: 

"The average yield of wheat In Montana Is at least twenty- 
five bushels to an acre. Other writers have placed It at from 
thirty to forty bushels, and fifty bushels is by no means an un- 
common crop ; but taking the whole country together, I doubt 
if the farmer can depend upon much more than twenty-five. 
This is ten bushels, or 66 per cent, more, than what Is considered 
a good crop in the great grain States of the Mississippi valley. 
The wheat of Montana is also of a very excellent quality. An 
analysis of samples of Montana wheat, made at the Agricultural 
Department In Washington, shows 18 percent, more nitrogeneous 
or flesh-producing matter than Minnesota wheat, and that bulk 
for bulk It weighed about 6 per cent. more. I have before me a 
sample of spring wheat of the crop of 1878, raised by Mr. Reeves 
in the Prickly Pear valley, that averages to weigh sixty-four pounds 
to a measured bushel. Some of the crops of wheat that have 
been raised in Montana have been almost fabulous. Forty, fifty, 
and even sixty bushels to an acre are not uncommon crops. 



l^IIE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT: WHERE IS IT? 45 

Several years ago the State Fair Association offered a premium 
for the best acre of wheat raised that season, and the award 
was made to Mr. Raymond, of the Prickly Pear valley, who had 
102 measured bushels on a single acre. The committee who 
made the award were prominent citizens of Montana, and one 
of them has told me that the same year a farmer in the Gallatin 
valley raised an equally large average crop on a forty-acre lot, 
but as he could not show that he had more than 102 bushels on 
any single acre, the committee decided that he was not entitled 
to the premium. 

" I have seen in August this year many fields of wheat, both 
standing and in the shock, in the country around Helena, and 
I have not seen one that appeared to have less than thirty 
bushels to an acre. In many fields the shocks of grain stood 
almost as thick as the sheaves in the fields of the Mississippi 
valley, 

" Oats and barley grow as well as wheat. The average yield 
of oats to the acre is considerably greater than that of wheat, 
and the weight per bushel is much above the standard. Mr. 
Reeves gave me a sample of oats from his farm which he said 
would average to weigh forty-six pounds to a bushel. General 
Brisbin says that Mr. Burton raised a field of oats which aver- 
aged 1 01 bushels to an acre, and a field of barley on which there 
were 113 bushels to an acre. 

"The soil of Montana seems to be especially fitted for the pro- 
duction of large crops of garden vegetables. The best market 
garden I ever saw, if abundant yield is a criterion, is that of Mr. 
Dorrington in the Prickly Pear valley. He sold ^2,000 worth 
of strawberries, and his root crops, such as turnips, onions, beets, 
parsnips, etc., seemed literally to fill the ground. He expected 
to take ten tons of onions from a small patch of ground, and 
would receive five cents a pound for them in Helena. The fol- 
lowing table compiled by General Brisbin shows what the pro- 
duct of the gardens cultivated by troops at Fort Ellis was, In 
1877: 



46 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



Company 

and 
Regiment. 


o 


II 


J= 

X • — 

MO 


II 


J2 u) 

Is 

^5 




«c2 


Bushels 

Salsify. 


Heads of 
Cabbage. 


F, 2d Cavalry 

G, " " 

H, " " 

T ii ii 

^f 

G, yth Infantry... 
Totals 


1% 

5 

6 

5 

26>^ 


IjIOO 

55° 

I,200 
700 

37865 


90 

60 

130 

50 

6 
336 


60 
60 

35 

150 

40 

7s7 


60 

35 
40 

25 
12 


50 
40 


10 
20 

25 
20 


3 
3 


3,6oo| 

2,500 

3-300 
2,300 

800! 

12,500 


172 


105 


75 



" The value of the several articles If bought at the fort would 
have been: Potatoes, $3,865; onions, $2,352; turnips, $85; 
carrots, $206.40; beets, $315; parsnips, $225; salsify, $9.40; 
cabbage, $125. Total, $7,182.80. The garden crops at Fort 
Ellis in other years have been fully one-third greater for the 
same amount of ground. 

"As a rule the farms of Montana have to be irrigated, and in 
most of the valleys there is an abundance of water for this pur- 
pose. The cost of constructing good canals for the irrigation of 
1 60 acres of land is of course considerable, but when once com- 
pleted the expense of keeping them in order is very small, while 
the ability of the farmer to regulate absolutely the amount of 
moisture which his crop shall have more than compensates lor 
all the extra labor and expense which irrigation makes neces- 
sary." 

The facts in regard to this region between the looth and lojth 
meridians seem to be (not reckoning too closely the exact line of 
either meridian) that there are some tracts, of very moderate 
extent in them, which are neither arable nor grazing lands — such 
as the " bad lands " of Dakota, and a small district of Nebraska 
and Wyoming, and portions of the Yellowstone Park and its 
vicinity; such, too, as some of the mountain regions in Colorado, 
Wyoming and Montana, where there are frightful perpendicular 
precipices, from 1,000 to 5,000 feet in depth, the results of up^ 
heaval, volcanic action or erosion, but these constitute only com- 
paratively small and isolated tracts of a belt, 350 to 400 miles in 
width, and 1,700 miles in Icn-th. For the rest, at least one-fifth 



THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT: WHERE IS IT? ^y 

is arable, either with or without irrigation, and yields enormous 
crops ; three-fifths are the best grazing lands to be found any- 
where, and one-fifth is good and serviceable timber, much of it 
of large size. Can anything better be said of any land the sun 
shines on ? The proportion of lands susceptible of improve- 
ment is larger than that of Great Britain or Germany, and very 
nearly equal to that of France ; and the arable lands are richer 
and more productive without manures, than those of these coun- 
tries with them. 

But what of the second region, where the maps still keep up 
the inscription, " Great American Desert ? " Stretching westward 
from the 1 08 th meridian In Texas, Arizona and Colorado, the 
line trends still farther west, as it proceeds north, and occupies 
most of the Great Valley between the Rocky Mountains and the 
Sierra Nevada or Cascade range, and includes Western Texas, 
the whole of Arizona, New Mexico, .Western Colorado and 
Wyoming, all of Utah and most of Nevada, Idaho, and Eastern 
Oregon and Washington Territory. The most ardent believers 
in a " Great American Desert " do not now, whatever they may 
have done in the past, venture to pronounce all of this territory 
a desert, for there are too many evidences that considerable por- 
tions of the region are remarkably fertile ; yet, taken as a whole, 
it is far less susceptible of immediate cultivation -than the first 
region already described. It Includes the Great Salt Lake Basin, 
with its peculiar volcanic formations, the great table lands of 
Western Texas, Arizona and New Mexico, and the equally ele- 
vated plateaux of Idaho, Oregon and Washington, and the deep 
and terrible canons of the Colorado and its tributaries. Nearly 
all this region is rich in minerals, and would eventually be occu- 
pied, were it an arid desert, throughout its whole extent; but 
there is a large quantity of arable land, capable with irrigation, 
which in most sections is practicable, of yielding immense crops; 
there are many millions of acres of grazing lands where all the 
flocks and herds of the continent could find good pasturage, and 
there are extensive forests, some of them of stinted growth, 
but others of gigantic pines, cedars, firs and tulip trees. Mingled 
with these are districts where all culture is impossible, where 



^g OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Nature has indulged in her wildest freaks, and where all tlie 
forces of the volcano, the earthquake, and the erosive and de- 
structive power of glacier, river, lake, and mountain torrent, 
have combined to make ruins grander and more impressive, than 
those of all the wars which have taken place, since our planet 
was inhabited by man. 

Yet these desolations are not sufficiently extensive in any one 
section to make a very large desert, certainly not a " Great 
American Desert." One of the districts which the map-makers 
of the present year are most persistently designating as the 
" Great American Desert " is the western half of Utah, and the 
eastern half of Nevada. Yet of this very region, a writer of 
undoubted authority says, in the autumn of 1879: 

"The farmers here have developed something new in agricul- 
ture — new in this region at least. There are here and elsewhere 
vast tracts of ' desert lands,' or lands which are so high above 
the stream that they can never be irrigated. Several years ago 
wheat was sown upon small patches of this seemingly arid and 
valueless soil. A tolerably fair crop was raised without artificial 
moisture or unusual rain, and now broad areas of this kind of 
land are being put under cultivation annually, producing as high 
as twenty bushels of wheat per acre. These are really warm 
alltivial soils .formed by the crumbling of mountain ranges." 

The pamphlet issued by the Utah Board of Trade in 1879^ 
while commending the general fertility of the Territory under 
irrigation, which, is generally practised, and in some sections 
without it, says very frankly, of the region lying west of Great 
Salt Lake in that Territory : 

" The western third of the Territory from end to end is an 
alternation of mountain, desert, sink and lake, with few oases cf 
arable or grazing lands. Great Salt Lake covers an area of 
3,000 to 4,000 square miles, and the desert west of it a stiil 
larger area. Rush valley has mining and agricultural setde- 
ments, but much more pastoral than arable land, and so has 
Skull valley to the westward. But from these south to the rim 
of the basin are only occasional habitable spots, and thry are due 
to springs. 



THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT: WHERE IS IT? aq 

Concerning the other States and Territories impHcated in this 
charge of being desert lands, we offer the following as the latest 
and most credible testimony. The Surveyor-General of Idaho 
says : " There are immense tracts of sage-brush lands — the so- 
called ' desert lands' — that only await irrigating canals, to make 
them as productive as most lands in the Western States, yielding 
their forty bushels of wheat per acre, as our people have often 
demonstrated by actual experiment." The Surveyor-General 
of Utah says : " Notwithstanding the opinion of many who deem 
our lands 'arid, desert, and worthless,' these same lands under 
proper tillage produce forty to fifty bushels of wheat, seventy to 
eighty bushels of oats and barley, from two hundred to four 
hundred bushels of potatoes to the acre, and fruits and vegetables 
equal to any other State or Territory in quantity and quality." 

The Surveyor-General of Nevada says : " In our sage-brush 
lands, alfalfa, the cereals and all vegetables, flourish in profusion 
where water can be obtained, and the State is swiftly becoming 
one of the great stock-raising States of the Union." 

The Surveyor-General of New Mexico says: "There is a 
much larger portion of New Mexico adapted to agriculture, than 
is generally supposed by those who have seen but little of the 
seasons, and what the capabilities of the soil are. The valleys 
of the San Juan, Rio Grande, Gila, Pecos, Red river, Dry 
Cimmaron and others, streams with their hundreds of tributaries, 
afford an immense area of arable land, the real extent of which 
is yet only partially known. Near the foot of the various mountain 
ranges there is sufficient rainfall to render irrigation unnecessary 
in many localities, even were it practicable ; and fine crops of 
corn, wheat, oats and vegetables are raised, while the mountain 
sides and plains, covered at all seasons with the nutritious 
gramma grass, afford an admirable range for stock." 

Of Northwestern Texas, an able Texan writer, who has spent 
years there, after speaking of the prevalent notions that it is a 
dry country adapted to nothing but grazing, and perhaps very 
poorly for that ; that it is too rugged for culture, even if the soil 
was of good quality, which they believe is not the fact, and that 
the herders are ruffians and brigands, says : " Nothing could be 
4 



CO OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

further from the truth than these notions. While It is true that 
this vast territory which we are describing is mainly a grazing 
country, it is also true that it abounds in fertile valleys, and rich 
locations of large extent, which are as well watered and fertile as 
any in the nation. Its rivers are without exception formed from 
springs ; they are as clear as any crystal, and furnish water 
power that is almost limitless." 

Arizona alone remains of the possible deserts of this western 
region ; yet the Surveyor-General of this Territory tells us that 
the valleys of its rivers and streams are irrigable, and that when 
irrigated they yield immense crops ; while the hills and plains 
furnish abundant and nutritious pasturage, and stock-raising Is a 
profitable pursuit ; that the Territory furnishes more grain, flour, 
bacon, lard, butter, catde, mules and horses than are needed for 
home consumption, and that considerable quantities of all are ex- 
ported. Fruits are comparatively plenty and cheap. 

Still more conclusive on this point is the testimony of Major- 
General J. C. Fremont, the present Governor of Arizona. From 
actual investigation and a comparison of its present condition 
with what it was when he visited it thirty years ago, he declares 
that most of Arizona is arable, that its rainfall ranges from 
fifteen inches to twenty-four inches (this too was written when 
the rainfall had been much less than usual for five years ; in a 
letter to the writer about Christmas, 1879, he stated that they 
were then in the midst of an unprecedented rain storm which 
had lasted for nearly two weeks, had raised the rivers to a great 
height and had flooded much of the country), that the crops 
of wheat even when raised by the Indians were very heavy, the 
Maricopas sendlng-at one time in August, 1 879, 200 tons of wheat 
of the best quality to San Francisco, where it brought ^2.22 the 
hundred pounds, and that most of the Indian tribes were 
subsisting by agriculture. This surely cannot be a wholly desert 
land. 

But while it is almost mathematically proved that the " Great 
American Desert " is a myth, receding from us as we try to 
approach it, it is not to .be denied that here, as in other empires, 
there are some desert lands, treeless, though not quite rainless; 



MINERAL AND VEGETABLE PEO DUCTS. ci 

often incapable of cultivation, though they may be rich in fossils 
or in the precious metals ; and that in these deserts may be 
found some of the most wonderful phenomena on the globe. 



CHAPTER III. 



The whole Region Abounding in Mineral Wealth — Production of Gold 
AND Silver, other Metals, etc. — Forests — Grasses — Root Crops — 
Fruits — Viniculture. 

Most of these States and Territories abound in mineral 
wealth. All the Territories and all the States except Minnesota, 
Nebraska and Kansas have either gold or silver mines or both, 
and it is by no means certain that even these will prove to be 
exceptions, though it is to be hoped they may; for agricultural 
products furnish a surer and better avenue to the prosperity of 
the entire population, than the richest mines of the precious 
metals. The golden grain of these States is a better possession 
than the gold mines of California or Colorado, or the silver of 
Nevada or Montana. 

Yet we would not underrate the vast mineral wealth of this 
Western Empire. It is possible, though not at all certain, that 
some of the Peruvian mines or those of Mexico may have more 
extensive deposits of gold or silver than are already opened, or 
are yet to be discovered in the Great West; but the production 
of none of them has been as great, in so short a period, as that 
of our mines, and we have just arrived at a stage of progress, 
when our production may be almost indefinitely increased. 
During the first ten years after the discovery of gold and silver 
in California, and the West, it is difficult to estimate with accuracy 
the production of the precious metals there ; but Professor Rossiter 
W. Raymond, who has devoted much time and study to the 
problem, names, as the result of his inquiries, a sum total of gold 
and silver which, by adding the production of 1878 and 1879, gives 
an aggregate for the Great West for the thirty years ending 



52 OUR WESTERN EMRIRE. 

June 30,1879, of ^1,947,055,834, almost two billionsofthe precious 
metals. By a singular coincidence these are very nearly the 
amount of the product of the ten principal items of our agriculture 
for the year 1879. That product was ^1,904,480,659. The 
completion of the Sutro tunnel in Nevada, which will make deep 
mining practicable, in those hitherto productive lodes, and the 
discoveries of carbonate ores of silver and chlorides or horn 
silver in Utah, in the San Juan and Gunnison districts and else- 
where, on the western slopesof the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, 
the new and extensive deposits of both gold and silver in the 
Black Hills, in Utah and in Montana, and the increasing annual 
production of bullion, warrant the belief that we are just enter- 
ing upon a new era in the production of the precious metals, 
which will far exceed that of the combined production of the 
Pacific States and Australia, twenty-five years ago. 

But our mineral productions in our Western Empire are by 
no means confined to gold and silver, Qidcksilvcr, which is an 
absolute necessity for gold mining the world over, is more 
abundant in California, Nevada and Arizona than anywhere else 
in the world, and though, in the past, tedious litigation has pre- 
vented the mines from yielding their full product, yet not only 
has the large demand for our own mines been supplied, but we 
have exported millions of flasks to other countries. Nickel, 
platinum, and in vast quantities, copper, lead, iron and zinc, are 
among the products of this young empire ; and coal of all quali- 
ties is scattered in localities where it is most needed. 

Portions of this Western Empire are lacking in forest growths. 
The vast prairies and plains east of the Rocky Mountains had 
been so often burned over by the Indians, either carelessly or 
to promote the growth of the grasses, on which the buffalo, their 
principal game, fed, that though in times long ago they were 
covered with heavy forests, they seemed to have lost their ability 
to sustain any large amount of timber. Only near the banks of 
streams was there any considerable growth of trees, and these, 
in some sections, only the comparatively worthless cottonwood. 
But this deficiency will soon pass away. Encouraged by the 
Timber culture act of Congress, and by the desire to produce 



MINERAL AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 



53 



trees instead of sending great distances for lumber, millions of 
trees have been planted, largely of the rapidly growing kinds, as 
the ailantus, locust, Osage orange, etc. ; and even on the alkaline 
plains they are growing and thriving, and have already increased 
to a sensible extent die amount of the scanty rainfall. But only 
a portion of the region lying between the Mississippi and the 
Rocky Mountains can be called treeless. In Minnesota, Dakota, 
Montana, Missouri, Arkansas, parts of Texas and the Indian 
Territory, there are vast tracts of heavy timber, and the lumber 
exported from some of these States forms a very considerable 
portion of their productive wealth. West of the Rocky Moun- 
tains there is generally no lack of forests, especially on the 
mountain slopes ; Utah, New Mexico and Arizona are, however, 
but sparingly supplied with timber, and much of the land suffers 
from drought except where irrigation is possible. On the Pacific 
slope, portions of California and Nevada, all of Western Oregon 
and Washington are remarkable for the jjio-antic heig-ht and bulk 
of their forest trees. The Redwoods and Sequoias, which range 
from 300 to 475 feet in height, are not the only giants of these 
forests ; several species of pine and fir and some of the cedars 
tower from 250 to 350 feet in height on the lower hills of the 
Coast range, in California, Oregon and Washington. In Eastern 
Washington and Oregon there are extensive, elevated plains, 
without much timber, which are very cold in winter and intensely 
hot in summer. In Wyoming and Colorado the mountains are 
generally clothed with forests, up to a point somewhat below 
the snow line ; but the plains, plateaux and foothills are very 
often devoid of trees, except along the water-courses, or where 
they have been planted by man. 

Over much of this vast territory, nearly all of it beyond the 
Rocky Mountains, and the alkaline plains east of that range, 
there is little or nothino- which can be called sod; the lonoj 
dry summers would destroy it if it existed. But the buffalo 
and gramma grasses, more nutritious than our cultivated grasses, 
are adapted to the summer drought, and furnish all the year 
round a most delicious pasturage for cattle. The bunch grass, 
and the white sage-brush (after frost), are eagerly cropped. 



54 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Wherever, as in California, Nevada, and portions of New 
Mexico, the cultivation of orrasses for feeding cattle has been 
found desirable, the Alfalfa grass, a species of South American 
lucerne, which yields two or three enormous crops a year, and 
is admirably adapted to this climate, furnishes at small expense 
a succulent and nutritious food for cattle and sheep. Tiiere 
are also other forage grasses, most of them native to the coast, 
which amply supply the absence of our sod-making grasses in 
the Atlantic States. 

In the season of melting snows, and moderate rains, these 
desolate and dreary plains are resplendent with flowers of every 
hue, and many of them redolent of the sweetest perfumes. 

The root crops of this entire region are remarkable alike 
for their abundance, the great size they attain, and their ex- 
cellent quality. In the deep, rich, and easily penetrated soil of 
all these States and Territories root crops seem to run riot, 
and grow without stint. The common potato, the sweet potato 
and the yam, yield from 400 to 600 bushels to the acre, and 
are, perhaps, the most profitable crops which can be raised. 
Turnips, both yellow and white, carrots, beets, etc., yield fabulous 
quantities of such gigantic size that they are hardly recognizable. 
The whole melon tribe, including the pumpkin, squash, and 
cucumber, as well as the watermelon, muskmelon, cantelope, 
and citron-melon exhibit their greatest fertility and most abun- 
dant productiveness in the most arid and desert-looking of these 
lands. Arizona, Southern California, the southern part of New 
Mexico, and Western Texas, are peculiarly adapted to these 
creeping vines and their cooling fruits. 

This Great West is destined to be the garden of the world, 
in its cultivation and conservation of edible fruits and their 
products. Its great variety of climates and temperatures, and 
the elevation of its arable lands, even in semi-tropical regions, 
permits, and will continue to permit and demand, the produc- 
tion of the greatest variety of choice fruits to be found in any 
one region on the earth's surface. In the northern portion, the 
apples, pears, quinces, plums, cherries, and small fruits of Min- 
nesota, Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon and 



MINERAL AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 55 

Northern California are unsurpassed either in size or flavor by 
those of any other part of the world. It has been asserted that 
the laro^er fruits of California, as well as its veg;^etables, thouorh 
of great size, lack the succulency and fine flavor of those raised 
in the Eastern States, but there is no reason to believe that 
this is true. Fruits carried to cfreat distances from their native 
soil, and kept for months or years, do lose something of their 
flavor, as is well known; but eaten where they are grown, they 
are unsurpassed in excellence. The belt below this, consisting 
of the States of Iowa, Missouri, Southern Dakota, Kansas and 
Nebraska, Wyoming, Northern Colorado, Utah, Nevada and 
Central California, adds to this list the peach, the apricot, and, 
above all, the grape. Already California is more largely en- 
gaged in the culture of the vine than any other country In the 
world. Every known species and variety which possesses merit 
is grown there, and though her great vineyards are so young, 
she is only second to France In the amount of her wine produc- 
tion. Nowhere can finer " raisins of the sun " be produced than 
there. Her peaches are excellent, but not so much attention 
has been given to their culture, as in other regions. 

The whole belt of States and Territories we have named are 
capable of a like development in viniculture with California. 
Their grapes may have a slightly diflerent flavor, and the wines 
produced from them may be as distinguishable, by the cultivated 
taste of the connoisseur, as those of Tokay and Xeres or 
Rheims ; but they will be in as great demand as the wines of 
the Californian vintaofe. 

Farther south, in Arkansas, the Indian Territory, Texas, 
Arizona, Southern New Mexico, Southern Utah and Nevada, 
and Southern California, sub-tropical fruits abound — the orange, 
lemon, lime, fig, olive, pomegranate, banana, guava, Madeira nut, 
pecan, and the finest and most luscious varieties of the peach, 
are some of the treasures which Dame Nature lays up for her 
children in the sunny South. There are also many native fruits 
and nuts, less widely known, but not less delicious or grateful to 
the taste, than those we have named, to be found in the forests 
of the Great West. 



56 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Wild Animals and Game — Beasts of Prey — Grizzly and other Bears — 
Mr, Murphy's Grizzly Bear Story — The Cougar, Puma, or Panther — 
The Jaguar and other Felid^e — Lynxes — The Marten and Weasel Tribe 
— The Gray Wolf — The Coyote — Amphibia — The Whale Tribe — Birds 
OF Prey — Perchers and Song Birds — Pigeons and Grouse — Waders and 
Swimmers — Reptiles — Fishes — Mollusks and Crustaceans — Domestic 
Animals. 

Many of the wild animals of our Western Empire are peculiar 
to that region. The Bison or American buffalo, whose range 
extended originally from the Rocky Mountains to the Appala- 
chians, has for these many years past been only found west of 
the Mississippi, and as settlement and civilization advanced west- 
ward he has been driven back to the plains and foothills of the 
Rocky Mountains, a tract of not more than three hundred miles 
in width, and perhaps twelve hundred in length from north to 
south, and even this was encroached upon every year by the new 
towns springing up all along the line. Since the advent of 
railroads, crossing these plains, the number of bison has rapidly 
diminished. Many thousands were shot from the cars for fun, 
and left to die on the plains ; hunters destroyed tens of thousands 
for mere sport. More than as many more v^'ere slaughtered for 
the hams and tongues, and the Indians killed from one to two 
millions annually for the flesh, and the robes or skins. It is es- 
timated that within the past ten years, not less than twenty mil- 
lions of these noble animals have been slain, and that hardly 
more than 300,000 remain. The bison Is not found west of the 
Rocky Mountains.''' The moose, though plendful in British 

* Colonel Richard J. Dodge, United States Army, a famous hunter, speaks of another species, 
©r at least a well-marked variety of the buffalo, known to hunters as the mountain or wood 
buffalo, or "the bison." It has shorter but stouter legs than the common buffalo, is very shy, 
and by no means plentiful even in its chosen haunts, and inhabits only the deepest, darkest 
defiles and canons, or the craggy and almost precipitous sides of mountains, from which it will 
not depart, while its congener prefers the plains. Except in one instance, no sportsman has 
bagged more than one, but its existence is well vouched for, though, so far as we are aware, it 
has never been described by any other writer. 




ROCKY MOUiNTAlN GOAT, ELK, RED DEER, BLACK BEAR, FOX, MOOSE, WOLF, PANTHER, GRIZZLY 
BEAR, COYOTE, PRAIRIE DOG, WILD CAT, BUFFALO, WILD HORSE. 



ZOOLOGY OF OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. cy. 

Columbia and Alaska, Is Only found in die region In the northern 
part of Washington Territory, in Northern Idaho, and Montana. 

The Elk, the next larcjest of the ijame animals east of the 
Rocky Mountains, has nearly the same range as the Buffalo, 
though It usually seeks the vicinity of the river valleys. It is less 
abundant than the bison, but has only partially escaped the Indls-' 
criminate slaughter to which those unfortunate animals have beenj 
subjected. They are often found In large numbers (three or four 
thousand It is said) in the great parks of Colorado, and in Mon- 
tana. 

There are three species of deer, the black-tailed, white-tailed, 
and mule deer; and at least one species of antelope, a graceful, 
beautiful creature. West of the Rocky Mountains, there is a 
representative of the Ibex family In the Bighorn or mountain 
sheep, and one of the goat family — the wild Rocky Mountain 
goat, whichi may, perhaps, be allied to the goat antelopes of the 
Himalaya Mountains. Of smaller four-footed game and rodents, 
there are six or eight species of hare and rabbits, one bearing 
the name of the Jackass rabbit, from the enormous length of Its 
ears; the beaver, musk rat and mammoth mole; squirrels of 
ten species, five of gophers or prairie dogs, the yellow-haired 
porcupine, four species of kangaroo mice, the usual variety of 
moles, rats, mice and dormice. 

Of beasts of prey there are a considerable number, and some 
of them formidable In size and strength. There are probably 
two species, and possibly three, of bears east of the Rocky 
Mountains : the black, the cinnamon, and a smaller brown one, 
known as the Mexican bear.* The bear Is omnivorous In his 
diet ; ants, grubs, mice, moles, squirrels, rabbits, eggs, berries, 
grapes and fruit, all seem alike to him, but if he has a special 
vanity, It is for honey. He does not attack man unless In ex- 
treme hunger, or in protecting the cubs ; but If attacked makes 
a very stubborn fight, especially at close quarters. His claws 
are very sharp and strong. Beyond the Rocky Mountains the 
formidable and somewhat ferocious grizzly bear, the largest 
American plantigrade, except possibly the Arctic or white bear, 

* Some practical zoologists contend that these are not different species but simply varieties. 



5$^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

is added to the number. The black, brown, and cinnamon bears 
usually avoid a conflict with man unless attacked, when they 
fight fiercely. It is said that among the miners of Western 
Colorado, a class of men not lacking in courage or pluck, when 
some new-comer, ambitious to show his prowess, proposes to go 
out and hunt the bears, which are very numerous there, the 
shrewd old miner, who is well versed in bear nature, will reply: 
" Guess not ; I haven't lost any bear." The grizzly bear, espe- 
cially if hungry, is not wont to wait for a provocation to a fight, 
and he possesses so thick a hide and so much vitality, that it is 
very difficult to disable or kill him by even two or three well- 
aimed shots. When wounded his rag^e is fearful, and his lone 
and strong claws enable him to make very short work of an 
antagonist who comes within reach of them.* 

The cougar, puma or panther, sometimes called the American 
lion, is another very formidable animal ; somewhat smaller than 
the African Hon or the Bengal tiger, it has as much ferocity and 
almost as much strength as either. It is, however, cowardly like 

* Mr. J. M. Murphy, in his " Sporting Adventures in the Far West," devotes one chapter to 
the grizzly bear, and relates some very humorous stories of experiences in hunting it. Formid- 
able and ferocious as it is, the grizzly is terrified by the human voice, when loud yells and cries 
are uttered, and M'ill run away at once. Mr. Murphy says that a certain judge of San Francisco, 
who, while a good hunter and a capital humorist, was of somewhat intemperate habits, had en- 
gaged with a few friends to go out for a week's shooting among the grouse and quail, and was 
asked to be ready to join the party at a very early hour in the morning, so that a camping place 
could be reached in the afternoon. The night before starting he attended a ball and became so 
much intoxicated that on his way home he fell clown several times in the mire, much to the 
detriment of his evening dress and opera hat. Just after reaching home the carriage came to 
take him to the rendezvous, and he insisted on going in the plight he was in. After some re- 
monstrance he was taken as he was, and the party travelled to the mountains about forty miles 
distant, pitched camp and, building a fire, prepared for supper. A Spaniard approached them 
and said that there was a grizzly a few rods off in the bushes. The judge, who was dozing near 
the fire, roused up at once and said that he would go and bring it into the camp. His com- 
panions laughed at him and chaffed him, but his temper was roused, and seizing an empty shot- 
gun, he said he would prove his assertion, and strode off into the shrubbery. In about twenty 
minutes there was a great commotion in the bushes, and all the party seized their guns and pre- 
pared for some unknown danger. In another minute the bushes parted and out came the judge 
without a hat, and running with such speed as to cause his hair and coat-tails to stand out at 
right angles to his body. As he approached, he shouted at the top of his voice : " Clear the 
track; here we come, the bear and me, confound our souls." They did clear the track, and the 
judge rushed through the fire and did not stop till he had run a good half mile to the rear. 
His companions stopped the bear and caused it to retreat by a few yells and shots, but the fool- 
hardy judge was the butt of many a joke on his race with the bear. 



'?li^- 



ZOOLOGY OF OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. Cq 

all its tribe, and seldom or never attacks man except when very 
hungry or In defence of its young. When attacked it is a for- 
midable animal, its strong claws and great muscular power 
giving it great advantage. It is, when full-grown, about four 
feet eight inches in length, exclusive of its tail, and weighs 150 
or 160 pounds. It is an inhabitant of the forests, and rarely 
goes any great distance from them. The jaguar or American 
tiger is also found in Texas, Arizona, New Mexico and Southern 
California. It is a larger and perhaps fiercer animal than the 
cougar, but is nowhere abundant and is not found at all north 
of the thirty-ninth parallel. A smaller, but equally fierce and 
perhaps equally cowardly member of the feline family, is the 
catamount, ocelot, or tiger-cat,* while the wild cat, with its short 
blunt tail, and the lynx, of which there are three species — the 
Canada lynx, the bay lynx or red cat, and the banded lynx — com- 
plete the wild felines of the region. Of the marten tribe and its 
congeners there are many genera and species. The marten 
proper or American sable, the fitch marten, stone marten, w^ol- 
verine or fisher, two species of skunk, the mink, the yellow- 
cheeked weasel, the otter and sea otter, the badger, raccoon ; 
five species of fox, the raccoon fox or mountain cat. Next in 
order come the wolves. The American large gray, dusky or 
black wolf (all these distinctions of color being found in the 
same species) Is a far less ferocious animal than his European 
congener ; he is cowardly, and when attacked by dogs or men 
always tries to find safety in flight. There are not more than 
one or two instances known where these, wolves have attacked 
a man, and then it was only when they were frantic with hunger, 
when a large pack of them were together, and when the man 
was carrying some game. They are great thieves, and will 
carry off lambs or sheep, pigs, calves or young colts, and when 
hunger has made them desperate, they will hunt antelopes, deer 
and even the buffalo. Their bite is very sharp, and they always 
endeavor to hamstring their prey, If It Is a large animal. They 
are so destructive to sheep and young cattle that great numbers 

*- This name is also given by some to the Canada lynx, but improperly, as all the lynxes 
differ in structure from the true cats. 



60 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of them are killed by poison, usually by strychnine. There are 
a class of men in the West known as "Wolfers" who make a 
special business of killing wolves, and selling their pelts, which 
are valuable. This is a profitable business, but those who 
engage in it undergo great privations and hardships, and they 
very often spend their hard-won gains in miserable debauchery. 

The coyote or barking wolf is an intermediate link between 
the gray wolf and the fox, and maintains about the same posi- 
tion in this country which the hyenas do in the East. He is a 
thief, and a mean, cowardly, vile-smelling thief, but he subserves 
one useful purpose — he is an indefatigable scavenger, though a 
very dirty and cruel one. He will dig up the bodies of the dead 
and feast upon them, and every animal that is wounded or sick 
falls a prey to him. If nothing better can be found he will prey 
upon chickens, rats, mice, moles, or any other of the small 
rodents. A pack of coyotes have been known to attack a 
wounded buck and strip every bone clean in ten minutes. They 
are often covered with sores from feasting on dead bodies. 
Colonel Dodge Insists that the prairie wolf Is not the genuine 
coyote, and that the coyote is a meaner animal found only in Texas. 

The cetacea of the Pacific coast include the right and Califor- 
nia gray whale, the hump-back and fin-back, two beaked whales, 
the sperm whale, black fish, walrus, and three species of porpoise. 
The amphibia are the sea elephant, three or four sea lions, two 
species each of seal and sea otter. 

The birds of this vast territory number more than 500 species 
already described, and many more discovered but not yet fully 
described. There are twenty-five species of climbers, nearly 
two-thirds of them wood-peckers ; more than forty species of 
birds of prey, including six of the eagle family, twenty hawks, 
buzzard hawks and falcons ; twelve or thirteen species of owls; 
the king of the vultures, as large as the condor and the 
lammergeier; and the turkey-vulture or turkey-buzzard, so 
common in the South. 

Of the perchers, fiy-catchers, and grain-pluckers, most of them 
song birds, there are nearly 200 species ; in the first group are 
included crows, ravens, magpies, jays, jackdaws and king-fishers ; 




EAGLE, VULTURE, HAWK, PHEASANT, PTARMIGAN, CALIFORNIA I'ARrRIDGE, PRAIRIE HEN, TURKFA". 
FLAMINGO, CRANE, IBIS, SWAN, GOOSE, DUCKS. 



ZOOLOGY OF OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. gi 

in the second and third groups, fly-catchers, several speci-s of 
humming--birds, swallows, wax-wings, shrikes, tanager.-, r;)bins 
and thrushes, wrens, chickadees, grosbeaks, finches, linnets, 
orioles, larks and sparrows. 

The pigeon family have five or six representatives, including 
the California and the band-tailed pigeon, the ring, the turtle and 
the ground doves. There are probably two species of pheasant. 
The grouse family are numerous, and include blue grouse, ruffed 
grouse, the sage hen, which feeds upon the sage-brush of the 
alkaline lands and whose flesh though tender is very bitter; the 
prairie hen, at least five species of quail, two of partridges, and 
three or four species of ptarmigan. There are more than sixty 
species of waders, including cranes, herons, bitterns. Ibises, flam- 
ingoes, plover, kill-deer, avocets, English snipe, jack-snipe, sand- 
pipers, curlews, rails, rice-birds, etc., etc. The swimmers are still 
more numerous, over one hundred species having been described, 
including many species of geese, which frequent the lakes and 
broader streams, brants, teal of at least a dozen species, as many 
of ducks, the canvas-back being found in great numbers in his 
best estate, scooters, coots, sheldrakes, mergansers, pelicans, cor- 
morants, albatrosses, fulmars, petrels, gulls, terns, loons, dippers, 
auks, sea-pigeons, and murres. 

The reptiles of the Pacific coast, and its rivers and lakes, differ 
from those of the States and Territories whose waters drain into 
the Gulf of Mexico. In the former there are no true sauriaiis 
(alligators or crocodiles), except in the Colorado and its 
affluents; in the latter the alligator and probably the crocodile are 
found in great numbers below the thirty-fifth parallel. The 
Pacific States and Territories have five species of rattlesnake, 
and no other venomous snake unless possibly a viper; while the 
latter have as many species of the rattlesnake, and at least three 
other venomous snakes, and possibly more. There are about 
thirty species of harmless snakes, five of tortoises, seven or 
eight land turtles, terrapins, etc. ; about forty species of lizards, 
and nearly fifty frogs, toads, horned toads, salamanders, pro- 
teuses, etc., etc. 

There are more than five hundred species offish, most of them 



62 (^^'R WESTERN EMPIRE. 

edible in the waters of the Pacific and the Gulf, and in the thou- 
sands of fresh and salt lakes, and the numerous rivers of this 
vast region. Among these are ten species of the Salmonidae, 
native to the Pacific coast, besides several others now naturalized; 
the taking, packing and canning of the salmon forms one of the 
largest and most rapidly increasing industries of Oregon and 
Washington Territory ; the rivers and lakes swarm with trout. 
Seven or eight species of the cod family, about twenty species of 
eels, ten of mackerel, and two of the bonita or Spanish mackerel, 
numerous species of the perch family and its congeners, the 
blue-fish, eight or nine species of bass, the lake white-fish (intro- 
duced) ; three species of tautog; one, the red-fish, a most delicious 
table fish ; about twenty species of Oat-fish and flounders ; twelve 
species of shad, herring, anchovies, etc.; nearly thirty of the carp 
tribe, weak-fish, balloon-fish ; and over forty of the cartilaginous 
fishes, sharks, rays, sun-fish, sturgeons, etc., etc. There are 
seventy-five species of mollusks, including a great variety of 
clams, quahaugs, oysters, mussels, scollops, and fresh-water 
unionidse, whelks, limpets, sea-snails, cuttle-fish, polypi, octopi, 
squids, nautili, etc. 

Of crustaceans, there are about twenty species, including lob- 
sters, crabs, hard and soft shell, king crabs, star-fish, fresh-water 
lobsters, shrimps, prawns, crawfish, etc. 

No country in the world has a larger proportion of excellent 
pasturage land. While much of this is as yet unoccupied by 
herdsmen, the amount of live-stock is increasing at an exceed- 
ingly rapid rate. The estimates of the Agricultural Department 
at Washington, which, on live-stock, especially in the West, are 
generally considerably below the truth, gave, in December, 1878, 
3,807,500 horses, more than one-third of all in the United States; 
630,300 mules, about the same proportion of the whole ; 3,650,- 
000 milch cows, about one-third of the whole number in the 
Union; 11,588,000 other cattle, or more than one-half of the 
whole ; 19,000,000 sheep, or one-half of the whole ; and 12,000,- 
000 swine, or almost two-fifths of the whole. The number in 
December, 1879, not yet reported, must be at least twenty per 
cent, in advance of these fiq^ures. 



INCREASE OF POPULATION. gj 



CHAPTER V. 

Population — The Increase since 1870 — Table Showing the Estimated 
Increase in each State and Territory — Notes in regard to each State 
AND Territory. 

This whole region is new to settlement, except the States of 
Missouri and Arkansas; the former was admitted into the Union 
in March, 1821, and the latter June 15th, 1836. Nine of the 
other States or Territories have been organized with their 
present boundaries over thirty-five years, and several of the 
States and all the Territories are less than thirty years old. 
According to the census of 1870, there were in the whole region 
west of the Mississippi 6,877,069 inhabitants, besides nearly 
300,000 tribal or wild Indians. The growth of population since 
that time has been almost incredibly rapid. In order to show 
how rapid has been the growth of this region we present here- 
with the results of the census taken in June, 1880 — the official 
figures where it was possible to obtain them, and the approxi- 
mations in round numbers, where it was not. We have added 
to these the number of Indians on reservations, in every State or 
Territory where there were large reservations, taking our figures 
from the latest report of the Indian Office in 1879. It will be 
seen that the present population aggregates 1 1,421,274, an in- 
crease of 4,544,205, or about 67.5 per cent, within the last ten 
years. The great States regard an increase often or eleven per 
cent, in the population in ten years as a remarkably rapid growth, 
and only one or two of them attain that; but here has been an 
increase of more than six times their best growth in the same 
time; while fully three-fourths of this advance has been achieved 
during the last four or five years. 

The following table shows the extraordinary growth of some 
of these States and Territories ; and we explain below the causes 
which have induced this exceptional growth. 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



State 

or 

Territory. 


Population 
1S70. 

484,471 

560,247 

39,864 

1,194,020 

364,399 

439,706 
1,721,295 

122,293 
42,491 
90,923 

726,915 


Population 
1880. 

802,564 
864,686 
194,649 

1,624,463 
995,966 
780,807 

2,168,804 

452,432 
62,265 

174,767 
940,263 


State 

or 

Territory. 


Population 
1870. 


Population 
1880. 


Arkansas . 
California . 
Colorado {a) 
Iowa {F) . 
Kansas {c) 
Min'sota (^/) 
Missouri . 
Nebraska (<?) 
Nevada , . 
Oregon (/) 
Louisiana 


Texas ( g) 
Arizona (//) 
Dakota (/) 
Idaho . 
Montana(y ) 
Indian Ter. 
New Mex.(/^ 
Utah (/) 
Washington 
Wyoming 

Totals . 


818,579 

9,658 

14,181 

14,999 

20,595 
69,000 

91,874 
86,786 

23,955 
9,118 


1,597-509 

40,441 

135,180 

32,611 

39.157 

75,000 
118,430 

143,907 
75,120 
20,788 

11,339,809 


6,877,069 



(d) Colorado owes its rapid growth in the last decade to its superb climate, 
to its great advantages as a herding region, and above all to the extraordinary 
discoveries of rich ores of silver and gold on both the eastern and western slopes 
of the Rocky Mountains, in the San Juan district, in Leadville and vicinity, at 
Silverton, Ouray, Gunnison, and many other points of Western Colorado. 

(F) Iowa is essentially a prairie State, with a rich and fertile soil, and being 
gridironed by railroads, most of them having land-grants, and its advantages 
diligently made known, it has made large additions to its population. 

(r) Kansas owes its almost miraculous growth to its favorable location, to its 
excellent farming lands, and especially to the great enterprise and energy, with 
which the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad has opened to settlement 
and to markets, the whole upper Arkansas valley, one of the finest farming and 
grazing regions on the continent. 

(^/) Minnesota owes much of its growth to its fine climate, its rich wheat 
lands, especially those of the valley of the Red river of the North, and to the 
great enterprise of both her farmers and manufacturers, by which her wheat and 
flour have become known all over the world, as the finest produced anywhere. 

{/) Nebraska has made a great advance within ten years, almost quadrupling 
her population, mainly through her excellent situation, her fine, arable lands, 
and the great efforts made by the Union Pacific and other land endowed roads, 
to make her advantages known. 

(/) Oregon has been largely built up by emigration called thither by her 
extensive salmon fisheries, her immense lumber business, the great fertility and 
jjroductiveness of her soil, and her rich and valuable mines. Her facilities for 
water communication have been of great advantage in bringing her products to 
market ; but as yet railways have not aided largely in developing her territory. 

(^) Texas has received large additions to its population from several causes : 
its fine cotton and sugar lands have attracted very many settlers from the 
Atlantic and Gulf States of the South, as well as from the Mississippi valley, who 
hoped to better their condition by the change ; her vast ranges for cattle, and 



INCREASE OF POPULATION. 55 

the double demand for cattle for the ranges of the New Northwest, and for 
beef for the English and French markets, have drawn great numbers of ranch- 
men, herdmen, cattle-buyers, etc., to the State. There has been also a large 
immigration of English farmers and laborers, and of the best class of Germans 
to the State ; and the extension of several of the railroad lines has induced a 
considerable influx of people from Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky and Tennessee. 

iji) Arizona has not grown so rapidly as some of the other Territories, for, 
until recently, she has had difficulties with the Indian tribes, and her arid soil, 
most of which can only be cultivated successfully by irrigation, was still arid 
for want of the means to build irrigating canals, or bore artesian wells ; her 
mines, which were and are exceedingly rich, were almost inaccessible for want 
of railroad and wagon road facilities. These difficulties are now in course of 
removal, the Southern Pacific having reached Tucson, the former capital, and 
the Territory is responding mobt heartily to the new impulse it has received 
within the past two years. The Indians, under the efficient management of 
Governor Fremont, are friendly and peaceful, and heavy and continued rains 
have changed the face of nature. Its mines are richer, and its lands more fertile 
than they have been thought to be. 

(/ ) Dakota has made the most extraordinary growth of any State or Territory 
in the entire West, and this has been due to several causes, operating in different 
sections, at nearly the same time. Southeastern Dakota has been the portion 
of the Territory best known, and its fertile lands have attracted emigrants from 
Europe, as well as from the Eastern States. The Mennonites established a large 
colony here, and the Catholics are now purchasing lands for the same purpose. 
This section lying north and east of the Missouri river, and in the lower valley 
of the Dakota or James river, is very accessible, both by the Missouri and Dakota 
rivers, and by three railroad lines which penetrate this region. Northeastern 
Dakota owes its rapid growth almost entirely to two railways, and the enter- 
prise with which they have advertised their lands ; the Northern Pacific, which 
in the face of the greatest difficulties has opened a line nearly across the Terri- 
tory, above the 46th parallel, and has brought into market some of the finest 
and most productive lands in the Northwest; and the St. Paul, Minneapolis 
and Manitoba road, and its branches, which have opened to settlement the 
whole valley of the Red river of the North, which sent to market in 1878, 
5,600,000 bushels of the finest spring wheat. The Black Hills Region, in 
Southwestern Dakota, was first brought into notice by the discovery there of im- 
mense deposits of gold and silver. Much of the region around is barren, but 
the mines are exceedingly rich, and the population is rapidly increasing. 

(/) Montana has as yet no railroads, except the extension of the Utah 
Northern, but soon will have ; the Northern Pacific crossing the Territory 
about midway, and the Utah and Northern penetrating it from the south, even- 
tually to meet the Northern Pacific. The latter road has recently reached 
Helena, the capital. The Missouri river is navigable for most of its course in 
the Territory^ as is the Yellowstone, though partially obstructed by rapids. 
5 



6(5 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

But Montana has many fertile and very rich valleys, excellent pasture lands, 
and some of the best gold and silver mines in the whole Northwest. Its popu- 
lation will greatly increase in the next decade. 

(/) Utah has grown rapidly in spite of great obstacles, and mainly by emi- 
gration of two kinds : of Mormons from Europe, and of " Gentiles," /. e., Non- 
Mormons, from the Eastern States, drawn thither by its exceedingly rich mines. 
The ores of the Territory in all directions seem to yield greater quantities of 
gold and silver than almost any others which have been opened ; and wqth 
greater facilities of access they must at no distant date pour a volume of gold 
and silver into the markets of the world which will make great changes in the 
prices of other commodities. 



CHAPTER VI. 

The Nationalities and Races Represented — The Indians — Different 
Tribes, and their Characteristics — The Moquis of Arizona — Note 
concerning them — Africans and Colored Persons generally — Chinese 
and Japanese — Hispano-Americans — Europeans of different Nation- 
alities — British, British American, German, Scandinavian, French, 
Italian, Spanish, etc. — Americans born in the States. 

Including the Indians in the Indian Territory, the Pueblos in 
New Mexico and Arizona, and the Indians employed on ranches 
in California, Nevada, Oregon and Washington, and the tribal 
Indians on the plains and elsewhere, there are probably not less 
than 300,000 Indians of all races in the Great West. 

These Indians are of many tribes, and their languages, habits 
and modes of life differ materially. A comparatively small 
number evidently belong to two of the races which preceded 
the North American Indian on this continent. The Pueblos of 
New Mexico, who are also found in small numbers in Arizona, 
have their name from their practice of living in towns or villages, 
pueblo being the Mexican name for a town or village. They 
live in adobe houses, cultivate the soil, and though in secret 
idolaters, are outwardly obedient to the priests, and devout 
Catholics. They areaquiet, patient, good-tempered race, evidently 
Aztec, and having no other affinity with the American Indians 
than their color and hair. There are several villages in Arizona, 



THE RACES AND NATIONS OF THE GREAT WEST. 67 

New Mexico and Colorado, of the cliff-dwellers, or Moquis, a 
still earlier race, of which they seem to be the only survivors. 
Their dwellings are hewn in the perpendicular rocks of some 
mesa or butie, or crown its height, and are only accessible by 
ladders or rude rock stairways. Their cattle and sheep occupy 
usually only the top of the mesa, and here were constructed also 
large reservoirs for water, which they use for themselves and 
their cattle. They are engaged in manufactures as well as in 
agriculture, and their blankets, their cordage, their bread manu- 
factured in thin sheets from the blue corn which they cultivate, 
their ornaments, etc., are very curious. They are as much 
advanced in civilization as the Peruvians of South America, and 
possibly belong to the same race.'-' 

In the Indian Territory, the tribes removed thither from 
Georgia, Alabamaand Mississippi, in 1S32 and 1833, the Cherokees, 
Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws and Seminoles, have farms and 
good dwellings, and show no disposition to lead a nomadic life. 
Of the other fifteen or sixteen tribes or fractions of tribes, now 
occupying portions of the Territory, some are becoming ac- 
customed to the herdsman's life and seem contented ; others do 



* Very few of our explorers or tourists have visited these singular and interesting people in 
their rocky fastnesses. Among the few are Prof. J. .S. Newberry, now of the Columbia College 
School of Mines, and an eminent scientist, Colonel J. W. Powell, the pioneer explorer of the 
Rio Colorado, and General J. C. Fremont. They are certainly a much more intelligent and 
highly civilized people than any of the Indian tribes now existing on this continent, and in all 
probability are the remnants of a race which preceded the Aztecs, the inhabitants of Mexico 
when that country was first discovered. Their cliff dwellings exhibit remarkable architectural 
skill, and their religious ceremonies, of which Colonel Powell has given a most interesting 
account in Scribner'' s Monlhly, while very singular, indicate their origin from one of the primitive 
races of Northwestern Asia. They are generally regarded as fire-worshippers, but like the 
Parsees, their worship seems to have been symbolical, and to have regarded fire and the sun, the 
great source of fire, as only the symbols of the creating and vivifying power which pervades all 
nature. Their manufactures were rude, but the products were of great excellence. We have 
ourselves seen a blanket, which Prof. Newberry obtained from them, woven from the wool or 
curly hair of their sheep or goats, and into which when suspended by its four corners, three 
pailsful of water were emptied, and after nearly a half-hour the under surface was not moisi ir. 
the slightest degree. Their ornaments of gold, silver and copper displayed a high degree of 
artistic skill. Their bread, made from the maize of different colors, red, blue, yellow, white, etc., 
which they cultivate, pounded into meal in a mortar and made into a thin paste, when baked was 
no thicker than writing paper, each sheet being about fourteen by eighteen inches, and folded so 
that the pile of edible sheets resembled a ream of blue or colored paper. In these villages four or five 
languages are spoken, none of them bearing any known relation to those of the other Indians. 



58 OUR WESTERN' EMPIRE. 

not take kindly to even partial civilization, and are restless and 
uneasy. This is particularly true of the Comanches, the few 
Apaches who are in the Territory, and some of the later comers, 
as the Cheyennes, Arapahoes and Poncas. The nomadic Indians, 
though of many tribes and languages, yet belong for the most 
part to four or five groups. The largest, most numerous, and 
most warlike of these are the Dakotas or Sioux, and the 
Shoshones, Snake Indians or Utes. In the former group are 
included not only the Unkapapas, Tetons, Crows, etc., but the 
Winnebagoes, Assiniboins, Omahas, Poncas, loways, Otoes, 
Mandans and Minitaris. Their hunting grounds extended from 
the Canadian line through Western Minnesota, Dakota, Montana, 
Western Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas, and part of Wyoming, 
into Northern Colorado. Some tribes of this group have been 
almost constandy hostile to the whites, and have more than once 
perpetrated terrible massacres. The horrible scenes in Minne- 
sota in 1862-3 were the work of the Crows, one of the tribes 
of this group. The butchery of Custer's gallant force was also 
perpetrated by bands of this group. Sitting Bull is the chief 
of one of the Sioux tribes. They have been very often at war 
with the Utes. 

The Shoshones, or Snake Indians, very possibly outnumber 
the Sioux. They include not only the Shoshones proper, in 
Oregon and Washington Territories, but the Bannacks, Wihinasht, 
Comanches, Kizht and Netela, the Modocs, and the various 
tribes of Utes, the Pah Utes, Pi-utes, White River Utes, 
Uintahs, Uncompahgre Utes, etc. Ouray is a chief of the 
Uncompahgre Utes, and Douglas of the White River Utes. 
These tribes are found in Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Western 
Montana, California, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, and 
some of them in Northern Texas. Among the smaller groups 
are the Sahaptin or Nez Perces, under which name are included 
also the Walla Wallas, Yakimas, Pelouse and Klikitats of 
Washington and Oregon ; the Selish or Flat-heads, under which 
name are included the Pend d' Oreilles, the Cceur d'Alenes, 
Spokanes, Piskous, Nesk'wally, Chehallish, Cowlitz and Killa- 
mooks or Tillamooks of Idaho, Oregon and Washington ; the 



THE RACES AND NATIONS OF THE GREAT WEST. gg 

Yumas include the Coco-Maricopas, Cuchans, Mohaves, 
Hualapais and Yavapais, and the Dieguenos of Arizona ; the 
Pimas include the Pima Apaches, the Coyote Apaches, and 
other Apache tribes, as well as the Pimas proper of Arizona and 
New Mexico. 

The number of " colored persons of African descent " is not far 
from 700,000, there having been a considerable exodus of 
negroes from Mississippi, Tennessee and other Southern States 
east of the Mississippi into Texas, Arkansas, Kansas, and 
Nebraska since the census of 1870, and especially in 1878, 1879 
and 1880. 

The number of Chinese and Japanese now in all these States 
and Territories does not exceed 100,000 and perhaps not 75,000. 
It is more difficult to determine the number of persons of 
Hispano-American parentage, whether of the whole or half- 
blood, since, in Texas, California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada 
and perhaps also in Colorado, a considerable number were of 
such parentage, yet born in those States and Territories, before 
they came into possession of the United States. As nearly as 
we can estimate, these Hispano-Americans, whether born in our 
new States and Territories or in Mexico, must number somewhat 
more than 100,000. Of about equal number are the emigrants 
born in British America, who are mostly Canadian French, and 
in the Northwest, a considerable percentage of the trappers and 
hunters often of mixed blood, from the Northwest and Hudson's 
Bay Companies. 

The immio^rants from Great Britain and Ireland, who num- 
bered, in 1870, in this region 346,364, must now exceed a mil- 
lion, for Utah has received thence laro^e numbers of Mormon 
converts ; while Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, Dakota, Minnesota, 
and Iowa have had larcje accessions of British farmers, artisans 
and laborers, and Colorado, Arizona, Nevada, California, Mon- 
tana, Oregon, Wyoming, and the Black Hills region, have been 
largely aided in the development of their great mining interests, 
not merely by British capital, but by British labor. 

In the last decade, also, the German population of this region 
has increased from 310,645 in 1870 to nearly or quite a million 



«q; our western empire. 

in 1880, for in farm work, in mechanical and in mining pursuits, 
the German has never failed to keep pace with the toilers of 
other races. German capital, too, has been liberally invested in 
the best mines. 

In 1870, the Scandinavians in this region numbered 121,578; 
but they were only the vanguard of a more abundant immigration, 
which has made the Norse tongue familiar as English, through- 
out Minnesota, much of Iowa, Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and 
portions of Wyoming and Montana. There are certainly 400,000, 
and perhaps more, Scandinavians and children of Scandinavian 
parents in the Northwest. For the rest, there are 25,000 or 
more Mennonites and other Russian Protestants from Russia, 
10,000 or 12,000 Italians, half that number of Hungarians, over 
20,000 Bohemians (Czechs), nearly as many Austrians (Ger- 
mans), 35,000 or 40,000 French, 25,000 Swiss, 10,000 or 12,000 
Hollanders, 5,000 Belgians, about the same number of Portu- 
guese, 1,000 Spaniards, about the same number of West Indians, 
and nearly as many from the islands of the Pacific, and from 
Western South America. 

Asia and Africa and Australia contribute their several quotas, 
small ones, it is true, to make up the mixed multitude, from all 
lands, who have flocked hither within the past thirty years. 

Probably somewhat more than one-half of the whole number 
were born in the United States, and of white American parent- 
age. Except in the older States of this Western Empire, Mis- 
souri, Arkansas, Texas, Iowa, and California, and in a smaller 
degree, Minnesota, Kansas, and Oregon ; very few of these citi- 
zens who have attained adult age, are native to this region, and 
" to the manor born." Every State of the Union has contributed 
its quota, the majority in the Northern and Central States and 
Territories having come from New England and the Northern 
States, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, 
Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin ; while the emigrants to Texas, 
Arkansas, the Indian Territory, Arizona, New Mexico, Southern 
Colorado, and Utah, and Southern California, are very largely 
from the Southern and Southwestern States, though Southern 
Illinois has contributed a considerable share of the recent emi- 
(rrants to Texas. 



SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PEOPLE. 71 



CHAPTER VII. 

Characteristics and Peculiarities of the Population— Humorous Aspects 
OF THE Blending of Different Nations — The New Dialect — Specimens 
OF IT — The Propensity to Humorous Exaggeration — Incidents, Man- 
ners AND Habits of Ranch-Owners and Ranchmen — Colonies of Dif- 
ferent Nationalities and Religions — Mennonites — Stundists — Mor- 
mons — Catholic Emigration — Associations of Capitalists for Mining, 
Herding, Wool-growing, or Farming Purposes — Other Modes op 
Settlement. 

No such experiment in the blending of the different races of 
men into one homogeneous nation, has ever been attempted, on 
a scale so grand and extensive, as that now in progress in our 
Western Empire. Will it- prove a success ? Here we find the 
New Englander, intelligent and often scholarly, but almost 
always shrewd, sharp, and enterprising, cheek by jowl with the 
tall, lank, bilious-looking Southern, less enterprising, perhaps, yet 
equally sharp in his way, with a dogged energy, and often an 
irritable temper. The quick, nervous, impulsive, but capable 
New Yorker has for a partner a dreamy and apparently stolid 
German, who is, nevertheless, fully awake to business matters. 
The quiet but acquisitive Pennsylvanian is linked with a wild, 
blundering, impulsive, and jovial Irishman. Sprigs of British 
aristocracy and British snobs are found in all callings, from the 
highest to the lowest, and the mercurial Frenchman, the proud 
and haughty Spaniard, the dark-browed Italian, and the versa- 
tile Russian, are all found occupying, in apparent harmony, the 
same sod-house or dug-out. The Israelite is everywhere, and at 
all times ready to turn an honest penny. Far from dealing 
always in old clothes " shust as goot as new," he is a banker, 
a mine owner, a capitalist, or a landed proprietor. In the 
mining regions, especially, this commingling of different nation- 
alities has led almost to a new nationality, certainly to a new dia- 
lect, at first almost unintelligible to the new-comer, but very 
speedily acquired by a few weeks' residence. Every man has his 
title, generally applied with considerable shrewdness and appropri- 



-2 067? WESTERN EMPIRE. 

ateness, but, except in rare instances, retained as long as he re- 
mains in the region. Very few rank as low as "Captain" or 
" Major," though the latter has some currency; but "Colonel" or 
"Commodore" are the most usual titles, while in a few Instances, 
where neither the military nor naval appellation seems appropriate, 
a man is recognized as "Jedge" (Judge). "John Phoenix" (the 
late Lieutenant G. H. Derby) gives a laughable Illustration of this 
practice, almost thirty years ago, in California, where he relates, 
that going on board ship, for the long return voyage round the 
Horn, and being very much depressed from the fact that he had no 
friends to accompany him to the ship, and wish him ''doii voyage,'' 
as all the rest seemed to have, he at last, just as the ship was 
moving off, lifted his hat In desperation and called out to some 
make-believe friend in the crowd on shore, " Good-bye, Colonel." 
In an instant, he said, hundreds of hats were In the air, and the 
shout rang out in reply from hundreds of throats : " Good-bye, 
Colonel." But the slang expressions of this mining dialect are 
too numerous to be recorded. New-comers are "Tender-feet;" 
a dead man has " passed in his checks ; " one who has been 
killed in a brawl or street-fight " died with his boots on." A 
man who is both liberal and just, "pans out well;" one who has 
excited the displeasure of his " pards " (associates or fellow- 
workers) is "off color." If a man shows pluck or grit under 
adverse circumstances he " has eot sand." Earth or o:i"avel 
containing considerable free gold is subjected to the "panning" 
process, with good results. A vein of gold or silver, yielding 
largely at first but gradually becoming smaller as the rocky 
walls come closer together, is said to " peter out," and a man of 
large pretensions, but of gradually diminishing performance, has 
the same epithet applied to him. A ravine is a "gulch;" a pool 
of water at the bottom of a mine, a "sumph." 

Bad whiskey Is " tarantula juice ; " prospectors who are Igno 
rant of their business and disposed to grumble are "■ griiber- 
p'ubbers ;'' and when they make a precarious livelihood frofn 
what game they can kill with old squirrel rifles, they are said to 
""live on snaps'' the snaps of the rifles which did not bring down 
any game. A new-comer speaks of the large-heartedness of 



SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PEOPLE. y^ 

some of the miners he has met, and the reply is: "Yes, there's a 
good many of them big-hearted fellers in this country. You see 
them small-souled cusses /a/:es too much in'ioatioii to bring 'em 
out. They've just got to git up and git." The word " irrigate," 
which in this expression has manifest reference to the results of 
irrigation in producing immense crops on the arid lands, has also 
another signification in the West. " Stranger," said a rough- 
looking miner to a clerical-looking gentleman, in one of the Con- 
cord coaches, "do you irrigate?" producing at the same time a 
bottle. " If you mean to ask whether I drink, sir, I do not," was 
the dignified reply. " Stranger, have you any objection to our 
irrigating ?" was the next question. " No, sir," was the reply. 
After the irrigation had been completed, the miner, who after- 
ward turned out to be a large mine-owner, propounded a second 
question. " Stranger, do you fumigate ? " " If you mean to ask 
do I smoke, sir, I do not." "Well, stranger, do you object to 
our fumigating?" "No, sir; certainly not," was the prompt 
reply. It should be added to this story that at their journey's 
end, when the clergyman, a day or two later, called for his hotel 
bill, he W'as told that it had been paid by the miner, who had 
thus manifested his respect for his manly refusal to indulge in 
drinkingf or smoking. 

This mininof and herdinor dialect seems to be a conglomerate 
in which many Spanish and Mexican words are mingled with 
Indian terms, Chinese "pigeon-talk," Chinook, Eastern and 
Southern Americanisms, and perhaps mining terms and phrases 
from Great Britain and the continent. It is astonishino- that a 
dialect, so utterly void of rules or system, can be acquired so 
rapidly. In one-tenth the time required for the acquisition of 
any regular well-organized language, any one will acquire this 
outrageous dialect and become thoroughly proficient in it. 

The herdsmen and shepherds, and in many cases their em 
ployers also, are as rough as the miners in thein language and 
dress. It is not uncommon to find among these rough, unkempt 
and mud-bespattered men, graduates from our Eastern universi- 
ties and colleges, men who have enjoyed all the amenities of the 
most refined society, but who, discarding all conventionalities. 



^A OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

have chosen to Hve thus roughly and uncouthly. In some in- 
stances sons of Enghsh peers, themselves graduates from Oxford 
or Cambridge, have followed the same course. A correspondent 
of the New York Tribune relates that he found in Leadville, in 
a building, half tent and half shanty, occupied by a miner and 
his family, a Steinway grand piano, perfecdy in tune, a choice 
and well-selected library, and both in charge of a lady as refined 
and accomplished as could be met with in the best circles in our 
o-reat cides, and these luxuries of civilization had been brou<^ht 
thither when the freight by ox or mule-team from the nearest 
railroad station, then eighty or a hundred miles away, was fifty 
cents a pound. 

Amone all classes the American fondness for humorous exao^- 
geration crops out. A miner will tell a stranger, with a per- 
fectly serious face, that a mine of very small promise has "millions 
in it," and perhaps in the next breath, examining a choice speci- 
men of ore, he will throw it from him contemptuously, declaring 
that it won't yield more than i lo per cent, of pure silver. He 
will describe to another, with a face beaming with pity, " how 
discouraged the miners were, because they had to dig through 
four feet of solid silver before they could get at the gold;" or 
when the large yield of silver is spoken of, he will say: "Pshaw! 
that is of no account; there is a man down in Iowa that has in- 
vented a process for making silver for fifty dollars a ton ; so that 
is no good." This same tendency to exaggeration is sometimes 
acquired by our English cousins after a short residence here. 
"Haven't you any larger happles than those here?" inquired a 
cockney tourist of a market woman in Washington market, New 
York, pointing to a huge watermelon. " Can't you do hany better 
than that?" "Happies!" retorted the market woman, herself 
of English birth. " Hanybody would know you was Hinglish. 
Them hain't happles ; them's huckleberries ! " 

The farmers -are not as rouo-h or rude in their mode of life as 
the herdsmen, shepherds or miners ; though at first, on the fron- 
tier, the luxuries of society, whether in habitation, equipment, 
dress, or table fare, are neglected, and only the necessaries of 
life are sought. 



COLONIES AND LARGE ESTATES. ^5;. 

Yet it is the testimony of ladies of the highest character who 
have penetrated into these mining hamlets, or the sheep or cattle 
ranches, that nowhere in the wide world have they been treated 
with more courtesy, deference and respect, than among these 
apparently rough men. Miss Isabella L. Bird, an English lady 
of high social position and adventurous spirit, whose "A Lady's 
Life in the Rocky Mountains" is a most charming record of 
actual adventures in Colorado, found that even a noted outlaw 
and brigand, known as " Rocky Mountain Jim," manifested in 
his conduct toward women, the intelligence, chivalry and refine- 
ment of a gentleman. 

In almost all the States and Territories of this western region 
there are numerous colonies, where a body of settlers, bound 
together by the ties of common race or nationality, community 
of religious faith, the desire of prosecuting a common avocation 
or pursuit, or, in some instances, from mere neighborhood, or 
general -similarity of views, or from being natives of the same 
State at the East, have purchased a tract of land in common, and 
founded a colony, or settling on adjacent lands by mutual agree- 
ment, have become helpful to each other, and thus enjoyed the 
advantages of a colony without the difficulties incidental to a 
colonial organization. Many of these colonies have proved very 
successful, a few as conspicuously unsuccessful. Four or five 
adopted at first the principle of a community of lands, and per- 
haps of goods, but all or nearly all have subsequently abandoned 
it. In the regions where irrigation is required, some of the 
colonies made their canals and ditches the property of the whole 
colony, and each individual who used the water paid a water- 
rate ; others had them constructed by a company, and those who 
used the water paid toll. Of the colonies on a secular, and 
partly, perhaps, on a political basis, the most successful have 
been the colony of Greeley, in Colorado, founded by the lamented 
Meeker, and its almost as prosperous neighbors, Longmont and 
Evans. In Minnesota there have been many Scandinavian 
colonies founded, Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish, and these 
often so near each other as to make considerable tracts Scan- 
dinavian in character, and for a time yi speech. These colonies 



j^6 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

have gradually extended into Northeastern Dakota. The Norse 
element is an excellent one in our country, for the Scandinavians 
are a hardy, frugal, industrious, and thrifty people. In Iowa, 
Southern Minnesota and Southeastern Dakota, as well as in 
Nebraska, there are many German colonies, generally of an ex- 
cellent character. In Southeastern and Northeastern Dakota, 
as well as in Manitoba, and still more in Kansas, the Mennonites, 
a religious denomination already known in the Atlantic States, 
Russian by birth, but of German origin, have settled in large 
colonies, and form a valuable addition to our farming popula- 
tion."^ In Dakota, and perhaps also in Kansas, they have been 
accompanied by other religionists of somewhat similar views, 
but of Sclavonic or Russian origin. These call themselves simply 
"Christians," but are known to the Russian government as either 
Molokani or Shmdisii. These have settled on lands adjacent to 
the Mennonites. In some of these States and Territories there 
are also colonies of Bohemians (Czechs), of Moravians, and we 
believe also of Tyrolese and Swiss. In Southeastern Dakota, 
Nebraska and Kansas there are also many colonies of English 
and Scotch, mostly farmers, though some are artisans. Kansas 
has one, and perhaps more than one, French colony, where silk 
culture and the manufacture of silk has been carried on, though, 
while awaiting the growth of the mulberry, and sufficient work for 
their filature, they have turned the silk mill into a cheese factory. 
There are also French and Hun£:arian colonists encxaered in vini- 
culture in California. A considerable colony of Japanese came 
to California some years since to engage in the culture of tea, 
and perhaps some other Japanese products, but we have no recent 
intellio-ence of their success. 

In Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada and Utah there 



* Mr. H. J. Van Dyke, Jr., writing of these Mennonites in their Manitoba settlement, sa\ . 
that an innkeeper at Winnipeg stoutly insisted that they were " no good." On being asked his 
reason for such a declaration, he still persisted that they were of no account. "Are they not 
industrious?" " Ye-es." "Are they not thrifty? " " Ye-es." " Don't they pay for what they 
buy promptly ? " "Ye-es. But I'll tell you, when they come here, if any of them want to 
drink, every man pays for his own liquor. They never treat the crowd. I don't think they are 
of much account." The innkeeper's reason would seem to be decidedly creditable to tlie 
Mennonites. 



COLONIES AND LARGE ESTATES. my 

are many associations for mining purposes, composed entirely 
of English or Scotch capitalists, employing almost exclusively 
British miners, and having their principal offices in London. In 
Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and Texas, there are also British 
associations engaged in the stock business. In Utah, where 
almost three-fourths of the population are Mormons, and most 
of them believe in polygamy, while several thousands of them 
actually practice it, the Mormon immigration is almost wholly 
from Great Britain, though a small number come from the Scan- 
dinavian countries. As most of these immigrants are practical 
polygamists, our Government has recently sought to restrain 
the influx of such open violators of our laws. In New Mexico 
the greater part of the inhabitants, certainly nine-tenths, includ- 
ino- both the oricrinal inhabitants and the immigrants, are nom- 
inally or really members of the Roman Catholic Church. The 
policy of our Government is, and has always been, opposed t(' 
the entire control of a State or Territory by one sect or denom- 
ination alone, inasmuch as perfect freedom of conscience, excep'i 
where it violates the rights of others, is the cardinal principle of 
our national Constitution. Where one sect is larcrelv dominant 
in a State or Territory, the rights of the minority are almost 
invariably invaded. In Utah this predominance involves also 
the practice of polygamy, which is an added violation of our 
national laws ; and in New Mexico the school moneys derived 
from the sale of school lands have been misdirected by the Jesuits 
and other religious orders, who have the entire control of educa- 
tion there, not only to the payment of teachers of theology in 
Roman Catholic seminaries, but to the payment of the board of 
students of theology. 

So far as colonies of Roman Catholics are concerned, they are 
perfectly right and proper, and very considerable settlements 
have been organized under the auspices of bishops and arch- 
bishops, in Dakota, Nebraska, Texas and Oregon, and perhaps 
in some other States and Territories. No objection is made to 
the organization of Mormon colonies, provided they obey the 
laws ; and, as a matter of fact, the Mormons have planted large 
colonies in Idaho, and smaller ones in Colorado and Arizona, 



^3 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

In a few instances colonies of American Protestant denominations 
have settled in a single township, and have done well. There 
are Episcopal, Presbyterian, Methodist and possibly Baptist 
colonies of this sort. Generally, however, our American colonists 
prefer a diversity of religious beliefs in their settlements. 

Recently, two methods of settlement and improvement of 
lands have been adopted. They are both of doubtful expediency, 
so far as the future of the States and Territories is concerned, 
though of great present profit and success in the development 
of new regions. The first method has been largely practised in 
California, and is coming into vogue in the newer States and 
Territories. A capitalist, usually, though not always, a practical 
farmer, stock-raiser or mining operator, or sometimes an association 
of capitalists, acting by their superintendent or general manager, 
purchases a large tract of land, often many thousands of acres, 
adapted to his purpose, whether of raising grain, wine-making, 
stock or wool-growing, or mining, erects the necessary buildings, 
and procures the best and latest machinery for his purpose, and 
hires his laborers, who may be the poorer classes of foreigners, 
Mexicans, Indians, or Chinese, and works his estate exclusively, 
or almost exclusively, with such labor, his machinery or steam- 
driven agricultural implements supplying the place of very large 
numbers of laborers. If he is a farmer, and in the smooth 
prairie lands, he breaks up the soil with his gangs of steam- 
plows, or an army of plowing machines each drawn by four 
horses or mules ; sows his wheat or other grains with steam or 
four-horse drills; irrigates his lands, if irrigation is necessary, by 
water raised from an artesian well, by steam or wind-power; reaps, 
gathers and binds or more expeditiously still, clips off the heads 
of the grain and deposits them in an accompanying wagon by 
bushels, whence they are transferred by a chute to the threshing- 
machine, which threshes, winnows, separates^and sacks the grain 
with litde human intervention. When the market is at its 
highest point, he sends to it his hundred thousand or two 
hundred thousand bushels of wheat, his oats, barley, and corn in 
nearly equal amounts, and employing cheap labor, his net profits 
on a single year's crops may be reckoned by the hundred 



THE EVIL OF LARGE LANDED ESTATES. 70 

thousand dollars, diough his cultivation may be less thorough, 
and the yield per acre smaller, than on smaller and more carefully 
tilled farms. All this is very well for the capitalist, and equally 
well for the exporter of grain ; but it is not so well for the State 
or Territory, nor for its permanent and successful development. 
These large estates prevent the formation of villages and towns, 
'and the establishment of primary and grammar schools ; encourage 
absenteeism, and tend to the establishment of a privileged and 
oligarchical class; and in the not distant future, when the public 
lands and the railroad lands are all sold, will brine about a con- 
dition of things such as now exists in Great Britain, and sooner 
than there, because the cultivation is more superficial and the 
land, skinned for present crops, will soon lose its fertility. It 
is a significant fact in this connection, that on the great "Dalrymple 
farm"' in Northern Dakota, with its more than 30,000 acres in 
grain, the yield per acre is much less than that of adjacent small 
farms, and that the yield per acre diminishes with each successive 
crop, though the land is the best in the Red River valley. 

The great cattle and sheep ranches are in some respects still 
more objectionable, inasmuch as the herdsman's life has a strong 
tendency towards a condition of semi-civilization. The owner 
of these immense flocks and herds may be, indeed, like the 
Oriental patriarchs, a man of culture and refinement, a poet or 
historian, a king among men, and may surround his children 
with all the luxuries of civilization ; but his herdsmen or shep- 
herds, without opportunities of educadon, and far from civilizing 
influences, will, in the course of time, become mere boors and 
hinds. In the wasteful methods of stock-raising in these regions, 
it is estimated that it requires fifty acres of the mountain 
pasturage to feed a single steer, and where the herd amounts, as 
it not unfrequently does, to 4,000 or 5,000 head, it may require a 
whole county to furnish them with sufficient pasture. This 
isolated life inevitably leads to results, directly opposed to the 
whole genius of our institutions. . In the sale of the public lands, 
the policy of the government has been, to have the holdings 
small, and the settlers within such neighborhood to each other, 
that schools, churches, and villages, could be maintained; this 



3o OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

has been, to some extent, also the policy of the land-grant rail- 
roads, though those holding large grants have too often departed 
from it; but the pressure to sell large quantities of grazing 
lands, and in some instances farming lands also, has been so 
great, that the government officers and the railroad officials have 
too often yielded to it. In Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, 
and California, the old Spanish and Mexican land-laws have 
prevailed, under which a square league of land was about the 
smallest parcel put upon the market, and from six to thirty leagues 
not an uncommon purchase. California is already suffering from 
these immense estates. 

Another plan now prevailing to some extent, especially among 
the English middle classes, people of fixed incomes which 
terminate with their lives, is perhaps less objectionable though 
tending in the same direction. These people, younger sons of 
the nobility or gentry, retired army or navy ofiicers, clergymen 
or their families, civil servants, etc., come to the western countr;." 
and purchase one or two quarter sections or more, have them 
broken up, and perhaps a log-house or sod-house built, and let 
them, the first year for half the crop, and in the years that follow 
for $1.25 to $1.50 per acre. If their means are sufficient, they 
repeat this process, every year, till they have 2,500 or 3,000 
acres leased in this way, and this gives them a comfortable 
annual income. This is less objectionable than the purchase of 
large tracts, because these quarter sections need not be con- 
tiguous, and there will thus be an opportunity for sufficiently 
close settlement to permit the establishment of good schools and 
villages ; and these land-holders may sell their improved farms, 
at prices which will permit them to make still larger investments ; 
but there is a strong tendency, in the process, toward the for- 
mation of a landed aristocracy. 



SOILS, GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. gl 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Variety of Soils and Surface — Geography and Geognosy — Soils — Geology 
— Characteristics of the Rocky Mountains — Volcanic Remains of the 
Yellowstone Country — The Geysers — The Vicinity of Salt Lake — ■ 
Professor Geikie's Summary of the Geology of the Central Region — • 
Mineralogy. 

The variety of soils in this vast region is almost infinite, and 
in this chapter we can only glance at the principal causes which 
lead to such diversity. There are nearly 2,000 miles of coast, 
washed by the ocean and gulf on the Pacific and in Texas, upon 
all of which has been cast by the waves, sand and alluvium to a 
greater or less breadth, for thousands of years. The very heavy 
rains on the west coast and the western slope of the Coast 
range, aided during the glacial epoch by the movements of the 
huge glaciers, the largest by far which ever existed on our earth, 
disintegrated the rocks, and washed down upon the foot-hills 
their constituents, varying according to the nature of the rocks, 
and varying also in the fineness of their comminution, in propor- 
tion as they were for a longer or shorter time ground by the slow 
but irresistible motion of the glaciers. The same causes pro- 
duced similar effects, in the early periods, on both the eastern and 
western slopes of the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains. 
The great but now elevated valley between those two mountain 
chains, as well as the greater part of the plains east of the 
Rocky Mountains, were for ages the bed of immense lakes or 
inland seas, while the southern portion of California and Nevada 
connecting with the Pacific, through the Tejon pass, which was 
then another strait of Gibraltar, formed an American Mediterra- 
nean, where there is now only a desert. The upheaval of the 
bottoms of all these salt or fresh lakes, led to their drainage, by 
the Colorado and its affluents, the Rio Grande, the Arkansas, the 
Yellowstone, the Missouri and the Snake rivers. Most of these 
rivers, and pre-eminently the Colorado and its tributaries, cut 
their way through the soft and disintegrating rocks which formed 

6 



82 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



their beds, to such a depth as to make their channels deep 
canons, sometimes from 3,000 to 6,000 feet below the surface of 
the plateau, through which they had their course. The pla- 
teaux were thus robbed of all their rainfall, and in the course of 
time, became dry and largely uninhabitable, and what was once 
a populous region, with its large and strong cities, was changed 
into an arid and desert land. 

In some portions of these elevated plains thus drained of their 
moisture, the surface of the earth is covered, especially during a 
long, dry season, with alkaline salts, sulphate of soda and potassa, 
sulphate of magnesia, common salt, and occasionally biborate of 
soda, the borax of commerce. On these lands, in their natural 
condition, there grows only the despised sage-brush. In the 
rare instances where springs are found, the water is apt to be 
brackish. 

Yet these alkaline lands, when broken up by deep plowing 
and well irrigated, yield most astonishing crops, and continue 
to do so year after year, while, by cultivation, the rainfall is in- 
creased, and the barren land becomes as the orarden of Eden. 

Where irrigation is impossible, and the amount of alkali is ex- 
cessive, these lands are yet of some value for grazing, and the 
white sage-brush, once regarded as the most worthless of all 
shrubs, is found to yield a nutritious pasturage for cattle, after the 
frost has touched it. 

Farther south, on what is known as the Llano Estacado or 
" staked plain " of Northwestern Texas and New Mexico, that re- 
markable product of a dry country, the mezquite tree, is found in 
abundance, and its large and long roots (nine-tenths of its woody 
fibre being below the surface), its trunk, its leaves, its bark, and 
its gum are all valuable. Where these lands are broken up and 
plowed deeply, the roots of the mezquite aid in bringing up the 
moisture from below, and the rainfall increases from year to year. 
Eventually all these alkaline lands, or nearly all, will be brought 
under cultivation, and will prove, either with or without irrigation, 
some of the most productive and valuable lands of the West. 

The soil of "the plains," under which general term is included 
the territory lying west of the Mississippi, and especially west 



SOILS, GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. gj 

of the Missouri river, and extending to the Rocky Mountains, is, 
with some exceptions, very rich and permanently productive. 
The region lying between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers is 
not properly a plain or plateau, for there are considerable 
ranges of mountains though of no great elevation. In some 
parts of it, as in Minnesota, Iowa, and Eastern Dakota, the 
prairies or gradually rising plateaux predominate. 

But the " plains " proper include Southern Dakota, below the 
Black Hills, Nebraska, Kansas, Eastern Colorado, Wyoming 
Territory, and most of Texas. There are some " Bad Lands," 
though only a few small tracts in this region ; but the greater part of 
it is an alluvium of extraordinary depth, ranging from five to one 
hundred and fifty, and in some cases two hundred feet. For 
aees this reoion was the bed of vast fresh water lakes, and re- 
ceived from the streams rushing down from the Rocky Mountains, 
vast quantities of loess, the debris of the decomposed rocks. 
Gradually it w^as upheaved, and the bed of the lakes became 
marshes, their waters being drained off through the Missouri and 
its affluents, the Platte, the Arkansas and Red rivers, and the 
Rio Grande. The process of slow upheaval still continuing, 
these marshes, which had been continually enriched by the silt 
from the overflow of the rivers, and by the decay of vegetation 
for thousands of years, became dry land, and land of unexam- 
pled fertility. The fires kindled in their grass and forests by 
roaming Indian tribes, prevented the growth of forest trees, 
over larofe tracts of this reg-ion, and so diminished the rainfall ; 
while the countless herds of buffalo in their headlong tramps 
southward, beat the soil down into a solid and impenetrable 
crust, which permitted the rainfall to run off without soaking the 
earth. Without breaking up this solid crust, successful cultiva- 
tion was impossible. With it, the crops were so bountiful as to 
astonish the most sanguine. 

Texas, having a more varied surface, has also a greater variety 
of soils than any other of the States or Territories, with the pos- 
sible exception of California. The coast soil is a sandy, grayish 
loam, well adapted to cotton and rice, and, where darker and 
richer, the best sugar land in the United States. The river 



g^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

bottom lands are black, rich and sticky at times, and form the 
best cotton land in the State. Sometimes small tracts lack either 
the phosphates, or sulphates, or both ; and crops will not grow 
on them. These are known as "poison soils." A dark, gray 
soil, in the timber lands, is found excellent for all kinds of fruits ; 
this is sometimes called the mulatto soil. The deep red soils, 
containing some oxides of iron, are also well adapted to fruit, and 
to grains generally. The chocolate soils of Western Texas are, 
perhaps, the finest in the State, producing cotton, corn and semi- 
tropical fruits. The sandy and dryer soils of the north, even on 
the lands adjacent to the Staked Plains, yield, with deep plowing, 
very large crops of wheat. Wheat is also a good crop on the 
red soil. 

There are, of course, barren soils in these States and Terri- 
tories, though many of those which are so regarded need only 
irrigation and deep plowing to make them abundantly productive. 

The details of the creoloofical structure of this vast reo-ion, if 
they were attainable, would fill many volumes, for we have every 
form of cosmic and geologic action represented here which has 
taken place in any part of our globe — among which we may name 
the tertiary and alluvial and diluvial deposits which have been 
made on its 2.000 miles and more of coast line during their alter- 
nate elevations and depressions; the upheaval of the lofty moun- 
tain ridges from the broad and level plains ; the effects of former 
extensive volcanic action, and its remaining, though compara- 
tively enfeebled, activity at various points. Then, too, there are 
the great phenomena of glacial action, on a scale much vaster 
than that of any existing glaciers ; the huge horse-shoe-shaped 
moraines, in some cases filling up valleys, in others producing 
large lakes; the erosions produced from the ice streams of these 
glaciers, and from the mountain floods, and the broken barriers 
of some great lakes ; the depressions produced by earthquake 
convulsions, and the exposure of horizontal strata of great thick- 
ness of the Cretaceous and Carboniferous formations, \Vhere the 
sharp plough of the glacier had cut its way, or the force of the 
mountain torrents, of great volume, had worn their deep canons 
throup-h them. 



GECLCGY AND MJNERALCGY. gc 

The grand outlines of Its geologic structure which we have 
thus formulated show conclusively that, if the science of geology 
had had its birth in this great empire of the West instead of the 
comparatively limited formations of Western Europe, we should 
have had a system, which would have required fewer additions 
and accommodations, to fit it to represent the geological structure 
of all the continents, and many of the questions, which even 
now vex the souls of scientists, would have received their final 
solution. 

Considerable portions of this vast region have never been 
explored geologically, except by a very superficial reconnoissance 
at distant points ; among these are Texas and most of California, 
Washington Territory and much of Utah, Nevada, Arizona and 
New Mexico. The first three seem to have ofeolo^ical features 
peculiar to themselves, to which we may allude more fully when 
speaking of them individually. The geological structure of the 
more central States and Territories, and the effects of glacial 
action upon them, are very admirably summarized in a recent 
lecture of Professor Archibald Geikie, the eminent Scottish 
geologist, who visited them in 1S79, portions of which we quote: 

"He had," he said, "three objects in the expedition — (i) To 
study the effects of atmospheric agencies and of erosion gen- 
erally upon the surface of the land; and there was no region 
where those lessons could be learned with more powerful im- 
pressiveness than in those great plateaux and table-lands. (2) 
To study the relation which the structure of the rocks under- 
neath bore to the form of the surface. In this country and in 
Europe generally one was continually brought face to face with 
evidence of dislocations, profusion of igneous rocks, faults and 
so on, which greatly complicated the geological structure, and 
made it sometimes by no means easy to tell how far the pres- 
ent irregularities of the surface were due to unequal waste 
of surface, and how far to the direct effects of underground 
causes. -The western reg^ions of America which retained to this 
day for thousands of square miles the horizontality which they 
had originally, presented wonderful facilities for the discussion 
of this subject. (3) To watch with his own eyes some of the 



gg OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

last phases of volcanic action. He had been familiar with these 
as displayed in Italy and in the Lipari Isles ; but he was anxious 
to see some of those marvellous evidences of the gradual wearing 
and decay of a vast volcanic area which were so well seen in the 
famous region of the Yellowstone." 

The Professor went on to give a brief account of his journey, 
mentioning that in crossing the prairies toward the Rocky 
Mountains he noted, in the few sections that occurred, soft, gray 
clays and marls, evidendy cretaceous, and sometimes tertiary 
rocks. Getting down at some of the stations, and looking at 
the ant-hills and burrows of the prairie-dog, he found that the 
surface of the prairie was veneered with a thin coating of pink- 
ish, fine-grained sand, somedmes approaching to gravel, its 
color being due to the presence of a great many small pieces of 
fresh felspar. It was clear that this mineral, as well as the quartz 
and fragments of topaz which he saw, did not belong to the 
strata in which they lay. In going west the grains of sand began 
to get coarser, and assume the form of distinct pebbles, till, 
when he reached the mountains, these became huge blocks and 
boulders, evidendy derived from the hills in their neighborhood. 
After submitdng that the phrase " Rocky Mountains " was a very 
unfortunate one, as applied to the great number of independent 
ridges comparable to waves, that covered this part of America, 
the Professor said that he halted for a litde while on the flanks 
of the first great mountain ranges — those that formed the 
colossal bulwarks of Colorado. As seen from the prairies, they 
form a very picturesque line of peaks. They had been pushed 
as a great wedge through the rocks forming the prairies, and 
had carried those rocks up with them. Crystalline masses 
formed the central core and crest of the range, and this feature 
was combined with some very interesting facts connected with 
the surface erosion of the district. He found then where all the 
pink felspar and gravel had come from ; it had been borne down 
from this region, where great masses of pink granite, gray gneiss 
and other crystalline rocks formed the core of the mountains. 
He found that the mountains themselves had been covered with 
glaciers, which had gone out into the plains and shed their huge 



GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 37 

horseshoe-shaped moraines, where now everything was parched 
and barren. Having crossed the watershed of the Rocky 
Mountains, he struck westward into the Uintah, one of the few 
ranges in that region that had an east and west direction. The 
central portion of this range consisted, not of crystalhne rocks 
wedged through the older rocks, but of carboniferous rocks that 
had been upraised as a great flat dome, and had been above 
water for a very long time. This carboniferous centre was par- 
ticularly interesting from the fact of its presenting the strata 
perfectly horizontal. They could be seen, terrace after terrace, 
for miles, and it could be noted whether or not they had been 
cut through, by faults, to what extent they had been twisted, and 
to what extent eroded by atmospheric influences. Getting on 
the tops of these great mountains, he could see that the strata 
were almost entirely horizontal for miles, and that the valleys 
had been trenched out of them, not by means of faults at all, but 
actually by erosion of the surface. He found also that the 
numerous lakes were true remains of erosion, that they had not 
been formed by any subterranean movements, but actually 
gouged out by the ice that once covered those mountains. 
Striking into one of the valleys, he found beautiful horseshoe 
moraines. These had gone across the valley and formed a suc- 
cession of lakes ; while the beavers had made a great many more 
lakes in places not reached by the moraines. In most of those 
valleys there were hundreds of acres of bog-land, entirely due to 
the damming of the waters by the beavers. The plains in the 
neighborhood of the Uintah Mountains, were called "Bad Lands," 
because they were crumbling down under the action of the 
weather, and nothing would grow upon them. A skeleton found 
in a hill of that district was brought to Professor Marsh, and 
turned out to be the bones of an extinct and undescrlbed reptile. 
From the Uintah Mountains Professor Geikie found his way 
north into the Yellowstone country, and examined the fading 
traces of volcanic action. The volcanoes seemed in that region 
to have confined themselves very much to the valleys. The 
heights on either hand consisted of crystalline rocks ; the bottom 
of the valley had been literally deluged with sheets of lava. 



$S ^^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

These were examined with considerable care. In the course of 
the examination, huge mounds of gravel and stones were met 
with, which, at the first glance, were evidendy moraines. The 
first was marked by a huge block of rock, an erradc of coarse 
granite different from the rocks round about. Such blocks he 
found to increase in number as he went up the valley; and on 
entering the second cailon, or gorge, he found the sides exqui- 
sitely glaciated. It was clear, therefore, that not only was this 
second canon old ; it was older than the glacial period ; it sup- 
plied a channel for the glacier that ground its way out from those 
mountains. Endeavoring to estimate the minimum thickness of 
the ice, he traced striae up to i,ooo feet, and they evidently went 
higher than that. But in going farther up the valley, he found 
that the erratic blocks of granite and gneiss dropped by the 
glacier as it melted went far above the i,ooo-feet limit; he got 
them on the shoulder of one of the great hills overlooking the 
valley i,6oo or 1,700 feet above the bottom of the valley; the 
ice, therefore, must have been 1,600 or 1,700 feet thick. It thus 
appeared that not only did those mountains possess glaciers, but 
some of these were of such thickness as to deserve the name of 
ice-sheets, coverino- the whole surroundinor region. As to the 
volcanic phenomena of the district, he saw evidence of a long 
series of eruptions, one after another, separated by prolonged 
intervals, during which the river was at work cutting out the 
older lavas, the newer lavas filling up the hollows eroded by the 
river. In the grand canon of the Yellowstone, he saw the most 
marvellous piece of mineral color anywhere to be seen in the 
world. It was cut out of tufts of lavas, showing sulphur yellow, 
green, vermilion, crimson, and orange tints, so marvellous that 
it was impossible to transfer them to paper. 

Leaving the Yellowstone Valley, he struck southwestward 
into the famous geyser regions, where a number of geysers had 
been made known of late years more wonderful than those of 
Iceland. He tried hard here to get a pool to wash in, but could 
find nothing below 212°, and the only chance of getting a bath 
was to get into some hole where the water had had time to cool 
after flowinfr out of the hot crater. The whole ofround was 



GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. . gg 

honeycombed with holes, every one of which was filled with 
gurgling, boiling water. Some went off with wonderful regu- 
larity, others were more capricious ; and the chief geyser, which 
threw up an enormous body of water and steam, was \Q.ry un- 
certain in its movements. In one part of the district he came 
upon a marvellous mud spring, the centre of it boiling like a 
great porridge-pot full of white and very pasty porridge. Steam 
rose through this, and, after forming great bubbles, burst, the 
mud thrown out forming a sort of rim round the crater. After 
describing a meeting with Indians on their way to a great coun- 
cil, the Professor said his road after that lay across what he 
supposed was one of the most wonderful lava fields in the world 
— hundreds and thousands of square miles of country — a sort 
of rough plain — having been absolutely deluged with lava. ^ How 
this lava was poured out he at jDresent could hardly tell; it 
seemed to have risen through long fissures, and spread out so 
as to fill a vast area. Plere and there alone the margin of it 
were distinct volcanic mounds, apparently formed during later 
stages of its volcanic history. 

Coming at length to the Salt Lake territory, one of the first 
geological features that struck him was the evidence of the 
former vast expansion of the Salt Lake. He found traces of a 
terrace well marked along the sides of the mountains, about 
i,0(X) feet above the present level, and so succeeded in discover- 
ing what was the relation between the extended lake, which must 
have been a great many times larger than the present one, and 
1,000 feet deeper, and the glaciers which at one time covered the 
Wahsatch and the Yellowstone Mountains, Strlkingr Into some 
of the caiions descending from the Wahsatch into the Salt Lake 
basin, he found evidence of wonderful orlaciatlon. The rocks 
were smoothed and polished and striated by the glaciers that 
had come down from the heights, and these glaciers had carried 
with them great quantlues of moraine matter. Huge mounds of 
rubbish blocked up the valleys here and there, and these mounds 
came down to the level of the highest terrace. That was to say, 
that, when the Salt Lake extended far beyond Its present area, 
and was over 1,000 feet deeper than now, the glaciers from the 



go ^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Wahsatch Mountains came down to its edge and shed their 
bergs over its waters. On his return journey the Professor re- 
sumed the examination of the prairies. Coming out of the 
Colorado Mountains, he noted, in connection with the gravel 
formerly observed, great quantities of a peculiar gray clay. 
This clay was inter-stratified with the gravel, and here and there 
contained a small lacustrine, or terrestrial shell. It was, there- 
fore, a fresh-water deposit, a deposit swept by the waters coming 
down from the mountains over the prairie ; and marked an inter- 
val in the period during which the gravel and sand were being 
thrown down. He traced the gravel mounds over an extensive 
tract, and he found the gravel had been deposited irregularly, 
just as would have been the case from the action of water 
escaping from the melting ends of the ice. A great current 
would traverse the plain in one direction ; then the ice mass 
would send water in another, so that the whole prairie must 
have been flooded with water derived from the mehing ends of 
the vast sheets of ice. It was those excessive floods that 
brought down the gravel and sand; and during that time there 
were intervals when nothing but the finest mud was coming 
down, just as was seen in the valleys of the Rhine and Danube. 
It seems to be demonstrated by the discoveries of the past 
few years that no equal pordon of the earth's surface contains 
so large an amount of available mineral wealth as this Western 
Empire. In only three of the twenty States and Territories 
which are comprised within it, viz., Louisiana, Kansas, and 
Nebraska, has there been wanting gold or silver ores, and it is 
as yet uncertain whether two of these may not yield silver in 
paying quantities. All the others contain both metals, usually 
in large quantities, and some of them have, in addition, large 
mines of quicksilver, and smaller but profitable ones of platinum. 
The so-called baser but really more useful metals, copper, zinc, 
lead, and iron, are found in every known form and in the great- 
est profusion. Lead is the most usual basis or matrix of the 
silver mines, either in the form of galena, or of carbonate, and 
sometimes of carburet, etc. ; but copper and zi7ic are not un- 
frequently found in combination with both gold and silver. 



MINERAL OGY. n I 

Both copper and zinc are also found, uncombined with either 
gold or silver, and of such purity as to be profitably mined in 
many localities. 

Iron ores are found abundantly in every State and Territory, 
and every known ore is found in some districts, and frequently 
several different ores, as the magnetic, the haematite, or the 
specular ores, in close proximity to each other, and all in the 
immediate vicinity of coal beds. The railroad iron and steel of 
the future will be made from native ores in close neighborhood 
to the tracks where it is needed. But it is not alone for railroad 
iron or steel rails, that these vast iron deposits can be utilized. 
The iron of Utah, of California, of Montana, of Colorado, Texas, 
Missouri and Arizona is not surpassed by any in the world; and 
when the time shall come, if it ever does, when the long' conflict 
between heavy guns and armored ships shall be decided, our 
furnaces in this Western Empire will furnish the iron and our 
foundries the iron and steel plates or the guns which are to 
shatter them, of a quality which has never been equalled. For 
all building purposes, and for suspension bridges, for hardware, 
cutlery, tubing, gas, water, and sewer pipes ; for stoves, ranges, 
furnaces, and heaters, and every other use, to which the best 
qualities of iron and steel are capable of being applied, the iron 
ores of the Great West will be found sufficient to supply the 
needs of a world. 

Nickel, now coming so rapidly into use for so many purposes, 
is an incidental product of many of the iron mines, and can be 
largely produced. As yet we are importing all or nearly all the 
tin we use, but the tin deposits in California, and in several of 
the other States and Territories, when once developed by capi- 
tal and skill, may prove as profitable as those of Cornwall or the 
Straits of Banca. 

Of the rarer metals, which possess but a limited economical 
value, most are found as abundantly in the Great West as any- 
where. Osmium and iridium, two of the hardest of known 
metals, used in the gold-pen manufacture, as well as in other 
cases where hard and infusible points are required, are found 
only on the Pacific coast; many of the exceedingly rare metals 



Q2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

known only to cnemists, are obtained from earths or mineral 
waters found here, while arsenic, antimony, bismuth, cerium, 
etc., etc., are found in connection with the ores of other metals. 

The elementary bases of the mineral earths and salts are more 
easily separated here than elsewhere ; and the mineral springs 
and volcanic geysers and fountains of the Yellowstone, of many 
places in California and Nevada, of Colorado, Arizona and 
Texas, yield not only all the salts of soda, potassa and lime, but 
their elementary bases also. Borax (biborate of soda) Is found 
as a crust over shallow lakes In California and Nevada ; car- 
bonate of soda, very pure In the so-called alkaline lands ; nitrates 
of soda and potassa, in commercial quantities, at various points ; 
sulphate of lime (the commercial plaster of Paris) comes to 
light not only In Its ordinary condition of gypsum, of great value 
as a fertilizer, but in Its rarer and more beautiful forms of sele- 
nlte, alabaster, etc. Salt Is found In every shape, from the rock- 
salt, hewn out In great cubical blocks, to the brine springs of 
varying density, and the salt basins around the Great Salt Lake 
and along the shores and bays of the Pacific. The manufacture 
of salt on a large scale is one of the most profitable enterprises 
which could be undertaken. The market Is unlimited, and the 
prices would be remunerative. Most of the mineral salts and 
acids might be manufactured also on the large scale at many 
points. 

Asphaltum and petroleum are found In large quantities In 
California, Utah, Wyoming and in the volcanic region around the 
headwaters of the Yellowstone ; and both are likely to be exten- 
sively utilized in the near future. Coal occurs abundantly and 
of all qualities at numerous points In this region. Lignite (the 
coal formation of the tertiary) Is mined in Kansas, Colorado, 
Wyoming, and perhaps farther west. It is of very good quality, 
and is used on the railroad locomotives. In manufactories and 
dwellings to some extent. There Is also a bituminous coal of 

o 

very good quality, but not a coking coal. In Kansas, Wyoming 
(where the coal-beds are very extensive). In Colorado, and in Utah 
and New Mexico. The coal-beds In Utah, New Mexico and 
Arizona are extensive, and of extraordinary thickness. The 



MINERALOGY. g^ 

coal is of excellent quality, and some of it anthracite and semi- 
anthracite. There are extensive coal-beds also on the Pacific 
coast, and those of Washington Territory, and the islands off the 
coast, are anthracite of the very best quality. Coal is also found, 
and of good quality, in Texas and Arkansas, but the reliance for 
fuel there is yet mostly on wood. Marls and peats are found in 
many of the States and Territories, and, like the gypsum, may 
yet come into demand for replacing some of the elements of 
vegetation, which have been drawn from the rich soil by the too 
frequent sowing of the same crop. At present, however, the 
soil seems absolutely inexhaustible, and with a proper rotation of 
crops and constant deep ploughing it probably is so. 

There are found in the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada, 
the Cascade Mountains, the Coast Range, and the numerous 
cross ranges and lateral spurs — such as the Uintah, the Wah- 
satch, the Bitter Root, Wind river, Sweet Water or Laramie 
ranges, and at the entrance or exit of the canons of the Col- 
orado, building-stones of the greatest variety, granite, sienite, 
marbles of all hues and qualities, limestones, slates and sand- 
stones of every shade. Many of the marbles are very beautiful 
and exquisitely veined ; others of the purest and most brilliant 
white, suitable for statuary and ornamental purposes. 

In the Yellowstone Lake region, in the vicinity of the Great 
Salt Lake, and in the sides of the canons of the Yellowstone, 
Snake, Columbia, Colorado, and other large rivers, the stratified 
clays exhibit sueh an infinity of shades of tb'^ most brilliant 
colors as to baffle the skill of the most accompHshed artist, and 
throw him into the depths of despair at his inability to reproduce 
them. 

What are known as the " Bad Lands " in Dakota, Nebraska, 
Wyoming, and Montana abound in fossils, and recent explora- 
tions show that there are deposited here in the successive strata, 
eroded by water and ice, the material from which can be traced 
the history of families of animals in their various stages of ad-- 
vance or degradation, to a greater extent than in any other 
explored region of the earth's surface. Vastly greater discov- 
eries undoubtedly remain to be made, and it is perhaps safe to 



Q^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

predict, that these wild and utterly desolate lands will yet yield, 
to the scientific explorer, a complete history of the mammals and 
reptiles which lived on the earth in the carboniferous and cre- 
taceous periods. 

In that class of minerals known as precious stones there is 
hardly anything lacking except the diamond, and it is certainly 
within the bounds of possibility that even that may yet be found. 
What are known as California diamonds, though possessing 
many characteristics of the true gem, are probably only very 
fine specimens of crystals of quartz or silica. But the other 
valuable gems, as emeralds, probably also ruble > and topazes, 
precious beryls, chrysolite, amethyst, gold-stones, tourmalines, 
jades, the beautiful copper ore known as malachite, agates and 
carnelians of great beauty, jet, etc., etc., are sufficiently plentiful, 
in one part of the country or another. 

Porcelain clays, ochres, barytes, and other minerals and earths 
of economic use are found in most of the States and Terri- 
tories. Mineral springs, and waters of every variety and every 
degree of temperature, from boiling to freezing, are found 
everywhere in the mountains, and not a few in the plains. Col- 
orado, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, California, Arizona, Texas 
and Arkansas abound in these healing waters. In Colorado 
there are hundreds of them already claiming patronage, each 
with some peculiar merit. In the Yellowstone Park and its 
vicinity most of the springs are too hot for bathing ; but when 
partially cooled, possess remarkable hygienic virtues. 



CHAPTER IX. 



Climates — Variety of Climate — Causes — Rainfall — Comparison of differ- 
ent Sections — Causes of deficient Rainfall — Winds — Character and 
Effect of different Winds — The Hot Winds from Mexico. 

In a region extending 1,700 miles from north to south, and 
1,800 from east to west, there would be a considerable range of 
climatic conditions, even if the whole tract were nearly a dead 



VARIATIONS OF CLIMATE. Oj 

level ; but when two-thirds or three fourths of It is traversed by 
mountain chains, many of whose summits have an elevation of 
13,000 to 14,000 feet, and the average height of Its plateaux and 
valleys ranges from 4,000 to 8.500 feet; when on the more 
northern summits, snow lies throughout the year; and when the 
temperature of at least the western half is modified by the 
breezes and moisture from the Pacific, by the influences of the 
Pacific gulf stream, and by the climatic law that the Western 
coast of a continent has always a milder and higher temperature 
than the East coast; when, also, the temperature of the South- 
west Is elevated by the hot and dry winds which come from 
tropical Mexico ; and the cyclones formed in the Caribbean sea 
and the Mexican eulf contribute their share to the disturbance 
of atmospheric conditions, there would seem to be causes enough 
to account for the extraordinary diversities of cHmate which 
prevail In this Western Empire. 

The climate on the northwestern coast in Washingrton Ter- 
ritory ana Oregon Is temperate, and the range comparatively 
small. The mercury seldom rises above 90° P., in many seasons 
not reaching that figure, and rarely falls below 10° or 12°. In 
some seasons the lowest point reached is 18° or 20°. The 
average annual range is from 70° to 80°. The range on the 
California coast, at Los Angeles, San Diego, etc., is still smaller, 
in some years not exceeding 55° or 60°. In San Francisco the 
range is not over 50° or 53° — between 39° and 90° or 92°. These 
equable climates are very favorable to the health of invalids, es- 
pecially to such as are suffering from pulmonary diseases. East 
of the Coast range, and in a still greater degree, east of the Cas- 
cades or Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains, we find 
greater extremes of cold, and in some instances of heat also. 
The plains of Eastern Washington and Oregon have extreme 
heat in summer, rising sometimes to or above 100° F., and cold 
equally extreme in winter, falling to — 30° or even lower in winter* 
making the annual range not less than 130° F. But probably 
Pembina, in Dakota, just on the British line, 49° north latitude, 
is the coldest inhabited place in all this Western Empire, and as 
the summer heat is intense, though for a brief period only, its 



q5 our western empire. 

annual range Is the greatest. The spirit thermometer often 
marks — 50° in the winter, and in the winter of 1879-80 It is re- 
ported to have fallen to — 60°. As It attains 94° in the summer, 
this gives a range of 154°. The remainder of Dakota and Min- 
nesota is not subject to such extreme changes, though the valley 
of the Red river of the North seems to be the gateway through 
which the biting cold from the Arctic regions finds its way south- 
ward. The Interior valleys of California are much hotter in sum- 
mer than the coast, and the winter temperature is somewhat 
lower. Their range is from 76° to '^^° . In portions of New 
Mexico the climate is more equable, the mercury rarely rising in 
Santa Fe above 90°, though for one or two days In December it 
may drop to zero. But the hottest portions of this whole region 
are unquestionably Southern Arizona and Southern Texas. 
At Yuma, Maricopa Wells, Tucson, Phoenix, Wickenberg and other 
towns of Southern Arizona, and at Rio Grande City, Laredo, 
Corsicana and other towns of Southern Texas (Galveston ex- 
cepted, In consequence of Its island climate), the summer heat 
during June, July, August and September reaches 117°, and oc- 
casionally even more, and rises above 100° usually for three- 
fourths of the days of those months. Some years ago a company 
of soldiers were stationed at a fort in one of the Interior valleys 
of California, The weather was fearfully hot, the mercury at 
over 110° In the shade, and the men were grumbling as only 
soldiers can grumble at the heat. After a time one old soldier, 
bronzed by the tropical heats, said : " Boys, stop grumbling ; this 
weather is not to be compared with what we had at Fort Yuma." 
"Were you ever at Fort Yuma?" asked the soldiers. "Yes, I 
was there three years," said the veteran. " Well, how hot was 
It there ? How hloh did the thermometer get ? " "I don't know 
anything about your thermometers," answered the soldier ; " but I 
can tell you this: when I had been there about two years, two 
of our fellows died, and they were pretty hard fellows, too. 
Well, the second night after they died they came back after their 
blankets, and they hadn't wanted them once In all the while they 
had been in Yuma." 

In the region known as the plains, which embraces the greater 



VARIATIONS OF CLIMATE. 07 

part of Minnesota, Iowa, Western Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, 
Southeastern Dakota, Eastern Wyoming and Eastern Colorado, 
part of Arkansas and the Indian Territory, and Northern Texas, 
the climate is generally warm In summer, though the heat is not 
intense. The spring opens earlier as we proceed southward, 
and the autumn Is later. There are strong winds and some- 
times cyclones, but, except in Minnesota and Iowa, the snow does 
not cover the ground for any long period, and cattle and sheep 
require little or no shelter or winter feeding. Prudent herdsmen 
and sheep-masters make provision for fifty or sixty days shelter 
of their herds or flocks, and for feeding them during that time ; but 
in at least two seasons out of three, the food and shelter are 
not needed, or for a few days only. This does not apply to the 
two States named above, where the winter generally lasts for at 
least four or five months. There is, moreover, a very consider- 
able difference in the climate of these plains, resulting from their 
increasing elevation as we proceed westward. Though they are 
called plains and prairies, they are really plateaux, rising grad- 
ually from the Mississippi or Missouri river to the eastern slope 
of the Rocky Mountains. Their elevation on the eastern border of 
the plateau Is from 600 to 800 feet above the sea. At the western 
boundary of Kansas and Nebraska it is over 5,000 feet above 
the sea, and at the foothills of the Rocky Mountains in Eastern 
Colorado between 6,000 and 7,000 feet. Indeed, so gradual is 
the ascent, and so nearly of the same height with the passes in 
the Rocky Mountains (that over which the Union Pacific crosses 
being only about 8,700 feet above the sea) that passengers on 
that road often inquire, when they will begin to ascend the Rocky 
Mountains, after they have crossed this pass, or, as the western 
people say, " the divide." On these more elevated lands the sun 
may be hot at mid-day in summer, but the nights, and evening, 
and morning, are always cool and refreshing. The annual range 
of the thermometer is only from fifty-five to sixty degrees, and 
cattle, and sheep, except, perhaps, once in eight or ten years, can 
browse throughout the entire winter without shelter. The ab- 
sence of trees Iq the western portion of this plateau also modi- 
fies this climate to some extent, making the summer's heat more 
7 



gg OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

intense, and the cold, wintry winds more searching, and far- 
reaching in their effect. The changes now going on, all along 
this region, as the result of breaking up the hard beaten soil, and 
planting trees in great numbers, will not be without their effect 
in modifying the temperature ; and by the interposition of 
masses of timber, breaking the fury of the winds. 

There can be no doubt that, apart from such diseases as may 
be induced or aggravated by a rarefied atmosphere, this elevated 
reo^ion is more healthful than any other on our continent. There 
are enough who die from natural or unnatural causes, but the 
dry, pure, invigorating atmosphere of the Rocky Mountain pla- 
teaux is eminendy conducive to health, especially to those who 
are suffering from pulmonary diseases. Still to reap the full 
benefit of this climate, the health-seeker must stay there. A 
return to the East after one, or two, or even four years almost 
inevitably brings back the disease, and causes it to prove fatal. 

We have elsewhere discussed the rainfall of most portions of 
this vast Western Empire. It is even more varied in quantity, 
in different districts, than is the climate in temperature. The 
Northwest coast, in Washington, Oregon, and the extreme north- 
ern portion of California, have, at some points, a more copious 
rainfall than any other portion of the United States, though nearly 
approached by some points on the Atlantic coast. In two or 
three places in the States and Territory named, the annual pre- 
cipitation ranges from 123 to 135 inches, and once or twice has 
exceeded even the latter ficrure: ten or eleven feet of rainfall. 
At San Diego on the same coast, but nearly 1,000 miles farther 
south, the rainfall in 1876-77 was but 3.80 inches; and at Fort 
Yuma, near the mouth of the Colorado, in 1877-78, but 2.00 inches. 
These are the extremes. On the Gulf coast in Texas, the pre- 
cipitation is large, ranging from fifty-four to sixty-seven inches. In 
the interior the amount varies with the longitude. From the Mis- 
sissippi river to about the 97th degree of west longitude it ranges 
from forty-five inches to twenty-eight inches, diminishing as we 
proceed westward. From this meridian to about 117, it ranges 
from twenty-five inches to twelve inches, or perhaps 1 1.5 in some 
seasons. Farther west it rises to thirty-three inches, and 



COMFARA'in-E KAIXI-'ALL. Og 

between the Cascades and the Rocky Mountahis attains at some 
points to forty-two inches. Of course there are variations from 
north to south as well as from east to west ; variations produced 
also by the presence or absence of extensive forests, by the com- 
pactness of the soil, owing to its having been for hundreds of 
years trodden under the hoofs of millions of bisons, or its porous- 
ness from thorough cultivation. The electrical condition of the 
atmosphere has also much to do with the amount of precipitation. 
In general it may be said that fully two-thirds of the arable lands 
of the Great West have a sufficient amount of precipitation to 
raise any desired crops, with deep plowing, and the other third, 
while requiring moderate and in some cases very thorough irri- 
gation to produce the largest crops, are so situated as to be able at 
moderate expense to obtain all the water needed for this purpose, 
and under its influence yield such abundant crops as to pay, in 
one or at the utmost two years, the cost of the ditches. Indeed 
the proprietors of the irrigated lands look down with a half-con- 
temptuous pity upon the poor farmers who are dependent upon 
the rainfall alone for their crops. " Poor fellows," they say, 
" when they sow their grain or plant their crops, they can never 
tell what will befall them: they may have too much rain, and 
their crops will be drowned out, or rot in the earth, or they may 
not have enough, and their fields will be burned by the fiery 
breath of the sun ; they can never tell whether they can raise a 
crop or not. With us, now, the whole matter can be determined 
with mathematical exactness. W^e know just how much water is 
needed to bring the land to its highest productiveness, and we 
give it just that much and no more. If we have rains we irrigate 
less; if the season is dry, we turn on more water, and we have 
a good crop every year." As the vacillating judge said : " There 
is a good deal to be said on both sides of this question." 

We have already alluded to the high winds which prevail over 
some portions of this vast region ; but the investigations of the 
Signal Service officers have in a great degree systematized our 
knowledge on this subject. On the Pacific coast, and as far east- 
ward as the summit of the Sierra Nevada or Cascade Mountains, 
and possibly for a part of the distance, where they obtain access 



100 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



through transverse valleys to the w^estern slope of the Rocky 
Mountains, the west winds from the Pacific Ocean, laden with 
moisture, sweep across the mountains and valleys, depositing 
much of their water as snow upon the mountains. These are 
cool but not cold winds. From Hudson's Bay and the ice-clad 
waters of the north comes down, especially in winter, a cold, 
piercing wind, through the broad valley of the Red river of the 
North, producing intense cold and often snows on the plains, and 
spending much of its fury on the Mississippi valley and States 
farther east. This is perhaps the source of the Texas Northers, 
though the severity of the cold has been much diminished before 
it reaches the Gulf coast. East winds are not prevalent in any 
part of this region, and when they do occur have no special 
character or significance. A south wind from the Gulf of 
Mexico is much more frequent, and is generally a moist and 
grateful wind ; sometimes in the summer it may bring with it 
electrical phenomena, and be the herald of destructive cyclones. 
The southwest wind which sweeps across Arizona, Western 
Texas, New Mexico, and Southern Utah, and Nevada, affecting 
also at times Western Colorado and Wyoming, is from Mexico, 
and haslbeen heated in its passage across the semi-tropical lands 
of Mexico and Central America till it blows a hot blast over 
these lands which intensifies the summer's heat, though it may 
make the autumn and winter milder. As the country becomes 
settled and cultivated, this hot wind will lose something of its 
intensity, and become rather an agreeable adjuvant in mitigating 
the cold of the wintry months. 



MINING PROCESSES FOR GOLD. AND SILVER. jqj 



CHAPTER X. 

The various Processes of Mining — Placer Mining — Gold Discovery in 
California — The Pan — The Rocker — The Ditch and the "Tom" — 
The Sluice — Hydraulic Mining — Hydraulic Mining not .-esthetic — 
Lode or Quartz Mining — True Fissure Veins — The "Country" Rock 
— Chimneys, Chimes, or Bonanzas — Pockets — Contact Lodes — Gold 
combined with Sulphurets — Stoping — Depth of Mines — The Reduction 
OF Pyritous Ores — Gold with Oxide of Iron — Cost of Reduction of Gold 
— Discoveries of Silver Ores — Silver widely diffused — Modes of 
Reduction — The best Mining Regions — Placer Mining: the best 
Locations — Difficulties of Placer Mining — Difficulties of Lode or 
Vein Mining — The best Mines bought up by Capitalists — The best 
Locations for Experts. 

We confine our attention for the present to mining for gold 
and silver, including, however, the ores of lead and copper 
and perhaps iron, with which they are found combined or com- 
mingled. Gold mining is of two kinds, and each kind has its 
several processes. These two kinds are PiW^r mining, and Lode 
mining. Silver is always found only in lodes, but these are of 
various forms or combinations. Placers are deposits of gold 
nearly In a pure state, which at some time, remote or recent, have 
been washed out of the veins or lodes into which they were 
injected by some convulsion of nature, by the long continued 
action of running water, and deposited with gravel or clay on 
the bed rock of the stream which bore them down its current. 
The beds of most of the streams (lowing from the mountains, 
especially if they have cut deep channels in the rocks in any 
portion of their course, were found to contain these placers, of 
greater or less value ; but the placers which are found in the 
beds of ancient streams, which by upheaval or change of course 
have ceased to flow, and are perhaps now many hundred feet 
below the surface, are usually more productive than those of 
more recent origin. The placer gold is free gold ; that is, it is 
uncombined with any other mineral, and may exist as a powder, 
as scales, or as little pellets or nuggets of considerable size. In 
California, as everywhere else, it was the first gold discovered, 
and therCy by accident. 



I02 <^^''^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The story of this discovery has been often related ; but the 
statement made by the late Hon. J. Ross Browne in 1867, when 
he was United States Mining Commissioner, is believed to be the 
only one which gives the facts as they were. Mr. Browne says: 

"It was on the 19th day of January, 1848, ten days before the 
treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo was signed, and three months 
before the ratified copies were exchanged, that James W. Marshall, 
while engaged in digging a race for a saw-mill at Coloma, about 
thirty-five miles eastward from Sutter's Fort, found some pieces 
of yellow metal, which he and the half-dozen men working 
with him at the mill supposed to be gold. He felt confident that 
he had made a discovery of great importance, but he knew 
nothing of either chemistry or gold mining, so he could not 
prove the nature of the metal or tell how to obtain it in paying 
quantities. Every morning he w^ent down to the race to look 
for the bits of the metal; but the other men at the mill thouo^ht 
Marshall was very wild in his ideas, and they continued their 
labors in building the mill, and in sowing wheat, and planting 
vegetables. The swift current of the mill-race washed away a 
considerable body of earthy matter, leaving the coarse particles 
of gold behind, so Marshall's collection of specimens continued 
to accumulate, and his associates becran to think there mio^ht be 
something in his Q-old mine after all. About the middle of 
February, a Mr. Bennett, one of the party employed at the mill, 
went to San Francisco for the purpose of learning whether this 
metal was precious, and there he was introduced to Isaac 
Humphrey, who had washed for gold in Georgia. The 
experienced miner saw at a glance that he had the true stuff 
before him, and after a few inquiries he was satisfied that the 
diggings must be rich. He made immediate preparation to go 
to the mill, and tried to persuade some of his friends to go with 
him, but they thought it would be only a waste of time and 
money, so he went with Bennett for his sole companion. 

" He arrived at Coloma on the 7th of March, and found the 
work at the mill Sfoinor on as if no eold existed in the neisfhbor- 
hood. The next day he took a pan and spade and washed some 
of the dirt from the bottom of the mill-race in places where 



COLD DISCOVERY IN CALIFORNIA. lO^ 

Marshall had found his specimens, and In a few hours Humphrey 
declared that these mines were far richer than any in Georgia. 

" He now made a rocker, and went to work washinof grold 
Industriously, and every day yielded him an ounce or two of 
metal. The men at the mill made rockers for themselves, and 
all were soon busy in search of the yellow metal. 

" Everything else was abandoned ; the rumor of the discovery 
spread slowly. In the middle of March, Pearson B. Reading, 
the owner of a large ranch at the head of the Sacramento valley, 
happened to visit Sutter's Fort, and hearing of the mining at 
Coloma, he went thither to see it. He said that If similarity of 
formation could be taken as proof, there must be gold mines 
near his ranch, so after observing the method of washing, he 
posted off, and in a few weeks he was at work on the bars of 
Clear creek, nearly two hundred miles northwestward from 
Coloma. A few days after Reading had left, John BIdwell, 
since representative of the northern district of the State in the 
lower house of Congress, came to Coloma, and the result of his 
visit was that In less than a month he had a party of Indians 
from his ranch washing gold on the bars of Feather river, seventy- 
five miles northwestward from Coloma. Thus the mines were 
opened at far distant points." 

On the 29th of May, 1848, the only paper published in San 
Francisco said: "The whole country, from San Francisco to 
Los Angeles, and from the sea-shore to the base of the Sierra 
Nevada, resounds with the sordid cry of gold ! gold! gold! 
while the field is left half planted, the house half built, and every- 
thing neglected but the manufacture of picks and shovels, and 
the means of transportation to the spot where one man obtained 
^128 worth of the real stuff in one day's washing; and the 
average for all concerned Is ;^20 per diem." 

" The towns and farms were deserted, or left to the care of 
women and children, while rancheros, wood-choppers, mechanics, 
vaqueros, and soldiers and sailors, who had deserted or obtained 
leave of absence, devoted all their energies to washing the 
auriferous gravel of the Sacramento basin. Never satisfied, 
however much they might be making, they were continually 



jQ. OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

looking for new placers which might yield them twice or thrice 
as much as they had made before. Thus the area of their labors 
gradually extended, and at the end of 1848 miners were at work 
in every large stream on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, 
from the Feather to the Tuolumne river, a distance of 1 50 miles, 
and also at Reading's diggings, in the northwestern corner of 
the Sacramento valley." 

For the first two years the miners who made these discoveries 
depended for their profits mainly on the pan and the rocker. 
The placer miner's pan was made of sheet-iron or tinned iron, 
with a flat bottom about a foot in diameter, and sides six inches 
high, inclining outwards at an angle of forty or fifty degrees. 
The gold was found, as it usually is, in a tough clay which 
enveloped gravel and large pebbles as well as sand. This clay 
must be thoroughly dissolved or reduced to the condition of 
fluid mud ; and so the miner filled his pan with it, went to the 
bank of the river or stream, squatted down there, put his pan 
under water, and shook it horizontally, so as to get the mass 
thoroughly soaked ; then picked out the larger stones with one 
hand and mashed up the largest and toughest lumps of clay, and 
again shook his pan under water, and when all the dirt seemed 
to be dissolved so that the gold could be carried to the bottom 
by its weight, he tilted up the pan a litde to let the thin mud and 
hght sand run out, repeating this process till all was washed out 
except the metal which remained at the bottom. 

After a time this process was found too slow, and the rocker 
took its place. This was constructed somewhat like a child's 
cradle, but the upper end was considerably higher than the 
lower, and contained a large riddle or colander of sheet-iron 
punched with holes on the bottom ; underneath the floor of the 
rocker was provided with cleats or riffles, extending nearly^ 
across, to catch the gold. The miner filled his riddle with pay- 
dirt and rocked the rocker with one hand while he poured water 
upon the dirt and riddle with the other. The water and the 
motion dissolved the clay and carried it down to the floor of the 
rocker, where the cleats caught the gold, while the mud and 
water ran off. The riddle could be taken off to throw out the 
larger stones. 



V 




A SECriON OF A MINE — HYDRAULIC MINING. 



THE ROCKER, THE TOM AND THE SLUICE. 105 

Soon the rocker was abandoned because it could not work 
fast enough, and ditches were dug and flumes constructed to 
bring the water from a sufficient height to do the washing-out 
of the clay and gravel without so much manual labor and with 
more abundant production ; some of these flumes were very 
large and many miles in extent, and erected at an immense cost. 
With the ditches came in first the "Tom," which had previously 
been used in Georgia: a trough twelve feet long, eight inches 
deep, fifteen inches wide at the head and thirty at the foot ; a 
riddle of sheet-iron, punched with holes half an inch in diameter, 
formed the bottom of the "Tom" at the lower end, so placed 
that all the water and the mud should fall throuo-h the holes of 
the riddle, and none pass over the sides or end. The water fell 
into a flat box with cleats on the bottom, giving passage at alter- 
nate ends to the mud and water, while the gold was caught on 
the cleats or riflles. A stream of water ran constantly through 
the "Tom," into the head of which the pay-dirt was thrown by 
several men, while one threw out the stones too large to pass 
the riddle and threw back to the head the lumps of clay which 
had reached the foot without beino- dissolved. 

The "Tom" was succeeded by "the Sluice," a board-trough 
from a hundred to five thousand feet lonof, havinof a descent of 
one foot in twenty, and with riffles at the lower end to catch the 
gold. Twenty men or more could throw in the pay-dirt at the 
upper end, and the water in its long and rapid course would tear 
the lumps to pieces, and before reaching the end deposit the gold 
on the riffles, from which it is taken four or five times a day. 
Where the gold was in fine powder or scales, quicksilver was 
placed on the riffles to form an instantaneous amalgam, and thus 
very much of the gold was saved. This sluice was unquestion- 
ably the most efficient and successful of all the contrivances in 
aid of placer-mining ; but there was now a new difficulty, or a 
series of them, to be overcome. The placers in the river and 
creek-beds and near the surface of gravel-beds, were beginning 
to give out ; in many places, too, these placer-deposits had been 
traced up to the lodes or veins in the rocks which had been 
worn down by the water of the stream, and which had thus fur- 



jq5 067? WESTERN EMPIRE. 

nlshed the placer-deposits. It was discovered, also, that there 
were, In many places, extensive deposits of gold-bearing gravel, 
hills of considerable height and length, which had, untold ages 
before, been the beds of rivers, but had been upheaved, and 
were now rich placers, if they could be broken down and the 
pay-dirt run through the sluices. To do this by hand labor was 
too costly and wearisome. Even now. In the best sluices con- 
nected with good ditches, the labor of twenty-five or thirty men 
In a fair placer-deposit, was not sufficient to supply the sluice 
with pay-dirt, and much of the costly water ran to waste. 

The remedy for these difficulties was found in "hydraulic mln- 
ino-." The sluice was enlarged, and its upper portion expanded 
so as to take in a width of perhaps a hundred feet of the adjacent 
hill, which had previously been found to contain gold ; water was 
supplied to it from a ditch usually with a considerable head, and 
standing at a convenient distance, say 200 feet or more, from 
the face of the hill, a strong miner directed upon it a stream of 
water from a hose-pipe or nozzle having a diameter of three to 
six Inches, and a head of two or three hundred feet. The effect 
of this continuous stream of water coming with such force must 
be seen to be appreciated ; wherever it struck It tore away 
earth, gravel and boulders ; if the pipe was directed on a point 
some distance below the surface of the hill, the crust above it 
^oon fell, and one, two or three hundred cubic yards of earth 
were washed into the sluice in a single day. Bars were placed 
across the sluice to arrest and turn off the larger stones and 
boulders, and four or five men could accomplish more and gain 
larger returns than four or five hundred by the old processes. 

This process of washing down the hills has been continued, and 
is still in progress in many portions of the gold-bearing regions 
of the Great West. Sometimes the clay which binds together 
the gold-bearing gravel and sand is too tough and compact to 
be broken down even by the force of the hydraulic stream ; then 
the miner tunnels the hill at its base and introduces an immense 
charge of gunpowder, giant-powder, gun-cotton, dynamite or 
nitro-glycerine, which, when exploded, breaks up the tough clay 
and renders the hitherto difficult task of the hydraulic pipe easy 



HYDRAULIC MINING. jq^ 

and swift. By this process of hydraulic mining the gold produc- 
tion has been largely maintained at nearly its old standard, and 
millions of dollars worth of gold bullion have been put upon the 
market. The ordinary placer mining is nearly at an end, except 
at some of the newer points. It is still conducted, to some ex- 
tent, in Arizona, New Mexico, in portions of Wyoming, and in 
the Black Hills ; but hydraulic mining is now practised wherever 
the ancient deposits of gold in gravel can be found, and water 
with a sufficient head can be obtained. 

Hydraulic, or even sluice mining is not an aesthetic pursuit; 
the regions where it is practised may be, before the miner's ad- 
vent, like the garden of the Lord for beauty ; but after his work 
is completed, they bear no resemblance to anything, except the 
chaos which greeted the eye of the seer at the dawn of the 
Mosaic record of the rehabilitation of the earth for the use of 
man, — "without form and void " — ^'Tohu e bohu'' — "the line of 
confusion and the stones of emptiness." It is impossible to con- 
ceive of anything more desolate, more utterly forbidding, than a 
region which has been subjected to this hydraulic mining treat- 
ment; boulders of all sizes are scattered over the surface, and 
around them coarse gravel, incapable of sustaining vegetation ; 
the streams are filled up with a fine. clay, and very possibly over- 
flow their banks, producing dreary marshes, and the whole vista 
is one of extreme desolation and ruin. 

We have already spoken of the tracing up of the gold deposits 
of the placers to the lodes or veins from which they had been 
washed out ; let us now turn to these veins or lodes, and ascer- 
tain what were the processes by which the precious metal was 
extracted from them, or, in other words, how lode, or, as it is 
often called, quartz mining is conducted. 

And, first, of the vein or lode. Where this contains gold (and 
it is of gold mining we are now speaking), it is almost always 
a vein of quartz, and usually of the milky opaque kind, scarcely 
showing any signs of crystallization. It is often found in slate, 
sometimes in porphyritic rock. The quartz is sometimes very 
hard, sometimes soft and crumbling; it may show the gold, if that 
is in particles of considerable size, but where it is in fine grains, 



ro8 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



it frequently does not show It at all. The gold is very irreg' 
ularly distributed in the quartz, some portions being largely 
charged with it, while again, for long distances, the quartz vein 
is entirely barren of gold. Sometimes the vein contains rounded 
pebbles, or, as Eastern men would say , cobble-stones, of large 
size, of very hard quartz, containing no gold, but bridging or 
plugging the vein. These are generally surrounded by soft, 
sometimes crumbling, quartz, which usually contains some gold. 
They are called by the miners "boulder veins." Sometimes the 
course of the vein is blocked by a mass of porphyry or hard 
slate, which completely stops the miner's progress until it is cut 
through, and it may extend for several feet or yards. This is 
called by the miners a "horse." 

A true fissure vein Is one which is formed by the filling up of 
a crack or fissure in the harder rocks (occasioned by earthquake, 
upheaval, or in some other way) with conglomerate, quartz and 
other matters, into which gold, either free or In combination with 
other metals or minerals, has been injected at Intervals, in a fluid 
state. The width of the vein Is the width of the crack or fissure; 
Its length, the length to which the fissure extends within a mod- 
erate distance of the surface ; its depth may be limited by the 
depth of the stratum In which it occurs, but more generally ex- 
tends far lower than any mining excavations can reach. The 
fissures and the veins are found at all conceivable angles or dips. 
Rarely they are found nearly horizontal, but this though at first 
a seeming advantage. Is hardly a real one. Inasmuch as from 
the nearly level character of the land adjacent there will be great 
difficulty eventually In freeing the lower levels of the mine from 
the water which accumulates. Often the dip of the fissure and 
the strata adjacent is at an angle of twenty, thirty, forty, or fifty 
degrees with the surface; sometimes It is even perpendicular; 
and where the anofle Is considerable and the vein or lode is first 
discovered on a hillside or near its summit, a tunnel run at a 
much lower level, so as to strike the vein, affords the best means 
of dralninor It. 

o 

Not only does the fissure dip at very various angles, but it 
may penetrate the harder rocks at any angle varying from the 



TRUE FISSURE VEINS OR I ODES. 



109 

perpendicular, so that the entire vein may enter the rocks in a 
slanting direction, and the walls of slate or porphyry which en- 
close the vein, and are called in miners' parlance " country rock," 
may slope at an angle of forty-five degrees, or be even nearly 
horizontal in position, while they have at the same time the 
downward trend of the rocky stratum to which they belong. 

The true fissure vein may have, and the best veins often do 
have, chimneys, chutes, bonanzas, or branch fissures, generally 
connecting with the main vein or lode on its upper side, at an 
angfe of from thirty to forty-five degrees, which may be richer 
in gold than the main vein. These chutes or chimneys often 
extend downward into the true or main vein, and are thought to 
determine in part its value. The mining geologists think that 
they were deposited much as soot is in a chimney, the gold being 
in a fluid or easeous condition at the time. 

Gold as well as silver is sometimes found in considerable 
quantities in pockets, or small cavities in the rocks, and these, 
which are sometimes of moderate extent, m.ay yield a fortune to 
one or two men ; but these pockets are seldom connected with 
a true fissure vein, and when once exhausted, are not of any 
value, even as indications of the presence of fissure veins or 
lodes in the vicinity. 

It was supposed previous to 1877, ^^^^ ^^ experience of cen- 
turies in mining for gold and silver had developed all the modes 
in which the precious metals or their ores, were deposited in the 
earth, to be brought out for the use of man. The placer mines, 
and the veins or lodes, the true fissure veins, as they were called, 
were reckoned the only methods by which, in the processes of 
nature, large quantities of these metals or ores were deposited. 
There might be, indeed, pockets and chimneys of nearly pure 
metal, which, when the miner stumbled upon them, would add 
greatly to his profits so long as they lasted ; but these were only 
incidents or accidents, not to be taken into account in scientific 
mining. It was reserved for the opening of mines of silver and 
gold at Leadville, and subsequently at other points in the San 
Juan and Gunnison districts, and probably also in Utah, to bring 
to light two discoveries which are of the greatest importance to 



I JO OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

miners and holders of mining property. The first and most 
obvious one was that silver, and to some extent also gold, in 
combination with lead, existed in large quantities and very rich 
ores, in other forms than the argentiferous galena or sulphuret, 
and that sulphur was not a necessary accompaniment of silver 
and gold ores, whether in combination with lead, zinc, copper, or 
iron. The carbonates of lead, etc., have proved the most produc- 
tive of combinations. The second discovery was still more 
important, and is only just beginning to be understood : it is, 
that the deposits of ore need not be in fissure veinSy or lodes, in 
placers, in pockets, or in chimneys ; but that there is another 
form, perhaps as productive, and certainly more easily worked 
— that of " contact lodes,^' by which are meant deposits of silver 
ore, spread with a considerable thickness over the surface of a 
stratum of rock, and following it in all its sinuosities and its dip 
over a great extent. Unlike the fissure veins, these are not of 
great depth, though sometimes they occur in two or three layers 
with the strata of sandstone or limestone between. These con- 
tact lodes generally occur in cavernous limestone or sandstone. 

As vv^e have already intimated, gold is found in the lodes, 
either free — i. e., pure or nearly so, or combined with sulphurets 
of iron, copper, lead or zinc, in the form of pyrites. Its treat- 
ment after it comes from the mine differs somewhat in the two 
cases. The amount of gold in the quartz is often very small — 
smaller one hundred feet below the surface than near the surface; 
but, except in the barren portions of the vein, not diminishing or 
increasing very greatly in the lowest levels which have been 
reached (and some of these exceed 3,000 feet, or three-fifths of a 
mile). Quartz or ore which will assay twenty- three or four dol- 
lars per ton, and which yields after being put through the stamp 
batteries and the amalgamating process eighteen dollars per ton, 
is regarded as very good. Not over one-fourth of the gold mines 
exceed this, and very many fall below it, and are yet worked at 
a moderate profit. 

The mining and reducing processes are these : A lode or vein 
having been traced out which bears evidence of being a true fis- 
sure vein, and the claim (1,500 feet in length, and 300 in width, 



MINING AND REDUCING PROCESSES. HI 

being the general extent of a single claim) being duly entered, the 
mine-owner begins operations by sinking a shaft in the line of 
the vein to ascertain its quality, and, when the shaft is down fifty 
or a hundred feet, running an adit or level along the course of 
the vein to ascertain its quality at that depth ; sometimes a winze 
is cut, — two adits at different levels cutting across the vein or 
veins at levels fifty feet apart, and connected with each other at 
their further extremity by a shaft which does not rise to the sur- 
face. Sometimes, if the shaft is on the top or side of a hill, a 
tunnel is run to it from the base of the hill for the purposes of 
drainage, ventilation and the more easy transportation of the ore. 
If on the examination of the quartz, or ore taken from the vein 
at this depth, the promise of success is good, additional capital 
is enlisted, and the shaft is constructed to a greater depth, levels 
or adits run at different levels and of considerable length, rails 
put down on the levels, steam-hoisting machinery set up at 
the mouth of the shaft, pumping machinery put in to relieve 
the mine of the accumulation of water (which is often very hot — 
as high as 154° F. in some of the Nevada mines), and stoping, 
either overhand or underhand, commenced, especially if the vein 
or veins dip at an angle of 40° or 50°. Stoping is the break- 
ing out with a pickaxe the quartz of the vein, and letting it fall 
on the level ready to be hoisted by the machinery. If the miner 
stands at his work and brings down the quartz from the vein at 
the level of his breast or above, it is called "overhand stoping;" 
if he picks it from about his feet or below and stoops, sits or 
crouches at his work, and the masses thus broken out fall to 
the level below, it is " underhand stoping." 

This mining, if profitable, may be extended to as great a depth 
as may be desired, the only checks upon it being, the great ex- 
pense of the pumping apparatus at considerable depths, and the 
difficulty of freeing the mine from water ; the more than torrid 
temperature in the deep mines, and the time and expense of 
hoisting the ores from such great depths. By a tunnel like the 
Sutro tunnel, the water can be carried off at moderate expense, 
the heat greatly mitigated by free ventilation, and the ores 
hoisted and brouorht to the surface at a much lower cost; but 
such tunnels are exceedingly expensive. 



112 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The ore broken out and hoisted to the surface is now ready 
for reduction. If the masses are of large size they are at first 
put through the rock-breaker, which reduces them to the size of 
a goose-egg ; they are next conducted to the stamp-batteries or 
stamp-mill, where they are fed into the stamping-machine, a 
cylindrical machine, whose walls are of hardened chilled iron, its 
floor or mortar of the hardest steel, and a solid mass of chilled 
iron faced with hard steel, of cylindrical form, descends with a 
twisting motion upon the quartz, grinding and crushing it to 
powder — the inner surface of the cylinder is coated generally 
with quicksilver, and the powdered quartz mingled with water In 
the stamping-machine, flows out upon amalgamated copper 
plates, which have a sufficient extent to catch the larger part of 
the gold particles. The stamping-machine is cleaned out at 
frequent intervals, and the plates have their coating of amalgam 
removed, the superfluous quicksilver is squeezed out through 
buckskin, and the remainder expelled by heat, the sublimed 
quicksilver being recovered for future use. The gold remains a 
spongy mass, but is melted and cast in the form of an ingot. 

This is the improved process of to-day, the result of twenty- 
five years of experiment and invention. By this process about 
seventy-five per cent, of the gold is saved, whereas with the 
ruder processes of the arastra and the earlier stamp-mills, only 
from sixteen to forty per cent, of the gold was secured; and the 
working over of the tailings of the arastras and of the long 
Toms, and early sluices, by Chinese miners, yielded them a very 
profitable harvest of gold. A new process has recendy been 
devised, which, bringing galvanic action to bear upon the masses 
of ore of the size of a goose-egg, reduces them to a state of dis- 
integration, rendering the stamp-mills unnecessary and causing 
the lumps to crumble upon mere pressure, sets the entire gold in 
the ore free instantly, and thus dispensing with much cosdy ma- 
chinery, at the same time greatly increases the gold production. 
If, as was largely the case in Colorado and to some extent in 
some of the other States and Territories, the gold was combined 
with the sulphurets, and came from the mine as pyrites, it was, 
either before or after being put into the rock-breaker, roasted to 



MINING AND REDUCING PROCESSES. Hj 

expel the sulphur, which prevented amalgamation. This is now 
done at some mills in the open air, at others in furnaces. When 
roasted it is reduced to powder under water in the stamp-mills, 
amalgamated in the mortars, passed over the amalgamated cop- 
per plates, and beyond these made to flow over rough, thick, 
hairy, woollen blankets, which catch a considerable quantity of 
the gold which is saved by repeated washings ; the stream of 
water, still thick with the powdered quartz, falls into tanks called 
huddling tanks, where it settles, and from the lower portion of 
the huddled tailings, a dollar or two more of gold is extracted. 
By a process invented by T. A. Edison, the electrician, these 
huddled tailings are made to yield up a large and profitable 
residue of the sfold hitherto wasted. 

In the Black Hills, Dakota, the gold is largely combined or 
encrusted with oxide of iron, and requires a somewhat different 
treatment, to free It from the iron, which prevents the gold from 
amalgamating, and requires the patient labor of the Chinese to 
extract that which remains in the tailings. This oxide of iron, in 
the placer deposits, coats over the gold and gravel and forms a 
dense and firm cement, sometimes of great extent, which cannot 
be washed out in the sluice-boxes, but requires to be put through 
the stamp batteries like the quartz from the lodes. The gold 
mines of the Black Hills are so situated, far up on the hills, that 
the ore can be carried directly into the stamp-mills by chutes, 
and hence, though the gold ores are of low grade, averaging not 
more than ^lo or ^12 per ton, the cost of reduction is so small, 
ranging from ^1.80 to ^4.50 per ton, that the profit on these 
uniform low sfrade ores is better than is obtained on ores of 
higher grade, which cost more for reduction. 

Where the ores contain gold and silver in combination with 
copper, lead, or zinc, and sulphur, a more active, expensive and 
protracted treatment is necessary ; but this belongs rather to sil- 
ver than fTold-mlnlnQr. Where the raw amalo^amatlon and wet 
crushing process described above Is all that is necessary, gold 
can be reduced from the quartz for from ^3 to ^5 per ton, and 
thus, unless the transportation is too expensive. It is possible to 
reduce low grade ores, those containing from ^15 to ^20 of gold 



114 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

to the ton, and ma^e a fair profit on the business. The plant or 
first cost of a stamp-mill of five, ten, or even twenty stamps is 
not now so Q-reat, as to deter the owners of a o-ood mine from 
setting it up ; or if it is the property of parties who are not 
miners but who understand their business, two or three mines 
of moderate size can keep it constantly employed. By this pro- 
cess, while from seventy to seventy-five per cent, of the gold is 
saved, much, generally all, of the silver is lost, and the whole of 
the copper, lead and zinc. 

Silver was first discovered, in any considerable quantity, in these 
States and Territories, in Nevada in 1S57 by the Grosh brothers ; 
but owinof to its beincr larofely combined with eold, and the 
death of the discoverers soon after, the discovery was not 
prosecuted at first very vigorously. In June, 1S59, the first 
great discovery of silver was made on apart of what is now known 
as the Comstock lode, the grounds of the Ophir Mining Company. 
Peter O'Reilly and Patrick McLaughlin were the discoverers, 
but as the land was claimed by Kirby and others, they employed 
Henry Comstock to purchase the land. Comstock negotiated 
at the same time one or two other claims, and finally purchased 
the whole tract, to which he gave his name, but appreciated its 
value so litde, that he sold it for a few thousand dollars, and 
reo^arded himself as havinij made an excellent bargain. From that 

o c:> o 

Comstock lode or vein, more than three hundred millions of 
dollars have been taken since that time — a period of twenty 
years. 

Silver is found in all, or nearly all, the different systems of 
rocks forming the crust of the earth, from Azoic to Tertiary. Like 
the gold and gold ores, it is found only in veins, though these are 
sometimes of great width, the Comstock lode varying from 
twenty to one hundred and fifty feet.* The depth of these veins, 
like those of the gold, has never been ascertained, but it is known 
in some cases to exceed 2,650 feet. The ores contain the silver 
in various conditions and combinations. In Nevada, it is com- 

* Since the partial failure of these veins, and the discovery of contact lodes at Leadville, the 
idea is gaining ground that a part of the deposits of the Comstock, and especially those veins 
a hundred and fifty feet wide, may be contact lodes. 



SILVER MINING AND REDUCTION. II5 

billed with a certain proportion of gold, and is found as a 
sulphuret of silver and lead (argentiferous galena), a sulphuret 
of silver and copper (copper pyrites), of zinc, and combined 
with sulphurets of iron, antimony, tellurium and other base 
metals ; as native or virgin silver ; as chloride of silver or horn 
silver; as a richly argentiferous carbonate of lead, copper, zinc 
or iron, and in yet other combinations, which can only be reduced 
by long and tedious labor and at great expense. 

A large proportion of the silver from the mines on the Com- 
stock lode can be reduced by the dry stamping and amalgamating 
process. These are those in which the percentage of lead is 
small and that of gold large. In these cases the lead is lost, but 
the reduction costs only from four to five dollars a ton. Ores 
containing more lead, or copper, zinc, etc., are variously treated 
by roasting, smeking, treating with copper, iron, or " lead riches," 
mixing with salt to change the sulphurets into chlorides, 
chlorodizing, leaching, meking in a reverbatory furnace, etc. 
The ores of Colorado are partly sulphurets and partly carbonates, 
and in some of them there is a large amount of native silver. 
The Utah ores are very largely chlorides or chlorides and 
sulphurets, with some " horn " or native silver ; some of the 
California ores of more recent discovery are carbonates. Those 
of Montana are mosdy sulphurets, but mingled with such a 
variety of base metals and in such a condition that the reduction 
is effected with great difficulty. Indeed until the recent 
establishment of the Alta Montana mill and works at Wickes, 
most of the ores from the Montana mines have been only con- 
centrated, and sent out of the Territory for reduction. The 
Alta mill concentrates, and employs seven or eight different 
processes of reducUon, all of them expensive and requiring 
cosdy and complicated machinery. Ores are reduced by these 
processes at a cost of from $15.75 to $50, so that low grade ores 
do not pay for mining, if they contain much of the base metals. 

It is not necessary to occupy our pages with minute description 
of these various processes, or the machinery constructed for 
them. They can only be worked by experts, and the great 
competition for business in the numerous reduction establish- 
ments secures the miner against exorbitant prices. 



Il5 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

It is difficult to say which are absolutely the best mining regions. 
There are advantages and disadvantages about them all, to the 
practical miner or the resident mine-owner. In those mines 
which have been established from fifteen to twenty-five years, like 
many of those in California and Nevada, the shares are high 
priced, if the mines continue to be valuable ; the depth of the 
mines is so great, and the danger of the accumulation of water 
so constant, that the expenses are enormous, and large as the 
dividends are, the assessments made on the shares for improve- 
ments nearly equal, and in some cases exceed all the declared 
profits. There are, indeed, all the appliances of civilization, and 
the miner or mine-owner is not subjected to the hardships and 
privations, from which those suffer who attempt to open mines 
in a new country. Placer mining is best adapted to the young 
and enterprising miner who has little or no capital. He needs 
at the outset only his tin or iron pan, his pick and shovel and 
perhaps a little quicksilver, and his haversack of provisions — 
ves, besides these he needs sufficient knovvledofe of mining to 
know where he will be likely to find a place with a moderately 
rapid stream of water at hand, and when found, to determine 
whether it will pay for working, or whether its best pay streaks 
have already been worked over. Even if his gains are but 
moderate at first, they will increase under favoring circumstances, 
till he can substitute the "Tom" for his pan, and the sluice for 
the "Tom," and employing help can increase his income rapidly. 
But placer mining is, in its nature, very uncertain. The miner 
may come upon barren spots where there is no pay-dirt, and his 
little hoard is fast becoming exhausted ; or, which is worse, he 
may come to the end of the placer, or, as in the Black Hills, may 
find it a hard lava-like mass, agglutinated and firmly cemented 
together by the oxide of iron, which he cannot wash away nor 
pulverize, and hence, like the tramp, he is obliged to move on. 
Meantime his life is of the hardest and roughest, his dwelling is 
either a dug-out in the side of a hill, or a sod-hut, reared and 
roofed by his own unskilful hands; his food is hard, coarse, and 
badly cooked, for he cooks it himself, as best he can ; he is much 
of the time in wet clothing, in his work of washing the gold • 



THE MINER'S CHANCES OF SUCCESS. Uy 

without society, without books, without a Sabbath or any reli- 
gious privileges. After a longer or shorter time, the placer gives 
out, and he must find another. What he has saved of his gains 
he has, but there is no right, no claim, to be disposed of; he can 
only pull up stakes, and begin again. For placer mining the 
Black Hills, Western Colorado, Montana, and perhaps some por- 
tions of Wyoming, and Idaho, Oregon, and Washington Terri- 
tory, offer the best locations. 

For lode or vein mining more capital is needed for success ; 
and a practical knowledge of mining is almost indispensable. It 
makes little difference whether the miner seeks a gold or silver 
lode; he must be sure of these four things: that he is not on 
land already claimed by anybody ; that any apparent vein he 
may discover is a true fissure-vein, and not a placer-deposit, nor 
a mere pocket; that the dip of the vein is such as to permit 
its successful working; and that the ores are of a sufficiently 
high grade to pay the costs of reduction and leave a small mar- 
gin of profit. Here again the privations in the mode of living 
come in, and unless the miner has considerable capital, he is lia- 
ble to see his money and his hard toil both go for little or noth- 
ing, and the great rewards for which he hoped, pass into the 
pockets of some one who has more money but less brains than 
himself; when he has reached the end of his means, and is 
obliged to sell at any price which the avarice of the buyer will 
prompt him to give. 

If he can hold out and hold on, and enlist sufficient capital to 
assist in the full development of his mine, there Is a fortune 
before him, but in all the mining re<jions there are not two dozen 
well-developed mines, of which the original discoverers are still 
proprietors. Most of these mines have from ^150,000 to 
^5,000,000 or more invested, and even these gigantic capitals do 
not always yield a profit. In California, Nevada, Utah, and 
even in the newer mines of Colorado, Montana, and the Black 
Hills, capitalists stand ready to gobble up any promising mines, 
paying always the lowest prices at which they can be bought, 
but developing them as speedily as possible, by a lavish expen- 
diture for machinery and appliances, and by sinking lower levels 



Il8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

in the mines. In Nevada the bonanza kings own all the best 
mines, and work them together or separately. In Colorado a 
group of millionnaires, or rather, as "Josh Billings" would put it, 
ten-millionnaires, have obtained control of all the richest mines 
around Leadville ; in the Black Hills one gigantic California firm 
own all the valuable mines on the great Belt near Deadwood, 
and stand ready to purchase any other promising mine. In 
Utah and Montana Eastern capitalists control the largest mines. 

For the skilful mining engineer, or the intelligent practical 
miner, if he prefers gold mining, the Black Hills, Colorado, New 
Mexico and Arizona offer the best fields, and perhaps Oregon 
and Washington Territory furnish some good opportunities for 
industrious and skilful men. For silver mining, Colorado, possi- 
bly Nevada, Arizona, Utah, Montana, New Mexico, and perhaps 
Idaho. Texas may yet develop some good mines of gold and 
silver, but there is thus far nothing specially attractive there. 
California is not opening many new mines, and the old ones 
have little need of new-comers. 

To capitalists desirous of investing in mining enterprises, we 
have no advice to offer. They have generally their own ideas 
about such investments: if these ideas are correct, they will be 
successful ; if not, so much the worse for them. 



CHAPTER XI. 



Other Metals and Mineral Products — Quicksilver — Copper — Lead and 
Zinc — Iron — Platinum — Tin — Nickel — Iridium and Osmium — Tellurium 
— Antimony — Arsenic — Manganese — Sulphur — Borax — Soda — Salt — 
Coal — Wood and Charcoal as Fuel — Mineral Springs. 

Mercury or quicksilver is found rarely in its native or 
metallic state, but generally as cinnabar or sulphide of mercury, 
abundantly at many points in the Coast Range of the Pacific 
coast, but is only mined and reduced to any considerable extent 
in California, where the New Almaden and the New Idria mines 
will probably exceed the great Spanish mines from which they 



OTHER METALS AND MINERALS. Uq 

take their names. Several other mines in the vicinity of these 
are in operation, and whenever there is an increased demand for 
the metal, will prove profitable ; but now that the long litigation 
which closed the two principal mines for a number of years is 
settled, their production will greatly increase. The opening of 
so many new gold mines, and the great extent to which hydrau- 
lic mining is now carried, insures a prompt market at paying 
prices, for all the quicksilver which these mines can produce, for 
thus far the reduction of gold without quicksilver has been found 
impossible. There are large deposits of cinnabar, apparently 
inexhaustible, in Washoe and Nye counties, Nevada, in Utah, 
and allegred discoveries of it have been made in Oregon and in 
Arizona. 

Copper. — The ores of this metal, and the native metal 
itself, though not in large masses as in the Lake Superior region, 
are found in nearly every State and Territory of the Great West. 
It is found in all forms ; without adniixture with other metals, as 
malachite, the beautiful green carbonate of copper, the red, blue, 
gray, yellow, and vitreous carbonates and oxides, as copper-glance, 
tetrahedrite, and in every other known form of crystallization ; as 
copper pyrites in combination with gold, and in various .propor- 
tions, in combination with silver, both in the carbonates and 
sulphides. 

There are hundreds of copper mines in California, the metal 
occurring in some form in nearly every county in the State. 
Some of these have proved unprofitable, owing to mismanage- 
ment, distance from market, and difficulty or impossibility of 
their reduction near home. Recently improved methods of 
smelting have been introduced in California and other States, 
and it is no longer necessary to ship the ores to Baltimore or to 
Swansea, Wales, to be reduced, 

Arizona is very rich in copper ores, and they can be very 
easily worked. They yield from thirty-six to sixty per cent, or 
more of pure copper. Some of them are already sending large 
quantities of block-copper to San Francisco. Nevada has an 
abundance of copper, but it is mostly in combination with the 
silver. The copper veins of Northern California extend intp 



120 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Southwestern Oregon, and are even richer there than in CaHfor- 
nia. Copper has also been discovered in Eastern Oregon. 
Washington Territory has its full share of copper, though its 
mines are as yet undeveloped. 

Both Idaho and Montana are rich in copper, both in combina- 
tion with silver and alone. Montana parts her copper from the 
silver in some of her smelting-works and ships it to the East. 

So far as yet discovered, the copper in Dakota, at the Black 
Hills, is mostly combined with gold and silver, but deposits of 
it, not thus alloyed, may yet be discovered. In Minnesota the 
great copper field is around the shores of Lake Superior ; the 
copper deposits of the Ontonagon district in Northern Michi- 
gan, dipping under the lake, and reappearing on the Western 
shore. 

Proceeding- southward, Iowa has some copper, but not de- 
veloped. Missouri, large beds of it, formerly worked exten- 
sively, but now of such low grade as not to be profitably exploited; 
Nebraska only a small deposit in the southeast ; while Kansas, 
which abounds in lead and zinc, has not yet developed any cop- 
per, Wyoming is abundantly supplied with most of the ores of 
copper. In Colorado, from ^90,000 to ^i 20,000 value of copper, 
parted from silver and gold, is sent to market every year. There 
are also mines of copper alone. But New Mexico, while all her 
mines of gold, silver and lead are rich, excels all the other 
States and Territories of the West in the wealth of her copper 
mines, which are now in a fair way to be developed on a large 
scale. Arkansas has large deposits of copper ore among her 
other mineral wealth ; it is found, though not developed, in the 
Indian Territory, and Texas can furnish a supply, not only 
for all the copper-heads, but for all the copper-bottoms of the 
world. 

Lead IS as widely diffused as copper; perhaps even more ex- 
tensively. Wherever silver is found, lead is almost invariably 
present, either as sulphuret (galena), carbonate, or oxide. And 
where silver is absent, or present only in infinitesimal proportions, 
as in Kansas, Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri, and in some of the 
mines of Wyoming, Dakota and Montana, the lead puts in its 



LEAD, ZINC, IRON, STEEL. I2i 

appearance, as sufficient of itself, without the more costly metal. 
The quantities of it parted from silver are enormous, the supply 
from two districts of Nevada alone being nearly sufficient for 
the American market, and that of Colorado nearly a million of 
dollars annually. The other great mining regions add to this 
vast total, and Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, and other States east of 
the Mississippi, aid in rolling up an immense aggregate. For- 
tunately the demand for lead is great and constant, not limited 
to the arts of war and the slaughter of game, but extending 
also to many of the arts of peace, being used in rolls, sheets, 
and piping and tubing, furnishing the basis of nearly all of our 
paints, and of many of our drugs. 

Zinc is not quite so widely distributed, but is often found in 
combination with silver and lead. It is also found by itself, or 
with lead in the form of sulphuret (Blende), silicate (calamine), 
or carbonate (Smithsonite). It is mined and reduced quite 
largely in Kansas, and to some extent in Missouri and Cali- 
fornia. 

The resources of our Western Empire, for the production of 
Iron and Steel, have no parallel on the globe. No one of the 
States and Territories composing it lacks deposits of iron ore, 
in some of its many and varied forms; and in many of them it 
is found of such excellent quality, and in such immediate prox- 
imity to coal-beds, and the necessary fluxes, that the cost of pro- 
duction is reduced to the lowest minimum. The great railways 
which traverse the continent can have their iron and steel rails 
manufactured within 500 feet of their tracks, and of such quality 
as cannot be obtained at any price abroad. The mountains of 
iron ore yielding from fifty to ninety per cent, of the pure metal, 
which are found in Missouri, Utah, Oregon, California, Wyoming, 
Texas and Montana, only needed the present demand for iron 
and steel to stimulate their development, and in a short time 
there will be enough iron and steel, of the best quality, produced 
In these States and Territories, to supply not only all the iron 
and steel rails (and it is estimated that nearly 2,000,000 tons of 
these will be needed the present year), but all the machinery foi* 
mining, milling, manufacturing and agricultural purposes, all the 



122 OUR WESTER iV EMPIRE. 

Iron and steel for steamers and ships, whether for commerce of 
naval purposes, all the steel guns, all the bridges, all the build- 
ings, all the hardware, car-wheels, cutlery, and all of both metals 
that is needed for any other purpose under the sun, not only 
within the limits of our Western Empire, but all the world over. 
Duty or no duty, neither England nor any other nadon of 
Europe can compete with furnaces, where the ore, fluxes and 
coal can be thrown directly into the furnace through chutes, 
without handling, and the prime cost of all the material and 
its conversion into steel, need not exceed from ^lo to ^12 
per ton, while the product is of the very best quality. But the 
first cost of the establishment of these furnaces, and the rolling- 
mills, machine-shops, foundries, etc., etc., is very large, and re- 
quires, and will require, the investment of many millions of 
capital, though, once under way, the returns will be enormous, 
and the rapid growth of these establishments will be gigantic. 
European capitalists are already transferring their furnaces 
and workmen to this country in large numbers, and they are 
wise in doing so. Within the next five years there will be a 
demand for the services of every skilled worker in iron and steel 
who may land in this country, and at good wages. 

The consumption of iron and steel, of our own production, 
and imported from abroad in 1879, was 4,410,000 tons, of 
which 510,000 tons were imported; we are perfectly safe in 
predicting that, in 1889, it will exceed 12,000,000 tons, and all 
of it will be raised from our own mines, and smelted in our own 
furnaces. 

Platinum is found pure, and in combination with gold, iridium 
and iridosmin on the coast of California and Oregon, and in 
some of the gold mines of Colorado and Arizona and perhaps else- 
where. The quantity is not large, indeed it is a rare metal 
everywhere, the Russian mines, which furnish from 4,200 to 
5,000 pounds annually, producing about four-fifths of the whole 
amount yielded by all countries. The whole quantity produced 
in the United States does not probably exceed 450 or 500 
pounds. Mr. Edison, the inventor, in 1879 desired to use pla- 
#**-tinum wires for holding the carbons for his divided electric 



PLATINUM, TIN, NICKEL, IRIDIUM. 1 23 

lights, and addressed inquiries to all parties connected with 
gold-mining operations in regard to a possible or probable sup- 
ply of the metal. He found that it was much more widely dif- 
fused than had generally been supposed, but that it was found 
in such small quantities that any considerable increased demand 
would enhance the price beyond the limit which he could afford 
to pay, and he substituted a less expensive material for it. Pla- 
tinum is now worth from ^70 to ^75 per pound. 

Till is not found in large quantities in any part of the United 
States, but the greater part of what does occur is in California, 
Nevada, Idaho, Missouri, Arizona and Texas. It is also found in 
the State of Durango, in Mexico. It is mostly found in its best 
form as cassiterite or oxide of tin, and is classed as mine tin,, 
stream tin, and wood tin. This ore contains about seventy-eight 
per cent, of pure metal. The entire production of the world 
is from 28,000 to 30,000 tons, of which more than three-fifths 
comes from the East Indies, from Banca and the straits of Ma- 
lacca. The American production is not sufficient to exert 
any appreciable influence on the market. 

Nickel, which is now becoming a metal of so much economic 
value in the useful arts, is found in our Western Empire, as else- 
where, in combination with several of the ores of iron. It forms 
but a very small constituent in these ores, from two to five per 
cent, and occurs oftenest in the argillaceous ores. By proper 
treatment of the ores, it is removed in the slag, and is concen- 
trated by various processes till the matte contains about thirty- 
five per cent, when it is dissolved out by acids. Its use in 
electro-plating is very important in the arts, and requires consid- 
erable skill in its successful manipulation. Nickel in a pure state 
is worth about ^3 a pound. 

Iridhim and Osniuim, or rather the compound known as IridcK- 
min, which contains both metals, and usually a small percentage 
of rhodium, and sometimes ruthenium, is found in small hard 
grains and sometimes in scales, in the placer deposits, and asso- 
ciates with platinum. The alloy is the hardest of known metallic 
bodies, and is infusible except under the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe. 
The iridosmin is used in its native condition for pointing the nibs 



124 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of gold pens, being as nearly as possible indestructible either by 
accidents, or by the chemicals in the ink, and being very hard. 
Only the rounded particles are suitable for this purpose, and 
these constitute only from one-fifth to one-tenth of the whole. 
The price a few years since was $250 per ounce. From three to 
eight ounces are obtained at the Assay offices in the melting of 
one million of dollars of gold. The Iridium, when isolated, fur- 
nishes the basis of a black used in decorating porcelain, which 
wdien baked in, is indestructible. 

Tclluriwn is found in combination wdth both gold and silver as 
tellurides of those metals. It belongs to the same class of ele- 
mentary bodies as sulphur, and imitates it in most of its com- 
pounds. It has little economic value, but is a great source of 
annoyance in the reduction works, in California, Colorado, and 
Montana, from the intensely poisonous and foetid properties of 
its compounds. It is found sparingly in most of the larger gold 
deposits. 

Antimony, Arsenic, and Maizganese, are found as sulphides, sul- 
phates, carbonates, oxides, and in rarer forms, in combination 
with silver, copper, lead, zinc, and iron, sometimes impairing, at 
others enhancing, the value of the compound. In most cases the 
antimony and arsenic are expelled, in the smelter's furnace. The 
manganese in its combination with iron is, to a certain extent, 
beneficial. 

Sulphur, In the form of sulphides and sulphates, is present In 
a large proportion of the silver, lead, copper, zinc, and iron ores. 
But It is also found In a native state In large masses or deposits, 
in those portions of California which were formerly subject to 
volcanic eruptions, In Humboldt county. In Nevada, at several 
points in Utah, especially in Millard county, where the deposit Is 
more than twenty feet thick ; at Brimstone Mountain In the Yel- 
lowstone Park region, in Dakota, New Mexico, Arizona, and 
Texas. Sulphuric and muriatic acid are produced at some of 
the smelting works from the sulphurets of Iron, copper, and lead; 
while the sulphates of soda, magnesia and potassa, are obtained 
in a nearly pure state in the alkaline lakes of California, Nevada, 
Utah and Wyoming. The sulphate of lime (gypsum or plaster 



SULPHUR, BORAX, SODA, SALT. I2d 

of Paris) is found in extensive deposits nearly or quite pure, in 
almost every State and Territory of the region, and in California, 
Colorado, Texas, and perhaps elsewhere, it assumes also its 
beautiful forms of alabaster and selenite. The sulphates of zinc, 
copper, and iron, if they do not exist naturally, are easily formed 
by the reduction of the sulphurets of those metals. 

Borax (chemically the biborate of soda) is found at several 
points in California and Nevada, in the mud and the water of 
alkaline lakes; and is now produced of great purity, and in such 
large quantities as to have revolutionized the market, and caused 
the price of the article at retail to fall from fifty or sixty cents 
below twenty cents per pound. It is either gathered in crystals, 
evaporated from the water, or procured from the mud, by wash- 
ing or by lixiviation. The supply seems inexhaustible, though 
the demand has greatly increased since the market began to be 
supplied from the Pacific coast. 

Soda, both as caustic soda, and carbonate of soda or pearlash, 
and also as sulphate of soda or Glauber's salts, exists naturally 
in the Great Salt Lake and its vicinity ; at several places in Cali- 
fornia and Nevada, and in the alkaline lands. It is also found 
in the Yellowstone region and in Texas. That found in Utah is 
so nearly chemically pure as hardly to need refining. 

Salt. — This invaluable mineral is widely diffused over this vast 
region. On the shores of the Pacific it Is procured by solar 
evaporation and boiling. All over California there are salt 
springs, and in many places salt lakes, from which incrustations 
of nearly pure salt can be gathered. In Nevada it is found in 
large bodies in the beds of desiccated lakes, in the waters of salt 
lakes, and in mountain deposits. In Utah, the Great Salt Lake 
is a saturated solution of common salt, five gallons of it yielding 
one and three-fourths gallons of crystallized salt. It is now 
manufactured largely from the waters of the lake, and much is 
produced by natural solar evaporation. Rock-salt, much of it 
almost perfectly pure, is mined in Salt Creek Canon and on the 
Sevier river. The northern part of Utah abounds in salt springs, 
which pour their waters into the Salt Lake. Wyoming has also 
its salt deposits, as well as Kansas and Nebraska, many of them 



,26 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

in the form of brine springs. Arkansas, the Indian Territory, 
and Texas have also brine springs, salt lakes, and deposits of 
salt. Arizona and New Mexico have salt deposits and salt lakes. 
The supply in most of the States and Territories now exceeds the 
demand, but the growing requirements of the smelting and re- 
duction works for it, 'n the reduction of pyritous ores, and to 
some extent the carbonates also, as well as its use for domestic 
and packing purposes, insure a future demand which will require 
the erection of additional salt-works. 

Coal is found at many points in this vast region, and of many 
different qualities. There are four distinct coal-fields between 
the Mississippi river and the Pacific ocean, and they comprise an 
area of more than 200,000 square miles. The first of these coal- 
fields extends from Iowa, in which State it covers a large area, 
through Missouri, Eastern Nebraska and Kansas, Arkansas, the 
eastern portion of the Indian Territory, and Eastern Texas. 
This is called the Missouri coal-field. It is a bituminous coal, 
from the middle coal measures of the carboniferous system, in 
many places of excellent quality, and belongs to the class of 
coking coals, being valuable for heating and smelting purposes. 
The total area of this coal-field is somewhat more than 47,000 
square miles, or a little larger than the State of Pennsylvania. 
The second of the coal-fields begins in British America, near the 
Saskatchewan river, and passes southward through Dakota, 
Eastern Montana, Western Nebraska, and Kansas, and Eastern 
Wyoming, through Colorado, east of the Rocky Mountains, 
Northeastern New Mexico, and Central and Western Texas. It 
is a lignite coal, belonging to the cretaceous period, and in some 
parts of its course yields a very fair heating coal, furnishing 
some gas, but not coking. In some of the places where it is 
mined, it assumes the characteristics of a cannel coal, though of 
inferior quality. It covers an area of about 40,000 square miles, 
but much of it is too deep for successful mining, especially as 
the quality of the coal is not of the first class. 

The third coal-field is a very remarkable one. Like the 
second, it commences in British America, passes through West- 
ern Montana and Idaho, through Western Wyoming and Utah, 



COAL. J 27 

through Western Colorado and New Mexico, and perhaps 
Eastern Nevada, through Arizona and Northwestern Texas, and 
into Mexico. Like the second coal-field, it is a lignite, but of 
the tertiary instead of the cretaceous period, being found at the 
north only in the miocene, but in Texas, principally, in the 
eocene rocks. In Western Colorado, in Utah, and in New 
Mexico, near Santa Fe, volcanic action has changed it into an 
anthracite coal, that in New Mexico being of a quality nearly 
equal to that of the Pennsylvania mines. The coal-beds of La 
Plata county, Colorado, in the vicinity of Animas City, have 
recently proved to be anthracite, probably tertiary lignites 
changed by . volcanic action. At other places, as in parts of 
Utah, it has been hanged into a semi-bituminous coal. Some 
beds of it coke and trive evidence of beingr orood smelting coals. 
The fourth coal-field is in reality two coal-fields which inter- 
lock, the one, lignites of the tertiary, which pass through Eastern 
Washington and Oregon, and in California appear on both sides 
of the Coast range ; the other, coming from Alaska, and furnish- 
ing on X'^ancouver island and in the Straits of San Juan de Fuca 
some mines of excellent bituniinous coal, and passing down the 
coast of Washington and Oregon, growing constantly poorer and 
more charged with sulphur, become, in California, interlaced with 
the deposits of the tertiary lignite. At one or two points, as at 
Monte Diablo, they yield a fair quality of bituminous coal. The 
last-named branch of this coal-field is found only in the cretaceous 
rocks, and as it approaches former or recent centres of volcanic 
action changes, as on Vancouver island, to a semi-bituminous 
coal, and in the Queen Charlotte islands, off the coast of British 
Columbia, to a true anthracite of excellent quality. This double 
coal-field covers nearly 60,000 square miles, and the preceding 
one over 50,000. The San Francisco market is supplied with 
cannel-coal from Eno;land and Australia; bituminous and semi- 
bituminous from Chili and Vancover island ; anthracite from 
Pennsylvania and Queen Charlotte islands; Cumberland and 
other bituminous coals from Pittsburgh, Leavenworth and 
Wyoming, and Pacific coast lignites from Bellingham Bay, Wash- 
ington Territory, Coos Bay, Oregon, and Monte Diablo in Cali- 



128 OUR WESTERN- EMPIRE. 

fornia. The Colorado and New Mexican coals will also appear 
in its markets as soon as a more direct railroad communication is 
established. 

In many portions of this vast territory, where fuel for smelting 
purposes is required either for the reduction of the i:)recious 
metals and lead or copper, or for the production of pig-iron and 
Bessemer steel, the forests are still so dense and convenient that 
wood or charcoal is cheaper than coal. But other sections are 
obliged to rely upon coal and upon that which can be coked ; 
and in some of the States or Territories, as for example in Ne- 
vada, these coking coals, or the coke made from them, are 
brought from long distances, and at a considerable expense. 

Intimately connected with coal, geologically, are two other min- 
eral products, Asphaltum and PeirolcM7?i. In California there 
are lakes, or rather marshes, which after the winter rains have 
a shallow depth of water on their surfaces, which are covered 
to a considerable depth with asphaltum, in varying degrees of 
hardness, some of it being of the consistency of molasses, and 
entangling the cattle, which are drawn thither by the hope of 
finding water, and perish in the sticky mass ; nearer the edges it 
is hardened, and becomes the solid asphalt of commerce. These 
lakes or marshes are found in San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, 
Tulare, and Los Angeles counties. Some petroleum is found 
with them, but the best petroleum oils of California, and they are 
of excellent quality, are in Humboldt, Colusa, and Contra Costa 
counties, and in the vicinity of Monte Diablo ; but all the coast 
counties have petroleum springs. Petroleum has also been dis- 
covered in Nevada, though it has not been developed. In 
Northwestern Colorado, on the White river, in and near the Ute 
Reservation, there are extensive springs and marshes of petro- 
leum, asphalt, and mineral tar. There are also petroleum springs 
on the headwaters of the Arkansas river, near Denver. The 
petroleum region of Northwestern Colorado extends northward 
through Western Wyoming, Montana, and possibly Idaho. Re- 
cently extensive springs and wells of petroleum of excellent 
quality have been discovered and worked about ninety miles 
north of Point of Rocks, on the Union Pacific Railway, in Wyom- 



GEYSEKS AND MINERAL SPRIXGS. I2o 

ing Territory. The last report of the Union Pacific Railway, 
presented in March, 1880, says that the supply is apparently 
inexhaustible ; that it is used extensively on the railway, and that 
it will probably be shipped eastward and westward in large 
quantities, as soon as arrangements can be made for its trans- 
portation. Petroleum and beds of mineral or paraffin-wax have 
been discovered in Utah, in the vicinity of the Spanish Fork 
canon. The mineral wax is of the same quality of that found in 
Galicia, Austria. In Kansas there are numerous gas-wells, some 
of them furnishing a sufficient quantity of illuminating gas to 
light a city of 30,000 inhabitants. These indicate the existence 
of reservoirs of petroleum below the shales or bituminous rocks, 
through which the wells are bored. There are also indications 
of the presence of petroleum in Missouri, Arkansas, and Texas. 

Of other mineral products, not already noticed, we may men- 
tion mica, which is found in extensive deposits, though not yet 
in very large sheets, at numerous points in the Rocky Mountains, 
as well as in the Cascade Mountains ; alum (sulphate of alum- 
ina) found in great quantity and nearly pure, in Utah ; kaolin and 
other porcelain clays, and the finest of glass-sand in all the States 
and Territories west of the Rocky Mountains. Most of the sili- 
cates are also found in combination. 

But aside from the mines of the precious metals, nothing in the 
mineral world has excited so much interest in all parts of this vast 
region, g.s the abundance and variety of its mineral springs and 
geysers. The known geysers, some of them the most remark- 
able yet discovered anywhere, are found in California, in the 
Yellowstone Park, and near the headwaters of the Yellowstone, 
the Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin rivers. This region, like 
that in California, has been the scene of volcanic action. In our 
description of the Yellowstone National Park, we shall give a 
detailed account of these and other remarkable phenomena, 
found in that true wonder-land. But the springs thought to pos- 
sess medicinal or healing virtues are myriads in number, as well 
as in character. Some, like the scores of Hot Springs in Arkan- 
sas, Texas, Colorado, Nevada, California, Utah, Montana, and 
Wyoming, have no appreciable mineral constituents, but owe 
9 



1^0 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

their healing- properties either to their thermal quality (the heat 
ranging from 95 to 225° F.) or to some not fully understood 
electric influence, which is thought to pervade them ; others, 
whether cold or warm, owe their reputed medicinal virtue to their 
impregnation with sulphur, iron, lime, potassa, soda, lithia, phos- 
phorus, or some and perhaps several of the sulphates, carbonates, 
phosphates, nitrates, lithiates, chlorides, bromides, or iodides, or 
other compounds of metals, alkalies, and alkaline earths, and 
mineral acids, and generally the more nauseous and diabolic the 
taste and smell of these villanous compounds from Nature's 
laboratory, the greater the healing virtues they are believed to 
contain. But nowhere in the wide world are there spas of such 
capacity, surrounded by such magnificent scenery, or possessing 
such natural advantages, to amuse and delight the visitor, and 
drive away ennui, as are to be found in Texas, Arkansas, and in 
still greater numbers in Colorado, the Yellowstone region, Utah, 
Montana, Dakota, Minnesota, Nevada, California, New Mexico, 
Oregon and Washington. Nature has done its part with a most 
bountiful hand, and in many of these places man has done his 
part to make the whole surroundings attractive. Already are 
the springs of the Yellowstone Park, the most celebrated of those 
in Colorado, Utah, Nevada, California, Arkansas, and Texas, 
widely known and appreciated in Europe, and every season 
brings many hundreds of European visitors hither, in search of 
a new sensation. 



FARMING EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. j^j 



CHAPTER XII. 

Agriculture — Arable Lands East of the Rocky Mountains — Minnesota 
Farming Lands and Products — Dakota Territory Farming Lands — 
Montana Farms — Iowa Farms — Missouri Farming Lands — Nebraska 
Farming Lands — Kansas Farming — Arkansas Farms — The Indian Ter- 
ritory as a Farming Region — Texas Farming, Grain, Cotton, etc. — 
Review of Farming Lands East of Rocky Mountains — Much Poor and 
Indifferent Farming — Revolution in Farming Produced by Agricul- 
tural Machinery — Root Crops — Cotton — Sugar— -Fruit Culture — Tex- 
tile Fibres and Tobacco — The Rocky Mountain Region — Wonderful 
Results of Irrigation — Beyond the Rockies — From the Sierra Nevada 
TO THE Coast Range — California — Viniculture in California — The Pro- 
ducts of Oregon and Washington. 

No very close approximation of the amount of arable lands in 
our Western Empire can be made. The reports of the Sur- 
veyors-General to the Land Office each year develop the fact 
that, in the newer States and Territories, thousands of acres, pre- 
viously deemed incapable of cultivation, have been conquered by 
the enterprising settlers, and must henceforth be recorded as 
arable lands of extraordinary fertility. We have alluded to this, 
in our chapter on the Great American Desert ; but it is a fact which 
will bear repetition and illustration. ■ Nearly the whole region 
lying between the Mississippi river and the Rocky Mountains 
was regarded fifty years ago as a desert land, incapable of any 
considerable cultivation, and given over to the buffalo, the pan- 
ther, and the prairie wolf; yet in no part of the vast domain of 
the United States, and certainly in no other country under the 
sun, is there a body of land of equal extent, in which there are 
so few acres unfit for cultivation, or so many which, with irriga- 
tion or without it, will yield such bountiful crops. The land lying 
between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada or Cas- 
cade Range, has more mountains, and more grazing lands ; some 
of it, too, is incapable of culture, and is more valuable for the 
mineral wealth which lies beneath the surface, than for any crops 
which can be raised from it. Some of these lands are volcanic, 



J -,2 oi'K iwLSTEKX LX'r:ni-:. 



and the lava aad volcanic scoriae have not yet been long enough 
exposed to the influences of sun, and rain, and glacial action, to 
render them fertile as they will eventually become. Of a con- 
siderable portion of this region, also, it may be said, that it has 
not yet been explored with sufficient thoroughness, to settle the 
questions whether it is best adapted to cultivation or grazing, or 
whether it is unfit for either. 

Perhaps we cannot now come nearer the truth than to say, that, 
of the 2,028,000 square miles comprised between the Mississippi 
and the Pacific, from 750,000 to 800,000 miles may fairly be 
reckoned arable. Of this one-fourth, and possibly a little more, 
may require more or less irrigation, for some years to come, to 
bring out their highest productiveness; but this is regarded by 
the farmers themselves as an advantage, rather than a disadvan- 
tage, since by means of it, they are assured of large and excellent 
crops every year. 

None of the States lying between the Rocky Mountains and 
the Mississippi river have much waste or unimprovable land. 
Missouri, Arkansas, and portions of the Indian Territory, and 
Northwestern Texas are more mountainous than the others, and 
have some g-razinQr and some sterile lands. The Black Hills in 
Dakota (some portions of which are capable of cultivation, and 
yield excellent crops), and the Bad Lands in that Territory 
(which, however, amount to only 75,000 acres or about three 
townships) and Nebraska, are the only other exceptions to the 
general rule. Minnesota, Iowa, most of Nebraska, Kansas, the 
greater part of Eastern Wyoming and Eastern Colorado, Dakota, 
except as above noted. Eastern Montana, the larger part of 
Missouri, Arkansas, the Indian Territory, and Texas, arc not 
surpassed in the quality or productiveness of their soil, by any 
portions of equal extent in the known world. Look at these facts, 
and remember that none of these States or Territories have 
one-third and most of them not one-tenth of their arable lands 
under cultivation. Minnesota, one of the newest of these States, 
has but about one-eleventh of its area — 4,900,000 acres out of 
nearly 54,000,000 — under cultivation; yet it produced in 1879, on 
2,769,369 acres, 35,000,000 bushels of spring wheat of a quality 



FARMIXG EAST CF THE ROCKY MOUNTAL\'S. j^^ 

"which has never been surpassed ; a crop of corn of about 
19,000,000 bushels on about 475,000 acres ; more than 21,000,- 
000 bushels of oats, on 510,000 acres of land; over 3,000,- 
000 bushels of the other cereals, barley, rye and buckwheat, 
on 110,000 acres; over 4,100,000 bushels of potatoes, on 
less than 40,000 acres of land; and 1,800,000 tons of hay on 
less- than 950,000 acres. A large part of these crops were pro- 
duced on lands broken up for the first time, and much of the 
cultivation was crude and imperfect, yet the yield per acre 
averaged larger than that of any other State, though not so large 
as it should. Many of these new farms, when properly tilled, 
yielded over large tracts from thirty-three to forty-five bushels 
(sixty pounds) of wheat to the acre, and deep plowing and care- 
ful seeding by drill, would have brought the same results every- 
where in the wheat lands. Dakota Territory, which in 1870 had 
less than 13,000 white inhabitants and now has over 200,000, 
though it only began to grow about three years ago, yielded in 
1879 from 266,618 acres in its northeastern counties alone, 
5»332.36o bushels of spring wheat, and nearly as much more in 
Southeastern Dakota. The average yield was twenty-two bushels 
to the acre, and might have been thirty with the same labor. Other 
crops are equally productive. The land is mostly prairie, and at 
least three-fifths of this production was from the first crop ever 
harvested. Montana is a still newer region, and has much 
mountainous country. It is roughly computed to have 1 5,000,000 
acres of arable lands, and 38,000,000 acres of grazing lands; but 
its arable lands are the most fertile the sun shines upon. Its 
30,000 acres in wheat produced an average of twenty-five 
bushels (weighing sixty- four pounds) to the acre ; its yield of 
Indian corn averages forty bushels; that of oats and barley fifty 
bushels ; of potatoes 200 bushels, etc. 

Iowa, an older, though still a young State, has about one-third 
of her area under cultivation. Her land is rich and fertile, but 
wheat in 1878 was a comparative failure there. Indian corn 
the same year was a very successful crop, i 75,000,000 bushels 
being raised on 4,686,000 acres of land — an average of 37.4 
bushels to the acre. The crops of oats, barley, potatoes, and hay 



jo^ OUR WESTER i\' EMPIRE. 

were also large, and eight items of agricultural crops aggregated 
a value of $65,586,000. 

Missouri, the oldest State west of the Mississippi, has about 
one-fourth of her 42,000,000 acres under cultivation. Her crop 
of Indian corn in 1878 was 93,062,000 bushels — an average yield 
of 26.2 bushels to the acre; the wheat crop, 20,196,000 — an 
average of only eleven bushels to the acre; oats, 19,584,000^— an 
average of 30.6 bushels to the acre ; potatoes, 5,415,000 bushels, 
averaging seventy-five bushels to the acre; tobacco, 23,023,000 
pounds, averaging 770 pounds to the acre; hay, 1,620,000 tons, 
averaging 1.62 tons to the acre. Smaller quantities of rye, buck- 
wheat, and barley were produced, and hemp and flax were 
raised to some extent. The State has also extensive vineyards, 
and large quantities of grapes and wine are sent to market. 
The aggregate value of her agricultural productions in that year 
was about sixty-five millions of dollars. 

Nebraska has an area of 48,636,800 acres, of which less than 
3,500,000 or about one-fourteenth of the whole are under 
cultivation. It is one of the newer States, having been admitted 
into the Union in 1867. Corn and wheat are the principal 
cereals cultivated, the crop of the former ranging from forty to 
fifty-four million bushels, an average yield of forty-two bushels 
to the acre; and of the latter from fourteen to eighteen million 
bushels, mosdy of spring wheat, an average of fifteen bushels to 
the acre. Rye and oats are also raised in considerable quantities ; 
rye yielding an average of nearly twenty bushels to the acre, and 
oats about thirty-four bushels. Potatoes and other root crops 
do well, potatoes averaging 125 bushels to the acre. Hay 
yields nearly two tons to the acre. Fruit culture is a very large 
interest in the State, and its fruits are of the best quality. The 
entire crops of 1879 exceeded $25,000,000 in value. 

Kansas, from its central position, its fine climate, its large 
body of arable lands, its railroad facilities, and its indomitable 
enterprise, has come to be regarded as the garden spot of the 
Great West. Its lands are probably no more fertile than those 
of some of the other States and Territories, but they have been 
more extensively advertised, more promptly settled, and are cul- 



FARMfNG EAST OF 77/E ROCKY MOL'NTAL\S. j -, 5 

tivated with an energy and thoroughness, which cannot fail to 
produce the highest results. The mining fever has not dis- 
tracted the attention of her settlers. It is hardly probable that 
any considerable amount of gold or silver ores will be found 
within its bounds, and though it has some lead, zinc, copper, and 
considerable coal, its mining interests will probably, for all the 
future, be subordinate to the agricultural development of the 
State. 

Of the 51,770,240 acres which are contained within the bounds 
of Kansas, 7,769,926 were under cultivation in 1879, of which 
1,270,493 were plowed for the first time that year. About one- 
fifth of the cultivated area was devoted to wheat, and two-fifths 
to Indian corn. In Kansas, both winter and spring wheat are 
cultivated, though the winter wheat predominates in the ratio of 
five to one. In 1878 the wheat crop was 32,315,358 bushels, or 
20.5 bushels per acre for winter wheat, but in 1879, owing to late 
plowing and sowing, and a dry winter and spring, it was not 
quite 20,000,000 bushels. The corn crop, on the other hand, 
was 89,324,971 bushels in 1878, and about 109,000,000 bushels 
in 1879. This was almost sixty bushels to the acre. Oats 
yielded 17,41 1,473 bushels in 1878, but only 13,400,000 bushels 
in 1879; rye yielded 2,722,000 bushels in 1878, 21.3 bushels to 
the acre; barley 1,562,793 bushels in 1878, being 29.7 bushels 
to the acre ; Irish potatoes, 4,256,336 bushels in 1878, being ^^i-o 
bushels to the acre. In 1879 the yield was smaller. 1,590,000 
tons of hay and forage were cut, of an aggregate value of 
;^5, 700,000. Large quantities of sorghum and broom corn were 
also raised, and 2,721,459 gallons of sorghum syrup produced. 
Flax, hemp, castor beans, sweet potatoes, tobacco, cotton, and a 
vast amount of fruit, were the other agricultural products of the 
State in 1878 and 1879. The total value of field and garden 
products in 1878 was $52,859,857. In 1879, notwithstanding 
the partial failure of the wheat crop, it was <^6o,i 29,781, on 
account of the increased production of hay, sorghum, broom 
corn, and potatoes, and the material advance of prices. 

Arkansas has a much more varied surface than Kansas; 
mountains, valleys, forests, and mines of silver, lead copper 



1^5 ^^'" Jr^"-^T£/:.V EMPIRE. 

iron and coal, and quarries of novaculite or oil-stone, mill-stones, 
marble and lithographic-stone. It has also a more varied climate, 
from the semi-tropical temperature of its bottom-lands, to the 
cool and bracing air of its mountain districts. Its productions 
are more varied, cotton being its great staple, and corn coming 
next In order; while the other cereals are only moderately culti- 
vated, and fruits, to which it is well adapted, figuring largely in 
its agricultural products. Of the 33,406,720 acres of land in the 
State, one-half is still a forest, while only about 2,500,000 acres 
are under cultivation, and perhaps three times that quantity are 
good grazing lands. The staple crop is cotton, of which nearly 
800,000 bales were produced in 1S78 on 1,165,850 acres, an 
averaofe of about three-fourths of a bale to the acre. The vield 
of Indian corn the same year was about 23,000,000 bushels on 
958,000 acres, twenty-four bushels and a fraction to the acre. 
Of wheat in 1878 only 1,038,000 bushels were raised, an average 
of but six bushels to the acre. Of rye and oats the quantity 
grown was but small, though of the latter it was 1,665,420 
bushels, a yield of 24.6 bushels to the acre. Potatoes yielded 
121 bushels to the acre, but only 8,200 acres were planted in this 
crop. Of the sweet potato and perhaps of the Irish potato also, 
the agriculturists of Arkansas insist that they can raise two crops 
a year. Hay is not a large crop, though the yield is as good as 
in most States, being 1.80 tons to the acre. Fruits of all kinds 
are abundant and of excellent quality. A considerable quantity 
of wine is made, both from wild grapes, which are of unusual 
excellence in the State, and from the Scuppernong, Post Oak, 
Herbemont, Norton's Seedling, and other cultivated grapes. 

The Indian Territory, which joins Arkansas on the west, con- 
tains much valuable farming-land, and some which is not desira- 
ble. The Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Creeks, as 
well as some of the other Indian tribes settled here, have amone 
them many good farmers, who produce large crops from the 
fertile soil. We cannot obtain statistics of the agricultural pro- 
ductions of the Territory, and as the United States government 
is bound by the highest obligations of honor and justice to pro- 
tect these Indians in their right to the soil, and to prevent law- 



FARMING EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. j^y 

less adventurers from settling there, It is of no particular conse- 
quence that we should be able to give particulars, which might 
only serve to stimulate the greed of the lawless. 

Texas has a vast territory, 1 75,600,000 acres, and every 
variety of soil, surface, climate, and rainfall. While probably 
50,000,000 acres of its lands are cultivable, though not more 
than three-fifths of this amount can be reckoned arable land of 
the first-class, not more than 6,000,000 acres have yet been culti- 
vated, and much of this very carelessly and Imperfectly. Eastern 
Texas Is sandy, and not very fertile ; Central Texas has a rich 
soil, and for a width of 200 miles is the best cotton region in the 
United States, and is capable of producing the cotton supply of 
the world. Yet, in 1878, only 1,808,386 acres were planted in 
cotton and yielded 497,310,000 pounds of cotton, an average of 
275 pounds to the acre.* The northern part of this central tract 
is excellent corn land, and from 2,246,000 acres, the greater part 
of it In this region, 58,396,000 bushels of corn were produced In 
1878, twenty-six bushels to the acre. For wheat, rye, and oats, 
only a very small portion of the State Is well adapted, the wheat 
belt being far smaller than that of Kansas. Only 450,000 acres 
were sown in wheat, 3,000 In rye and 149,500 in oats in 1878, 
and the yield was 7,200,000 bushels of wheat, sixteen bushels to 
the acre ; 54,000 bushels of rye, eighteen bushels to the acre, and 
5,531,500 bushels of oats, thirty-seven bushels to the acre. Irish 
potatoes are not so prolific or so good as the sweet potatoes, 
and root-crops generally do not yield remarkably well. The 
pea-nut, ground-nut or goober. Is perhaps an exception, as it 
is very prolific In the sandy soils. Tobacco, hemp, ramie, and 
fiax are profitable crops, where they are carefully cultivated. 
Small fruits and market-garden vegetables do well, and being 
marketed early, afford a good profit. Peaches, cherries, and 
grapes, are also of excellent quality, and some of the latter pro- 
duce wines of fine flavor, when rightly handled. A prevalent 
fault in their production, Is the addition of too much cane-sugar, 
which gives an excess of alcohol and Impairs their bouquet. 

* The average Texas bale of cotton is 480 pounds ; so that the average yield was only three- 
fifths uf a bale. 



j^g OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Sugar from the sugar-cane, and also from sorghum, is produced 
in very considerable quantity in Texas, but the former is an un- 
certain crop. The latter under the new stimulus given to its 
production by recent discoveries, is likely to become much more 
profitable. 

Western Texas is much better adapted to grazing than to 
farming, and Northwestern Texas, except in its river bottoms, is 
a comparative desert, though its mining lands may attract to it 
some population. 

This, with the exception of Eastern Colorado, whose agricul- 
tural lands are but slightly developed as yet, constitutes a 
description of most of the arable lands lying east of the Rocky 
Mountains. Our brief review of them shows that hardly more 
than one-tenth of these lands is yet under cultivation ; yet if, in 
1S78, this region alone yielded 135,000,000 bushels of wheat, 
and 502,000,000 bushels of Indian corn, what may be expected 
when its arable lands shall all be subjected to the plow ? 

It is to be noticed, also, that much of the farming in this region 
is not, and under the circumstances could not be expected to be, 
of the best character. The emigrant, whose scanty means have 
only enabled him to reach his western home, pay the first fees, 
build his sod-house, and with a poor and weak team, or perhaps 
by changing works, break up the firm and hard sod, is very sure 
to be unskilled in western farming, however much of an adept 
he may have been in agricultural pursuits in his own country, 
and so the plowing which should have gone to the depth of fif- 
teen or eighteen inches at least, does not penetrate more than 
three to four, and both it and the planting are deferred till too 
late in the autumn, if the crop is to be winter wheat, or in the 
spring if it is to be spring wheat. If there is drought in winter 
or spring, deep plowing would have saved the crop, while shallow 
plowing prevents vigorous growth. The proper cultivation of 
the crop is prevented also by the limited means of the settler, 
and in harvesting it, he cannot readily avail himself of the agri- 
cultural machinery, which so lightens labor, and makes large farm- 
ing possible and profitable. 

The complete revolution which has taken place in the last 



FARMING EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 1^9 

twenty-five or thirty years in farm work, is nowhere so evident 
as at the West. The plowing on the best farms is done by a 
gang-plow drawn by four horses, or, in some cases, by a steam-plow, 
and a steam or two-horse harrow breaks the clods. If the crop 
is to be wheat, or any of the other cereals, it is not sown broadcast, 
but drilled in with a two or four-horse seeding machine at such 
distances as to give the grain as it comes up an opportunity to 
tiller or spread out. Or, as in some of the States, a centrifugal 
sower scatters it evenly within a given radius, and thus accom- 
plishes the same object. In this way only about one-fourth as 
much seed is required, and a greater crop is raised. In Minnesota 
eighty pounds of spring wheat is sown to the acre. Some 
farmers prefer to plant Indian corn first on the broken and rotted 
sod, and follow with wheat or other small grains. The corn is 
cultivated once or twice with a horse-hoe or cultivator, and the 
ground is left clean and free for the wheat crop. But the per- 
fection of the agricultural machinery is seen in gathering the crop. 
The original reaper has been improved till it would not be 
recoenlzed in its new form. It is now the harvester, and cuts, 
gathers, binds, and loads the grain for the threshing machine, 
which in turn threshes, winnows, cleans, assorts and in some 
cases sacks the grain. Another improvement cuts and gathers 
into a close box-wagon all the heads of the grain as they stand, 
and when the wagon is filled, empties its entire load into the 
threshing machine. A single farmer in Dakota, the present 
year, puts 30,000 acres in wheat, and has provided thirty-five 
threshing machines and 140 harvesters to gather and prepare for 
market the crop. Wheat, raised in this way, or if on a much 
smaller scale, on lands properly plowed, sowed, culdvated and 
harvested, should yield from thirty-three to forty-five bushels per 
acre, or double the crop grown by careless and slovenly farming. 
The crop of Indian corn on these new lands should be from 
sixty to eighty bushels to the acre, or more, where irrigation is 
practised ; that of oats from seventy to seventy-five bushels, and 
of barley forty-five to fifty-five bushels. In Arkansas and Texas, 
by early planting, two crops of wheat or even Indian corn can 
be raised in a year; but very litde of the farming there is of a 



1^0 (^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

high order, and even on rich lands the yield per acre is shame- 
fully small. 

Root crops, potatoes, turnips, rutabagas, beets, carrots, sweet- 
potatoes, yams, and the like, require deep plowing, and thorough 
cultivation in the first stao^e of Q^rowth. but will take care of them- 
selves afterward. The yield, in light but fertile loam, is enor- 
mous. In Minnesota, Dakota and Montana, from 300 to 6co 
bushels of potatoes of the best quality are raised to the acre, and 
from 800 to 1,000 bushels of turnips and beets. 

In the cotton region, on the best cotton-lands in the world, 
where the minimum of production should be two bales of ginned 
cotton or 960 pounds, too many of the farmers are content with 
a yield of half or two-fifths of a bale. 

This whole recrion is destined to become famous for its sucrar 
production. Sorghum has been cultivated largely all over these 
States and Territories, and millions of gallons of sorghum syrup 
made ; but it is only within the last two years that it has been 
discovered that the early amber sorghum, a variety which ripens 
early, and before frost, is the best for the Northern States and 
Territories, though some of the larger kinds will yield more where 
the seasons arc longer, it being only necessary that they should 
not suffer from frost before the seeds are ripe, and that the 
ripening is necessary to its crystallization into sugar. It has 
been ascertained by experiment that one ton or more of sugar 
can be produced from an acre, and that with ordinary cultivation 
and care, three-fourths of a ton to the acre is a certain crop. 
The sugar is pronounced superior to the Louisiana or Texas 
cane sugar. A sugar equally good, but in somewhat less 
quantity can be made from the stalks of Indian corn, and in 
both cases the ripe corn and the sorghum seed are saved. The 
Egyptian rice corn, which is now cultivated extensively in 
Kansas, and which yields from sixty to seventy-five bushels of 
its rice-like seed to the acre, belongs to the sorghum family, and 
will doubtless produce large quantities of sugar. As the United 
States are now paying 55^100,000,000 annually for the sugar we 
import, this addition to our products will be very welcome. 

The sugar-cane, as grown in Louisiana, Texas, and Florida, is 



rKUJT Li'LTCRE EAST OF THE ROCKY MOLNTUXS. j^j 

an exotic, and never comes to maturity in our climate, but is 
propagated by cuttings. These become exhausted in a few 
years, and require renewal from tropical countries. They are, 
moreover, very sensitive to climatic changes, and often fail 
entirely. The sorghum, on the contrary, is hardy, ripens early, and 
is almost indifferent to climate, llourishing equally well in Northern 
Dakota and Texas. There is, throughout most of this region, irre- 
spective of the grazing lands, a large demand for forage grasses 
and plants, to supplement the pasturage for horses, mules, asses, 
milch cows and cattle, kept for farm use, and the small flocks of 
sheep and goats which the farmer finds it profitable to keep. 
The buffalo, gramma and blue joint grasses soon give place, in 
cultivated lands, to clover, timothy and herd's grass ; but it has 
been found that corn sown for forage purposes, late in the 
season, Alfalfa clover, Hungarian grass, Egyptian rice corn, the 
millets, and especially the pearl millet, lately introduced, and in 
the north, wild rice, furnish more nutritious and abundant food 
for domestic animals than any of the ordinary grasses. The 
pearl millet is said to yield on rich soil three crops in a season, 
and the enormous quantity of ninety tons of green or ten tons 
of dry forage to the acre. Other grasses, like the Texas millet, 
seem well adapted to the use of stock, and are coming into 
cultivation for this purpose. 

This whole region is well adapted to fruit culture. The apple 
of different varieties, and, to a less extent, the pear, flourishes 
from Minnesota to Arkansas ; the peach from Iowa and Mis- 
souri to the Gulf; quinces from Minnesota to Kansas, and 
cherries and plums from Northern Dakota to the Gulf. Of 
smaller fruits, grapes, native and wild, as well as the cultivated 
varieties, are found everywhere, though the hardy species alone 
flourish at the North, whether wild or cultivated, while the more 
robust summer grapes {Vitis ceslivalis), native and foreign, take 
their place in the South. The strawberry llourishes everywhere, 
but is six weeks earlier in Texas than in Minnesota. The rasp- 
berry, blackberry, currant, and whordeberry, arc better adapted to 
the Northern and Middle States and Territories than to the South; 
but the papaw and the banana, the pomegranate, fig. orange, 



142 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

lemon, and olive, are found in die Soudi alone. In the way of 
nuts, the North has the chestnut, hickory-nut, black walnut, butter- 
nut, hazel-nut, and beech-nut; while the South has the pecan, the 
chinquepin, die filbert, the hard-shell almond, and can have the 
English walnut, and pistachio nut, if they will cultivate it. 

Of textile fibres, hemp grows in all latitudes : flax mostly in the 
North, cotton, ramie, jute, tampico, agave fibre and cactus fibres 
in the South, while the dry, wiry grasses of the river bottoms of 
the Mississippi and its western tributaries, now coming into 
demand for paper stock, are mainly the product of the northern 
reo-ion. 

Tobacco grows in almost all latitudes, but Missouri, Arkansas, 
and Texas are the only States in which it is largely cultivated. 

The Rocky Mountains consist of two, and a part of the distance, 
three principal ranges, having a general direction of north-north- 
west to south-southeast, and numerous spurs and out-Iiers con- 
necting these ranges and extending from them westward. The 
eastern slope has no spurs extending eastward unless we except 
some hills of no great elevation in Wyoming. The Black Hills 
in Dakota, the Osage and Ozark Mountains in Missouri and 
Arkansas, belong to a different mountain system. While these 
mountain ranges have many peaks or summits from 13,000 to 
14,000 feet in height, and some even higher, the table-lands from 
which the summits rise are generally from 5,500 to 8,500 feet in 
height, and most of the passes by which the ranges are crossed 
do not exceed that elevation. There are also many valleys and 
parks between the ranges, which contain fine tracts of arable 
land ; but the greater part of the land included within these 
ranges is better adapted for grazing than farming; and con- 
siderable portions are only valuable for mining and the opera- 
tions connected with it. The grazing lands of Colorado, Wyo- 
ming and Montana are mainly, though not entirely, on these 
mountain plateaux and parks; but the probabilities are, that 
there will be enough good farming-lands found in the valleys 
arid parks, to supply the wants of the large mining, herding and 
non-producing classes who are even now filling up this mountain 
region with great rapidity. The wheat and other grains, Indian 



FARMING IN THE IWCk'Y MOUNTAINS. j^^ 

corn, sorghum sugar, root crops, and vegetables, milk, butter, 
and cheese, and pork, can be furnished by the farmers, as well as 
most of the fruits, while the herdsmen can furnish the beef and 
mutton, and the sportsmen, the game, large and small ; but there 
will be litde farm produce from the mountains to export. 

Much of what is grown in the mountains will require irriga- 
tion, and with it will yield most bountifully. Even the best 
authenticated statements of the enormous crops produced by 
irrigation are received with incredulity. Seventy, eighty, and in 
some cases even one hundred bushels of wheat, not on one acre 
alone, but on a tract of thirty or fifty acres; a like amount of 
barley; eighty to a hundred and ten bushels of oats; and from 
150 to 200 bushels of Indian corn; 400, 500, and 600 bushels of 
potatoes to the acre; these amounts, incredible as they seem, are 
materially below what is claimed for these lands, some of which 
without water would have proved utterly barren and worthless. 
In Montana these mountain valleys do not lack water, the rain- 
fall being there sufficient to produce good crops, and the whole 
reirion aboundino- in streams. 

Between the western slope of the Rocky Mountain ranges 
and the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada, or, as they are called 
in Oregon and Washington Territory, the Cascade Mountains, 
the character of the lands varies as you go southward from 
British Columbia. In the eastern part of Washington Territory 
and Oregon, the lands form generally a high, treeless plateau, 
moderately fertile, but, except in the river bottoms, generally 
better adapted to grazing than to cultivation. Farther south, within 
the limits of the Great Basin which includes nearly one-half of 
Utah and Nevada, the area of cultivable land is comparatively 
small, though by means of irrigation it is much increased ; con- 
siderable tracts are unfit even for grazing purposes, but these 
are generally good mining-lands. East and south of the Ore: t 
Basin are the sources of the Grand, Green, San Juan and Little 
Colorado, as well as other smaller tributaries of the Rio Colorado 
of the West, and that great river itself These all flow through 
Western Colorado, Southeastern Utah, Western New Mexico 
and Arizona, in such deep canons that they leave many of the 



j^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

vicsas and table-lands of diese territories to drought and sterility, 
except where irrigation is possible, or when, 'as in the autumn 
and winter of iS 79-1 880, extraordinary and protracted rains de- 
luged the country. Yet this region is well adapted to grazing, 
and by a scanty Irrigation will yield the crops and fruits neces- 
sary for the sustenance of its inhabitants. In New Mexico and 
Arizona there are, with irrigation, a larger amount of arable 
lands than has hitherto been supposed. 

Governor Fremont writes that, in the summer of 1879, a little 
band of Maricopa Indians, near Prescott, who had taken to 
farmine, sent to San Francisco, over the Southern California 
road, ten car loads, — 200 tons, of wheat of their own raising, which 
was of such excellent quality that It brought $2.24 the hundred 
pounds when the usual market price was only ^2.10. The land 
on which such wheat could be grown. In an unusually dry sea- 
son, must be counted arable. 

West of the Sierra Nevada and Cascades, we find a fine 
af^rlcultural region. Western Washington, Oregon, and Califor- 
nia. This Is the land of gigantic forest trees, the sequoias, the 
cedars, firs, and loftiest pines, the tulip tree, liquldambar and 
other forest trees, which have no rivals in the Northern Hemis- 
phere. It is also the land of wheat and barley, of Indian corn 
and oats, of the vine, and Its abundant wine product, as well as 
raisins of the best quality ; and in its southern pordon, of the 
orange, lemon and lime, the olive, the fig, the pomegranate, and 
the Madeira nut or English walnut, and the French and Italian 
chestnut. The latter is. In Italy, largely cultivated for the food- 
producing quality of Its nuts. 

The wheat crop of California Is larger than that of any other 
State, ranging from 36,000,000 to 50,000,000 bushels annually, 
and is of the very best quality, bringing. In European markets, 
higher prices than any other. It never rains in harvest-time in 
California, and, on the large grain ranches, the giant header clips 
off the heads of the wheat, sweeps them into the huge wagon- 
box from which they are shot into the threshing-machine, which 
is geared on to the header, and the reaping and threshing are 
carried on simultaneously; while the grain as it comes from the 



FARMING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE. j^^ 

threshing-machine is sacked automatically, and the sacks are 
piled in heaps in the field, remaining uninjured in the pure, 
dry air, till they are sent to market or shipped for Europe. A 
large part of the crop is shipped in July. Barley is also a very 
important crop, California producing more than one-third of the 
whole barley crop of the United States, and nearly three times 
as much as any other State. Its product in 1878 was about 
15,000,000 bushels, an average of twenty-three bushels to the 
acre, though forty to sixty bushels is not an unusual product. 
The production of oats is hardly sufficient to supply the State 
demand, being but 4,350,000 bushels in 1878, though consider- 
able dependence is placed on wild oats, which are used largely 
for hay. Indian corn Is also a small crop, about 3,500,000 bushels 
in 1878, or about thirty-five bushels to the acre. The Alfalfa and 
the various species of millet, including the pearl millet and the 
Dhourra or Egyptian rice-corn, are cultivated by the dairymen 
for fodder. Beans are largely grown. The root crops are more 
remarkable for enormous growth than for fine flavor. The 
sugar-beet yields several crops, and contains a high percentage 
of sugar. Hops are also an important crop, and other minor 
crops add to the aggregate of production. The fruits of Cali- 
fornia have a deservedly high reputation. The apple must yield 
the palm to those of Oregon, Washington, or the States and 
Territories farther East, but the pear, quince, peach, apricot, 
cherry, orange, lemon, pomegranate, fig, prune, plum, olive, cur- 
rant, strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, banana, plantain, and 
pineapple all attain a high degree of excellence and a marvellous 
size. 

In addition to the native grape and the Mission grape, both 
of which are very largely grown, every known variety of grape 
found In Europe or America is cultivated here, and both in the 
flavor and quality of the fruit, and the abundance of the yield, 
they all greatly surpass their product where they are native. 
The production of raisins was at first a partial failure, in conse- 
quence of incomplete drying, but having learned the art of 
drying these as well as most other fruits, the raisins of the sun, 
from California, in their recent samples, surpass those of any 



1^5 ^^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Other part of the globe. The dried-fruits of the State, after 
failures from careless drying, are now beginning to take rank 
with the best in the world. The California wines and brandies 
have not till recently attained to their best condition. They 
were too strongly alcoholic, fiery and heady, and were put upon 
the market before they had had sufficient age to ripen them. 
The conditions of climate and dryness were not taken into ac- 
count by the wine-growers, and the Mission grape being largely 
used for wine-making, its peculiar, earthy taste impaired the 
value of the wine. These difficulties have been, now, in a great 
measure overcome, and the present and future vintages of Cali- 
fornia will compare favorably with the best wines of Europe, 
with the additional advantage of being purer. The California 
brandy, when it has a sufficient age, is preferred by connoisseurs 
to the best cognac. There is yet, however, a considerable im- 
portation, not only of French brandies, but of the lighter and 
cheaper French wines, especially clarets, which might be made 
there of really better quality than the imported wines. 

Both Oregon and Washington Territory contain, besides their 
great amount of timber lands, and their extensive ranges for 
grazing, large tracts of fertile, arable lands. There is no lack 
of rainfall in the region west of the Cascade Mountains. At 
some points the skies weep too constantly for successful grain 
culture, but this very excess of moisture gives to the forests a 
more o-isfantic cri'owth, and to the Q-rasses a larcj-er and more vio^- 
orous development. For the most part, however, Oregon and 
Washington are well adapted to the culture of the cereals. 
Even Eastern Washington and Oregon, formerly regarded as 
a desert and rainless region, proves, notwithstanding its whitish, 
alkaline soil, and its moderate rainfall, one of the finest wheat 
regions in the world. With deep plowing no irrigation is needed, 
and the wheat, large, full-berried, and of the very best quality, 
weighing from sixty-five to sixty-nine pounds to the bushel (the 
legal weight is sixty pounds), turns out from thirty to sixty 
bushels to the acre ; many of the farms averaging from forty 
to fifty bushels for their entire crop. In 1879 the wheat crop 
of Oregon exceeded 1 0,000,000 bushels, and that of Washington 



FOREST GROWTHS. j^y 

was about half as much, simply because there were not men 
enough to sow a larger crop. All the small grains, rye, oats, 
barley, and buckwheat are successfully cultivated there; oats 
yielding from seventy to eighty bushels to the acre. Indian corn 
is a tolerably sure crop in Oregon, but less so in Washington 
on account of the cool nights. The root crops yield enormously, 
and there is a ready market for them at good prices at home 
among the lumbermen, fishermen, and manufacturing population 
of the towns. Flax, though cultivated mainly for the seed, is 
of excellent quality, the lint being longer, finer and silkier than 
elsewhere. Of fruits, the apple and pear are unsurpassed, and 
most of the small fruits are successfully cultivated. Oregon 
apples, pears, and berries command a high price in the San 
Francisco market. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



TlMHER AND LUMnER — TrEE-PlANTING — ThE FoREST GROWTHS IN DIFFERENT 

Sections — California Forests — Horticulture and Fruit-Culture — 
Floriculture — Wild Flowers — Market Gardening. 

As we have already seen, a considerable portion of this Great 
West is but scantily supplied with forest trees. In 1871, a 
careful estimate put down, in these twenty States and Territo- 
ries, the woodland, as covering 198,124,802 acres; but in the 
nine years which have since elapsed, the demand for railroad ties 
and structures, for bridges, for machinery, partly of wood, for 
mines, for dwellings, and public buildings, and for export, has 
diminished this area by nearly or quite twenty-five per cent. 
Minnesota, Missouri, Oregon, and Washington, and perhaps 
Texas, and Arkansas to a moderate extent, are the only States 
or Territories that export lumber. Montana has good timber- 
lands, but she is not as yet producing more than lumber enough 
for the home demand. Iowa, Nebraska, Dakota, Kansas, Wy- 
oming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, and Nevada, have 
not timber and lumber enough for their own needs, and are 



I ig OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

obliged to import a large share of what is consumed. The 
Indian Territory has a moderate amount, but the adjacent rail- 
roads are fast consuming it. Idaho has considerable forests on 
its mountains, but much of it is not accessible. The CTio-antic 
forests of California have been so recklessly wasted, that she now 
imports largely of timber, lumber, and fire-wood. In the prairie 
States, liberal premiums have been offered for tree-planting by 
the State authorities ; and the National Government, by their 
Timber-Culture Act and its amendments, have sought to promote 
the cultivation of forest trees. The railroad companies, which 
have laree land e^ants, have also encoura^fed tree-culture. But 
though these efforts have led to the planting of some millions of 
trees, many of them die the first or second year, and the whole 
number planted, in six or seven years, bears but a small propor- 
tion to the annual destruction of the forests. 

Irhe forest growths differ materially in different sections. In 
the northeast, Minnesota and Northern Dakota, pine is pre-emi- 
nent, though there are some of the harder woods scattered 
through the forests. In Missouri, cotton woods, and the bois d'arc 
or Osage orange, mingle v/ith the other hard woods and pine 
and hemlock. Montana has pines and firs, and some oaks, black 
walnuts, maples, etc., etc. Oregon and Washington are remark- 
able in their western halves for gigantic firs, and have also a fair 
share of pines, spruces, red cedars, and sequoias. From these 
and the almost inexhaustible forests of Alaska, and British 
Columbia, the Pacific coast will probably draw its supplies of 
lumber and timber for many years to come. The forests of 
Eastern and Middle Texas, and Arkansas, are largely composed 
of hard woods ; there are eight or ten species of oak, one an 
evergreen, though not the genuine live-oak ; chinquepin, hickory, 
black walnut, cherry and ash; and in Northern Arkansas the 
tulip tree or yellow poplar, the sweet, sour, and black gum, 
cypress and the Osage orange, etc., etc. In Northwestern Texas, 
there are some forests of pine and fir. The mountains of Ari- 
zona, Colorado, and New Mexico, are generally covered, nearly 
to the snow line, with evergreen forests (pitch, yellow, and spruce 
pine), but the trees are not usually of such gigantic size as are 



FOREST GROWTHS. ^AQ 

found on the Pacific coast. Along the streams the inevitable 
Cottonwood, locust, buckeye, box elder {iicgiuido), and maple, are 
found in moderate quantities. 

The forest growths of California are (or rather were, for, 
except in a few of the counties, they are rapidly passing away) 
for the most part wholly unlike those of the region east of the 
Rocky Mountains. Its largest trees, the sequoias, are of the red- 
wood or cedar family. The Sequoia gigantea has attained in some 
instances to a height exceeding 450 feet, and very few of them 
when their growth was attained are under 325 feet. The tallest 
now standing is said to be 376 feet in height. Their circumfer- 
ence is as remarkable as their height, ranging from eighty to one 
hundred and twenty feet. The largest now standing measures 
106 feet in circumference at its base. The Sequoia sempei^vifcns, or 
redwood of the Coast Range (the Sequoia gigantea is only 
found on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada), is but litde 
smaller than the Seqzcoia gigantea; often attaining a height of 
300 feet, and a circumference of from sixty to eighty feet. The 
sugar pine {Pimcs Lambertiana) and the Douglas' spruce {Abies 
Douglasii) both attain a height of 250 to 300 feet, with a circum- 
ference of forty to forty-five feet. The California yellow pine 
{Pimis pondeTosa) is often 225 feet high. Sabine's or the nut- 
^ine {Pi7i2is Sabiniana), the western balsam-fir {Pieea grandis), 
and the white cedar (Libocednis deeuri'ejis) all attain a height 
of 1 50 feet ; and among the deciduous trees, the burr oak, and 
the western chinquepin, one of the chestnut family, reach 125 
feet. Many other trees unknown at the east, some of them 
semi-tropical, are 100 feet or more in height. Two of the oaks 
are evergreens. 

The trees planted or raised from the seed, under the Timber, 
Culture and other acts, have been almost entirely of the rapidly 
growing kinds, the cottonwood, the ailantus, the locust, the Osage 
orange, the vine, maple, and white maple, etc. Few of these have 
much value for timber, but most of them are good for fuel, and 
some make moderately durable railroad ties. There must be 
added, however, to this list of trees, planted by settlers, one 
which is likely to prove of great value in a sanitary point of view, 



jrQ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

as well as eventually as a timber tree, the Eucalyphis globulus, 
a tree which has the reputation of arresting the progress of 
marsh miasms, and of rendering the regions in which it is planted 
healtliy. Unfortunately, this species is not hardy above latitude 
39° or 40° north, but some of the other species of Eucalyptus 
may be less susceptible to the cold. One species, found in Aus- 
tralia, contests with the Sequoia gigantea of California, the title 
to be considered the largest tree in the world. It is said to be 
at least of greater circumference. 

In the newer portions of this vast region, the farmer has been 
so intent on bringing the greatest possible amount of his grain 
or root crops to market, that there has been comparatively little 
opportunity for developing aesthetic taste in the cultivation of a 
flower-garden ; and yet in sections where two years ago the sod 
was unbroken, the grounds around the often humble cabin or 
sod-house give evidence of refinement in the variety of flowers 
already blooming there. In Iowa, Missouri, Minnesota, Nebraska, 
Kansas, Texas, California, Oregon, Nevada, and Eastern and 
Central Colorado and New Mexico, the flower-gardens are often 
gay with beautiful flowers, of kinds unknown at the East, and as 
often redolent with the sweetest perfumes. Many shrubs, which 
at the East are hardly half-hardy, and cannot in our climate be 
preserved through the winter, on the Pacific coast and in Texas, 
become trees of twenty or thirty feet in height. Among these 
we may name the fuchsia of several species, with its beautiful 
flowers of crimson, white, scarlet, yellow and blush ; the helio- 
trope, with its rich perfume, which becomes a flourishing tree; 
the mignonette, the smilax, here so delicate, there a hardy 
climber; the magnolia grandiflora, the syringa, there a stately 
tree, the lily family, etc., etc. 

Wild flowers of great beauty and fragrance abound through- 
out all this region, except the alkaline or sage-brush lands, the 
Llano Estacado and the dry mesas of Arizona, and the two latter 
during and after the scanty rains, are resplendent with brilliant 
blossoming verdure, and during their dry seasons, the cacti, 
though of uncouth and ungainly fcrms, produce flowers of gor- 
geous hues, and some of them of wonderful beauty. 



MARKE7 GARDENTNG. 1^1 

As to kitchen and market-gardens, they are found most 
abundantly In the neighborhood of the towns and cities. A large 
proportion of them are cultivated by Europeans, the Germans, 
perhaps, being most numerous among the larger market-gar- 
deners. Their products are of almost unlimited variety: cab- 
bage, cauliPiOwer, kohl-rabi, onions, leeks, garlics, early sweet 
corn, sweet potatoes, the common potato of many varieties, yams, 
okra, gumbo, asparagus, celery, spinage, and other greens, vege- 
table oysters, egg-plants, radishes, lettuce, artichokes, turnips, 
beets, mangel-wurzel, ruta-baga, carrots, parsnips, squashes, 
pumpkins, muskmelons, watermelons, citrons, cucumbers, gher- 
kins, peppers, the flavoring plants, thyme, summer-savory, sage, 
endive, peppergrass, water-cresses, parsley, orange leaves, bay 
leaves, etc., etc. Many of them deal also in the small fruits in 
their season. To those who have been accustomed to this busi- 
ness in Europe or in the Eastern States, there is a fine field for 
enterprise here ; a very few acres of the fertile soil are sufficient, 
and for some years at least, and in most cases for one or two 
generations, no manure beyond that made upon the place will 
be needed, only deep and thorough tillage, to produce such 
vegetables as cannot be produced elsewhere. In the vicinity of 
any of the rapidly growing towns of the mining region, there is 
no danger of a glut In the market for these products, and if the 
market-gardener can manage to keep two or three milch cows 
of the best grade, his milk and butter will prove addidonally 
profitable. In this connection, too, the rearing of fowls, whose 
feeding and care is inexpensive, in connection with the market- 
garden business, is a source of large profit. 



je2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

New Directions in which Agricultural Industry may be Developed, and 
IN which it is already Developing — Millet and other Forage Crops — 
Silk-Culture — Rearing the Silk-worm — Stifling the Cocoons — Reel- 
ing — The Filature — Schappe or Spun-Silk — Cocoons do not bear 
Transportation well — Advantages of Silk-Culture in the West — The 
Silkville Experiment — Prices of Raw Silk and of Silk-worm Eggs — 
Probability of a Large Demand for Raw Silk — Textile Fibres — Flax 
and Hemp — Paper Stock : Esparto Grass, Tule, Marsh-mallow, etc. — 
Ramie, Jute, Tampico — The Nettle — Dye Stuffs — Cochineal — Oil- 
Producing Plants — The Olive — Cotton-seed Oil — Hemp-seed and Lin- 
seed Oil — Oil of Sunflower Seeds and other Seeds — Sesamum Indicum 
— Tar Weed (Madia Sativa) — Pea-nut, Ground-nut or Goober — Castor 
Bean (Ricinus Communis and Sanguinarius) — Tea and Coffee Cultiva- 
tion — Fruit and Nut-bearing Trees and Shrubs — The Olive — Oranges 
and Lemons — Pomegranate — Fig — Banana, Plantain, Pineapple, Guava 
AND other Tropical Fruits — Papaw — Nut-bearing Trees and Shrubs — 
Introduction of Foreign Nuts — English Walnut — Italian Chestnut — 
Almond — Other Fruit-bearing Shrubs — Japanese Persimmon, Carob, 
Jujube, Mezquite, etc. — Trees and Shrubs containing Tannin — The 
Sumacs — The Wattles — The Spir^as or Hardhacks. 

We have already spoken of the cultivation of the Minnesota 
early amber-cane, or sorghum, and of the great impulse which 
has been given to its culture within two years past by the dis- 
covery that it contains its largest proportion of sugar, and almost 
its only crystallizable sugar, when it is ripe ; and have shown 
that not only can the seed be saved by waiting till this time, but 
that the yield of sugar is so large, and is produced by such sim- 
ple processes, that it is the most profitable crop a farmer can raise, 
and will materially diminish, if it does not entirely abolish, the 
necessity of our importing immense quantities of sugar from the 
West Indies, Demerara, Brazil and the Sandwich Islands. Our 
importation of sugars now costs us 5^,100,000,000 annually. We 
may be, within ten years, and possibly within five, exporters in- 
stead of importers of raw sugars. 

It has been ascertained that the stalks of our Indian corn yield, 
when the corn is ripe, about seventy-five per cent, of the quan- 



SIL K- CUL TURE. I e ^ 

tity of sugar produced by the amber sorghum ; that the millets, 
the Egyptian rice corn, and probably broom corn also, which is 
largely cultivated in some portions of the West, yield quite as 
much as the Indian corn. Here is a great opportunity for a new 
and lucrative industry, and there is little danger of overdoing it. 

The cultivation of the millets, and especially of the pearl millet 
and the Egyptian rice corn, already introduced into Kansas and 
some of the other States, both as a forage plant and for the 
production of sugar, and the increase in the crops of Alfalfa, 
Lucerne, Hungarian grass, and possibly some of the other forage 
grasses, is well worthy of attention. We shall have more to say 
on this subject in connection with stock-farming. The yield of 
forage from some of them is enormous. 

The rearing of silk-worms Is an industry which, if rightly man- 
aged, might be made very successful. It does not require a 
very large outlay, but will be best conducted by colonies, some 
of the members of which have been practically familiar with the 
business elsewhere. 

There is necessary, in starting the business, a plantation of 
mulberry trees, but this need not be large at first, and the tree 
grows very rapidly. The white mulberry (Moms alba) is per- 
Iiaps the best, though some prefer the black (Aforus nigra) or 
the many-leaved [Alorzcs multicaulis).^ Other trees afford food 
for silk-worms, such as the Osage orange, regarded by many as 
equal to the mulberry, the ailantus, the weeping-willow {Salix 
Babyloiiicd), the kilmarnock willow, some of the osiers, several 
species of oak, and the garden lettuce, but the silk is better from 
the mulberry than from most of the others, and if well managed, 
no more expensive. When the mulberry trees are large enough 
to furnish a good supply of leaves, the silk-worm eggs should be 
procured, and the purchaser should avoid any fancy varieties, of 
which there are many in the market, but should confine himself 
to those kinds which will produce the large, single crop sulphur 
yellow, lemon yellow, or white cocoons. These in the long run 

* M. Boissiere thinks the Lpoa or Japanese mulberry (Morus ja/om'ca) better than any other, 
as fourteen and a half pounds of its leaves will make one pound of cocoons, while of the 
white mulberry, twenty pounds are required, and of the tnoreitia new species fifteen pounds, ittd 
the rose mulberry seventeen pounds. 



ICA OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

will pay best. Shelves, or layers of brush, separated by proper 
supports, should be provided for feeding the worms, and the 
feeding, if die number is considerable, will keep the children 
pretty busy night and day for from three to five weeks. When 
the worms are ready to begin to spin, the brush is better than 
shelves or frames. When the cocoons are finished a few of the 
best shaped and largest must be reserved for the production of 
eggs, and the rest " stiHed; " /. c, the chrysalides killed, either by 
subjecting them to the fumes of camphor, or some of the other 
hydro-carbonc, or to steam heat, or baking them. It is not best 
for the families to reel tlie cocoons themselves; if there is a 
colony of silk-growers, som.e of them will probably be skilful 
reelers, and one filature or reeling establishment is enough for a 
hundred silk-growers. Machines recently invented make reeling 
on a large scale easier than it was, and if the silk-o-rowers brinof 
their cocoons at an average price to the filature, receiving their 
pay when the silk is reeled and sold, a moderate capital only will 
be required. Raw silk is not so bulky as to make its transpor- 
tation very expensive, but if at a distance from market the silk 
may be doubled, twisted, and thrown, or brought into the condition 
of tram and organzine, without any great addition to the cost. 
The pierced cocoons, or those through which the chrysalis has 
escaped, as well as wild silk-worm cocoons, if there are any, 
and the floss or outside silk of the reeled cocoons, may also be 
utilized in such an establishment, being boiled for a long time in 
soap and water, cut up, carded and spun to form the spun silk, 
or Schappe. Eventually it may be desirable to establish a factory 
for the production of sewing silk, ribbons, handkerchiefs, fringes 
and trimmings, dress goods, satins, laces, or velvets. The last are 
not as yet produced in this country. Cocoons are too bulky to 
bear long transportation, and the only successful silk-culture 
must either be, that in which one filature with skilled reelers 
works up the cocoons from a hundred families of silk-growers, 
or one in which the silk-worm eggs are produced for the market 
in large quantities. There is an active demand for these at high 
prices, but even if the business was conducted with only this 
^nd in view, the pierced cocoons might be utilized with profit. 



CAN SILK-CULTURE BE MADE PROFITABLE? 



155 



One advantage of the silk-culture is, that it occupies but a few 
weeks of the year, and most of the work can be performed by 
children, while other farm or manufacturing work can be 
prosecuted during the remainder of the year. M. Boissiere has 
established a cheese factory to employ his operatives the remain- 
der of the year. Conducted as we have indicated, it can hardly 
fail to be profitable in connection with the cultivation of other 
crops. The silk-worm disease which has so largely reduced the 
silk product of Italy and France, is not likely to be introduced here, 
but the silk-grower should select localities not subject to frequent 
and violent storms, or to severe thunder-storms, or rapid and 
extreme changes of temperature during the time of feeding, as the 
worm is then very sensitive, and easily killed, M. E. V. Boissiere, 
the French silk-grower and manufacturer already mentioned, has 
started sllk-o^rowlne and silk manufacture with a colony of French 
silk-growers on a small scale at Silkville, Williamsburg P. O., 
Franklin county, Kansas, and after a struggle of several years, 
has succeeded in producing raw silk equal in quality to the best 
French and Italian, and his worms, though originally from the 
eggs from the moths of diseased worms, have proved perfectly 
healthy. A considerable portion of the raw silk produced at 
Silkville is reeled by hand by the daughters of the silk-growers, 
who had become experts in reeling in France. 

The cocoons from French silk-worms are much larger and 
more easily reeled than those from Chinese or Japanese worms, 
and M. Crozier, M. Boissiere's manager, says that in 1878 the 
raw silk produced there brought in the French market 130 
francs the kilogram, or about ^10 a pound. At this price the 
raw silk affords a better profit than the production of silk-worm 
eggs for market, and is safer, as the price of the eggs varies 
so much, and the demand for them is liable to be below the sup- 
ply. In 1877, France alone paid 1,691,400 francs=:$338,28o tO' 
this country for silk-worm eggs ; but a part of these proving 
worthless, from bad management, there was a decided falling 
off in the demand in 1878 and 1879. 

But the price of raw silk also fluctuates widely, ranging within 
the ten years 1 868-1 878, for the best Italian, from $7.25 to 



ic6 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

^15; for the best Japanese (Maibash) from $3.75 to $9.12, and 
for the. Chinese (Tsatlee III.) from $4.25 to ^8 per jDound. In 
1878 the prices were still lower, averaging at the close of the 
year only about ^2.50 per pound, for all qualities, European and 
Asiatic. It has since advanced materially. To command the 
highest price, however, the raw silk must be reeled with the 
greatest care and skill, so as to make a uniform thread, and on 
this account it can never be done successfully by inexperienced 
hands, and is best done by machines with skilled reelers. 

The great increase in the silk manufacture in this country 
will create a large and steady demand for raw silk, and if it can 
be produced at paying prices, by the methods we have indicated, 
or if silk-factories can be established in the Western States and 
Territories, which will combine reeling with the manufacture of 
silk, this will become a favorite industry among the enterprising 
farmers of the Great West. 

Another wide field for enterprise is in the direction of the 
cultivation of a greater variety of textile fibres. Even fiax and 
hemp, the most common of the textiles after cotton, have not 
had a fair chance in the West. With the facilities afforded by 
our unrivalled machinery for the breaking of flax and hemp, 
and the abundance of pure water for bleaching, Minnesota 
and Dakota ought to have many millions of acres in these two 
crops. 

The great demand for paper stock should cover all the marsh 
lands of Missouri, Nebraska and Kansas with Esparto grass, 
tule, marsh-mallow or the cane-brake ; while farther south the 
palmetto could be produced, on lands now considered worthless, 
for the same purpose. The vast amount of wheat-straw and 
wild hay of Minnesota, Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas might 
be converted into paper and straw-board, to much greater profit 
than is gained by using both as fuel for running threshing- 
machines and factories. The new invention, by which, by chem- 
ical saturation and powerful compression, straw -board can be 
made into an artificial wood almost as hard as iron, and fit for all 
the uses of the best ornamental woods, at hardly more -than a 
tithe of their cost, ought to be worth millions of dollars to 
those States, and to California, where the straws is also burned. 



NEW TEXTILES. ,^7 

But the production of textiles is not limited to these fibres. 
Ramie, one of the most deHcate and beautiful of textiles, has 
been raised successfully in Texas and Arkansas. Jute is even 
more successfully cultivated throughout the entire region below 
forty-two degrees, and there is a steady and large demand for 
it. The various fibres known as Tampico, Honduras grass, 
Panama grass and Agave fibre, can all be raised easily and prof- 
itably in Texas, Arkansas, Arizona and New Mexico ; while the 
over-abundant cacti of Texas and Arizona can be utilized for 
the production of strong and excellent fibres suited both for rop'^ 
and bagging purposes and for paper stock. A species of cactus, 
which grows in immense jungles or "■chaparral'' in Southern 
California, has already been utilized for making mattresses, for 
which its beautiful white and easily-curled elastic fibre, fit it 
admirably. 

The Germans have achieved a good degree of success in cul 
tivating ike nettle, both for its textile fibres and as a good and 
desirable fodder. They cultivate their native plant, the Urtica. 
dioica, but the Doehmeria nivea, a Chinese and Indian nettle, from 
which comes the China grass, or Ramie, is said to be better where 
the climate is not too cold. A Canadian species, Urtica Can- 
nabina, is also highly commended. The cultivation is very 
simple ; the nettle w^U grow on the very poorest land (though, 
of course, larger and better on that which is richer) ; its fibres 
are finer and better than hemp, and fully equal to the best flax, 
and it will yield from 300 to 500 pounds of white, fine fibre to 
the acre, while it is more easily hackled than either flax or hemp. 
It is worth a trial. The fodder can be saved in cutting it for 
the fibre, and is much relished by cattle. 

Since the discovery and large production of the aniline colors 
from coal and gas tar, there has been a decreasing demand for 
madder, cochineal and other vegetable and animal dyes, but 
there is yet a considerable call for them, if only for the extrac- 
tion of their ultimate coloring principles. Yet the cultivation 
of madder is not more difficult than that of most root crops, 
and where it is grown on a large scale the extraction of its active 
principle, alizarine, will afford large profit. 



1^8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The cochineal is composed of the dried bodies of insects 
which feed upon the cactus, and the most widely diffused species 
of it. Their entomological name is Coccus cacti, and beside the 
usefulness of the cactus in furnishing textile fibres, it can be util- 
ized to any required extent, in Arizona and Western Texas, in 
rearing this valuable little insect. 

Another new direction for farming industry is found in the 
cultivation of oil-producing plants. The olive will flourish and 
yield fruit in most of the region south of the 38th parallel. It 
endures drought well, and will mature its valuable fruit, evL-n in 
Arizona and New Mexico; and both the fruit and oil will com- 
mand a ready market. It is already cultivated to some extent in 
California and Texas, and its culture deserves to be greatly 
increased. 

The extraction of oil, and the sale of the oil-cake from the 
cotton-seed, is an industry which is already becoming very exten- 
sive in Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas, and is a great boon to 
the cotton-planter, transforming, as it does, what was formerly a 
nuisance into a valuable product. But there are other plants and 
seeds which furnish equally valuable oils, and which may be cul- 
tivated with very litde labor. We have already spoken of the 
culture of flax and hemp under the head of textiles : but the 
seeds of each are very valuable both in their natural condiuon, 
and crushed, or ground, and pressed, yielding the linseed and 
hemp oils, so valuable in the arts, and the oil-cake, in demand for 
fattening catde, and increasing the quandty and quality of the 
milk of milch cows. Other oil-producing plants, which admit of 
easy cukivation and yield a liberal return, are the Sun/lower, 
which yields from 275 to 300 pounds of oil per acre, and an ex- 
cellent oil-cake, and has a deservedly high reputadon for absorb- 
ing and rendering innocuous, marsh exhalations; the two spe- 
cies of colewort (the common and curled) which yield from 650 
to 875 pounds of oil to the acre, and almost a ton of seed ; the 
winter and summer rape, which furnishes also good fodder, while 
the seed is in demand aside from its use in furnishing oil ; the 
Swedish turnip-seed, and the turnip cabbage-seed, both yielding 
a good manufacturing oil; the gold-of-pleasure and the white 



OIL-PRODUCING PLANTS. jcg 

poppy — all of these yield from 550 to 650 pounds of oil to the 
acre. The Sesamtim mdicum, which erows well in the region 
below the parallel of 39°, is one of the most valuable of oil-pro- 
ducing plants in the world. It yields about forty per cent, of oil, 
and is an annual of simple and easy cultivation. The black- 
seeded variety is the best. It is sown thinly in drills. The oil, 
for all medicinal and pharmaceutical purposes, is fully equal to 
the best olive-oil, and keeps for many years without becoming- 
rancid. It is preferred in the East, for table purposes, to the best 
olive-oil, and from its freedom from smell, is much used for ex- 
tracting the perfume of fragrant flowers. The expressed cake 
is mixed with honey and preserved citron as a conserve, and 
without admixture, furnishes a food for bees. It is already cul- 
tivated to some extent in the South. 

The tar-weed [Madia satwa) is found abundantly on the 
Pacific Slope, where it is indigenous. Its seeds contain an oil 
which is used as a salad-oil, and for all purposes to which olive-oil 
is applicable. It is easily cultivated, and yields from 550 to 650 
pounds of oil to the acre. It is used in Europe largely to mix 
with olive-oil. 

But, after all, the most profitable of the oil-producing plants 
for cultivation, is the groundnut, or pea-nut, usually called 
goober in the Southwest. It will grow on light or gravelly 
soil, and with decent cultivation should yield from forty to sixty 
bushels to the acre, and has been known to yield from i 20 to 
125 bushels. The whole plant is valuable. The vine makes 
excellent forage or fodder, the tubers or nuts are much in 
demand, when baked or roasted, by children and some adults. 
The oil expressed from them is of excellent quality, fully equal 
to olive-oil, and for many purposes superior, as for illuminating 
and lubricating purposes. It does not readily become rancid, 
and is very sweet and delicate. The pea-nut is largely imported 
into France, and the oil expressed there, and sold as the best 
olive-oil. The oil is also produced largely in the East India 
Islands, and on the African coast, whence it is exported to be 
used in the manufacture of the finest soaps. The nuts are also 
ground up and mixed with cacao, for the manufacture of choco- 



l5o OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

late, and in the production of chocolate for confectionery — the 
cacao is now generally omitted. 

Taking all its uses into account, there is hardly a more surely 
profitable crop than pea-nuts, especially if enough engage in it to 
warrant the erection of an oil mill. The price of nuts per bushel 
has varied in the past from sixty cents to ^2.25 ; but they are not 
likely to fall below $1.25 per bushel hereafter. The yield of oil 
is from forty to forty-five per cent, of their weight. 

The castor bean yields a crop which always has a prompt, 
though not a very high market value. It grows readily s^nd 
rapidly, and the gathering of the crop is easily accomplished. It 
has been raised to a considerable extent in Kansas, Nebraska, 
Texas, and perhaps some of the other States. The crop seems 
to have been carelessly cultivated or gathered, for, on soils like 
those where it was grown, the average crop should be at least, 
twenty to twenty-five bushels to the acre, while in very few in- 
stances did it exceed fifteen bushels, and in the majority it was 
only ten or eleven. The price paid for the beans was about one 
dollar a bushel, a price which gives a very large profit to the 
mills which express the oil, inasmuch as the beans should yield 
forty-seven per cent, of oil.'-' With more care in cultivating the 
crop, and a sufficient number engaged in raising it in one neigh- 
borhood to sustain a co-operative mill in the vicinity, the crop 
might become a tolerably profitable one. 

There are undoubtedly some districts of considerable extent 
in the Great West, where, under favorable circumstances, both 
tea and coffee might be successfully cultivated, the former 
especially, and yet we hesitate to commend it as a desirable in- 
dustry, for several reasons ; it requires a consider9,ble invest- 
ment, though not all in one year; there are no returns under six 
or seven years, and the tea gardens must be sufficiently extensive 
to warrant the establishment of a large factory with many 
employes to prepare the teas, while there are so many opportu- 
nities for investing capital, which will bring a quick return, that 

* It is probable that the Ricintts snnguinarius, or the Riciitus minor, both French species of the 
castor bean, would yield more bushels to the acre, ami more oil to the bushel, than the Riciniti 
communis, the species most generally cultivated here. 



TEA AND COFFEE CULTURE— SUB-TROPICAL FRUFTS. i5£ 

it is difficult to command It for such an enterprise. Further- 
more it is uncertain whether the leaves can be cured in such a 
way as to enable them to compete successfully with the Assamese, 
Chinese, and Japanese teas ; and even if they were superior to 
them in flavor and quality, whether the public taste, which always 
prefers foreign to home-made productions, would regard them 
with favor. The coffee plantations require a still longer period 
of waiting before obtaining the first crop, though there is less 
time and skill required in its preparation for the market, when 
it is brought to the bearing condition. Coffee is, however, 
essentially a tropical production, and though there is a possibility 
of success in its cultivation, in Southern California, Arizona, and 
Southern Texas, there is hardly sufficient certainty to warrant the 
outlay necessary to make it a product of any great commercial 
value. 

There remain to be considered the fruit and nut-bearing trees 
and shrubs which admit of profitable cultivation. We have 
already spoken of the olive, valuable alike for its fruit, its oil and 
its beautiful wood. Its cultivation has been attempted on a 
small scale with a fair measure of success, in Texas and Southern 
California, and perhaps also in New Mexico. It was cultivated, 
though with no great care and probably not of the best varieties, at 
the Jesuit Missions, and though these trees from long neglect 
have grown wild, they would furnish stocks for grafting the 
newer varieties upon. It is probable that the olive might be 
profitably cultivated in all the region south of the 39th parallel, 
which is not too elevated. It is worth the trial, for though the 
numerous substitutes for olive-oil may to some extent reduce its 
value, yet the olive has too many good qualities ever to become 
an unprofitable tree. The orange and lemon, which have become 
so popular and profitable in Florida, are already cultivated to 
some extent in Louisiana, Texas and Southern Caliiornia, and 
might be, if they are not, in Southern Arizona. It is probable 
that some of the varieties from China or Persia, if not the several 
native varieties, might be cultivated as far north as the 38th 
parallel, though most of them would be injured by the occasional 
severe frosts which, at rare intervals, extend almost to the Gulf 



l52 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

coast of Texas. One species, the Citi^us Japonica, or Kum-quat, 
bears a small but excellent orange, and is perfectly hardy. The 
lemon is not as hardy as the orange, but its culture is even more 
profitable. The shaddock, or large bitter orange, and the Seville, 
or bitter orange of the south of Europe, are both more hardy 
than most of the sweet varieties, but their fruit is less profitable. 
The citron, from the thick peel or rind of which the preserved 
citron of commerce is prepared, is not, we believe, cultivated on 
this continent, and its culture is diminishing in Europe. When 
an orange-grove is not in danger of frost it becomes in time 
imniensely profitable, but it yields very little (and it is better 
that it should not mature any) fruit till it is ten years old. From 
the tenth to the twentieth year it will yield every year a good 
and constantly increasing crop of fruit, and a still larger one 
each year, from the twentieth to the thirtieth year. In an ordinar- 
ily healthy growth, without forcing, it does not attain its full matur- 
ity till about its thirtieth year. We have not deemed it necessary, 
in the case of either the tea or the orange-culture, to go into 
details, in regard to the processes of cultivation, or the prepa- 
ration of the products for the market. In the case of the tea, 
these are not well settled, and in that of the orange and lemon, 
different climates and different varieties require diverse treatment. 
Those who contemplate their culture will be, necessarily, persons 
having considerable capital at command, and they will do well 
to make a special study of the subject, before investing. For 
this purpose, there are numerous essays and treatises to be had, 
some of them giving the results of careful, protracted, and 
intelligent experience. 

T\\Q pomegranale is already cultivated in California and Texas, 
as well as in the Gulf States east of the Mississippi. Its delicious 
fruit finds a ready market at good prices, and the imperfect fruit 
is in demand for the manufacture of citric acid. It is capable of 
successful cultivation in all the region south of the 39th parallel, 
except those portions which are too elevated or too dry for fruit- 
culture. 

The cultivation of the fig is not new in California, Arizona, 
Texas, Arkansas, or Louisiana, but it is capable of great exten- 



INDIGENOUS AND FOREIGN NUTS AND FRUITS. ig^ 

sion, and could be profitably grown, eldier for die fresh or dried 
fruit in Southern Kansas, Southern Colorado, New Mexico, Ari- 
zona (wherever irrigation is possible, or there is sufficient rain- 
fall), and nearly the whole of California. There are few fruits 
which yield as good a return from a small expenditure of labor* 
The banana, plantain, pine apple, guava, and other tropical fruits, 
flourish in the southern counties of Texas and Southern Califor- 
nia, though they are at rare intervals, even there, affected by 
frost. The papaw, our indigenous fruit of the banana family, is 
hardier and ripens regularly in all the region south of the 40th 
parallel. It is worth cultivating, and might be so improved as to 
be a rival of the plantain. The indigenous nut-bearing trees and 
shrubs, the hickory-nut, butter-nut, black walnut, chestnut, beech- 
nut, and hazel-nut, in the North ; the piilon or edible nut of one 
of the species of pine in the region west of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, and the pecan nut, chinquepin, and filbert, which, though 
not indigenous, grows wild, in the South, are all capable of exten- 
sive propagation, though the chestnut only thrives on soils of a 
particular quality. The pecan is one of the best of our indige- 
nous nuts, and grows on a shrub or bush of moderate height. 

The foreign nuts which are already partially introduced, and 
which are likely to prove profitable in cultivation, are : i. The Eng- 
lish walnut, sometimes called also the Madeira nut, a fine, stately 
tree, which at twelve years of growth yields a large crop annu- 
ally of the very fine nuts we know as English walnuts. 2. The 
Italian chestnut, whose large nuts yield a nutritious flour, and 
one which keeps well for two years or more. In Tuscany and 
Lucca, there are several millions of these trees, and the flour 
from the chestnuts furnishes the principal, and sometimes the 
entire farinaceous food of many thousands of the inhabitants. 
This, too, is a stately tree, and proves easy of culture here, while 
it may be readily grafted upon our native chestnut. It is admir- 
ably adapted to the western slopes of our mountains, and will 
thrive luxuriously there. 3. The almond, which being a con- 
gener of the peach, thrives wherever the, peach can be success- 
fully cultivated. The soft-shell almond is not as hardy as the 
hard-shell, and a sharp frost is fatal to either ; but in Southern 



i54 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



California, Arizona, Southern New Mexico, and Texas, both can 
be, and are successfully cultivated. The pistachio nut is also on 
trial, and will probably prove successful. Of other fruit-bearing 
shrubs and trees, we may name the Japanese persimmon, lately 
introduced, and said to be an excellent fruit, much superior to 
our native species, which however has some good qualities ; the 
carob, a legume-bearing tree, whose pods and beans are sup- 
posed to have been the husks fed to the swine, in the parable of 
the prodigal son ; the jujube, whose pulp forms the material for 
the jujube paste of commerce, and the mezquite, indigenous in 
Texas, whose bark and root yield tannin in large quantities, 
whose pods furnish a nutritious food, and whose gum is almost 
identical with £fum trafjacanth. 

Of trees and shrubs containing large amounts of tannin of 
tannic acid, besides the mezquite, there are five or six species of 
the rhus or sumac ; four at least native, and containing from eight 
to twenty-five per cent, of tannin, and two foreign, the Venetian 
and the Sicilian sumac, which contain a little more. These are 
both cultivated here.* The wattle, an Australian tree of the 
acacia family, of which there are two species — the golden and the 
black wattle. Acacia pycnantha and dccurrcns — is also a valuable 
tree for the tannin Its bark produces. It attains its full growth 
In ten years, yields from twenty-four to thirty-six per cent, of 
tannin, and its wood is valuable for fences, for tools, and for fuel, 
being nearly or quite equal to hickory, for the last purpose. It 
grows in dry soils, and in almost rainless regions, and would be 
of great value for planting on the plains under the Timber- 
Culture Act. 

All the species of Spiraea contain a large percentage of 
tannin. Some of these, as the Spiraea tomcntosa, or common 
hardback, and Spiraea alba, or white hardback, are common 
weeds, and can be easily raised on the poorest lands, yielding 
three to five tons to the acre. The extract from this would be 



* We are not aware that the bark of the ailantus has ever been tested for tannin, but as i\ 
belongs to the sumac family, it is reasonable to suppose that it may be somewhat rich in that 
principle. If it should prove to be, its rapid growth would make it nearly as valuable as the 
wattles of which mention is made above. 



TREES AND SHRUBS CONTAINING TANNIN. 1 65 

superior to the best bark extract. The foreign species are of 
larirer orowth and are much cultivated as ornamental shrubs. It 

o o 

is doubtful whether they contain a larger proportion of tannin 
than the native species. 

New forms of industry and profitable labor in connection with 
farming, are constandy brought to the attention of the public, 
some of them valuable, others valueless ; but those which have 
been detailed in this chapter are sufficiently numerous to satisfy 
any ordinary ambition ; they have all been tested, and none of 
them, like the cultivation of the opium poppy, which has been 
commended by some writers, are of a character which will in- 
jure rather than benefit mankind. 



CHAPTER XV. 

Stock-raising — Cattle-herding, and the rearing of Horses and Mules — 
The Grazing Lands — The Stock-growing Region, par excellence — Win- 
ter Care of Stock — Number of Cattle in the West in 1879 — The 
Herdsmen or Cow-Boys — Stock-raising profitable if well managed — 
Stock-raising in Texas — Climatic Advantages — Pasturing on the Great 
Ranges, or on one's own Land — Expense of rearing Cattle in Texas — 
The two Extremes in Stock-raising in Texas — Examples — Beginning on 
a small Scale — Growth of a Texas Stock-Ranche — Stock-raising in 
Kansas and Colorado — Joint Stock Management of a Ranche — The 
Colorado Cattle Company's Estate of Hermosillo — Another Colorado 
Company — Statistics — The Estimate of Mr. A. A. Hayes, Jr. — The 
Difference of Profit between "Store" Cattle and "Fat" Cattle — 
Mr. Barclay's Account — The English View of the Matter — Stock- 
raising IN the Northern and Northwestern States and Territories — 
Shelter and Food for Stock — Future Advantages for Shipping Choice 
Stock from these States and Territories to Europe — Dairy-Farming — 
Stock-raising and Dairy-Farming in California — Horse-Farming ano 
Rearing — Mules — Camels. 

We have already spoken of the vast extent of grazing lands 

found In this great Western Empire. What is the actual area 

^of these lands can only be approximately estimated, since every 

year large districts, previously supposed to be only available 

for grazing and almost worthless even for that purpose, are 



1 56 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

found to be susceptible of cultivation, and to yield Immense 
crops when subjected to culture. There are, furthermore, many 
tracts which have not yet been surveyed and are really unex- 
plored even by the Indian, or the hunter and trapper; in some, 
and perhaps many, of these there are beautiful valleys, narrow, 
yet covered with a rich and succulent herbage, which will fatten 
and nourish large herds of cattle. As nearly as we can estimate, 
there must be somewhat more than a million of square miles of 
these grazing lands ; enough to supply the whole world with 
beef, mutton, leather, and wool. 

Most of the States and Territories have considerable tracts of 
grazing lands, but the stock-growing regions,, pai' excellence, are 
Dakota, Montana, a part of Idaho, Eastern Washington, and 
Oregon, California, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Western 
Nebraska, Western Kansas, the Indian Territory, and Western 
Texas. Texas has at present larger herds of cattle than any 
other section, and exports live-stock and the carcasses of slaugh- 
tered beef in refrigerator steamers to Europe in large quantities; 
but the finest beeves sent to our Eastern markets and to Europe 
are those from Colorado, Western Kansas and Nebraska, Mon- 
tana, Dakota, and Wyoming. The native grasses of the Rocky 
Mountain parks and valleys are unrivalled for their nutritive 
qualities, and cattle fed on them will fatten with but very little 
orain. When the immiofrants besran to pour into the Pike's Peak 
region in great numbers, in 1858 and 1859, many of them lost 
everything except their cattle, and in their despair, finding these 
unable to draw their loads any further, they unyoked them and 
turned them out into the parks and grazing lands of that region 
to shift for themselves, believing that they would not be able to 
endure the fast approaching winter. The cattle went off, and 
for several months nothing was seen of them. The settlers at 
length started out to find their bones, but to their great surprise 
found them not only alive, but fat and sleek from the nutritious 
buffalo and gamma grasses, which, though cured by the sun, re- 
tained all their sweetness and nourishment. 

In most of this Rocky Mountain region there is no winter 
shelter for cattle, and they hardly need any oftener than one 



STOCK-RAISING AND CATTLE-HERDING. 167 

winter in ten. A few of the more prudent stockmen put up 
rough, cheap sheds, and cut with a mowing-machine a score or 
two tons of the natural grasses, against a long or cold storm; 
but it is so seldom that these precaudons are necessary, that 
their fellow-stockmen laugh at them for their carefulness. Even 
in Montana and Dakota the pasturage grounds are so seldom 
visited by severe or desolating storms, that provision for them 
is the exception and not the rule. In Oregon and Washington 
somewhat greater attention is paid to the sheltering of the 
stock, but in California no effort is made in that direction. 

The aggregate amount of cattle in the Great West, at the end 
of 1878, was estimated by the Agricultural Department as 
3,350,400 milch cows, and 12,259,000 oxen and other cattle. 
The estimate was below the truth, as the local statistics show, 
and especially in Colorado and the Territories. To this total of 
15,609,400 neat catde were to be added over three million head 
in the Territories not estimated by the department. The aggre- 
gate numbers at the close of 1879 were certainly not less than 
19,000,000, and this increase was probably in about the same 
ratio in milch cows and in oxen and other cattle. The net in- 
crease in the great herds is about forty-five per cent, a year, 
though occasionally, in a year of unusually severe weather, it 
may fall off to thirty-five or thirty-eight per cent. In Texas and 
in the large herding districts elsewhere, no attempt is made to 
obtain the milk for use or for the production of butter or cheese, 
dairy-farming being regarded as an entirely distinct business 
from stock-raising, and having no connection with it. This dis- 
tinction is carried so far in Texas, that the largest stock-growers, 
owning from 10,000 to 50,000 head of cattle, either purchase 
their milk, butter and cheese, or go without it. 

The cattle are under the care of herders or "cow-boys," who 
see that they are driven to the best pasture, and where they can 
have a good supply of water. These cow-boys lead a lonely and 
hard life, being in the saddle most of the day, and lodging in 
small and comfortless huts at night. Once a year, there is what 
is called a "round up," when the vast herds of different owners, 
which have pastured together over the great tracts of as yet 



1 68 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

unsurveyed government lands, are brought together, and each 
owner or his herdsmen separate their own herds, and brand 
the calves which follow their mothers. This is a time of excite- 
ment, and where the herds are large and wild, of considerable 
daneer, as should one of the herdsmen be unhorsed in front of 
the rushing herds, he would be trampled to death instantly. 
The herdsmen are usually very expert in the use of the lariat or 
lasso, and will bring a refractory cow or bullock to its knees in a 
moment, with the most unerring precision. The cattle intended 
for slaughter or shipping are usually caught in this way. A 
large proportion of the Texas and California herdsmen are 
Mexicans, but in Colorado, Kansas, Montana, and Wyoming a 
majority are Americans, English, Irish, and Canadians. The 
usual wages are from ^i6 to ^20 per month and food and 
lodofinof. 

Properly managed, the business of raising stock is profitable, 
hut it requires considerable capital, or if that is wanting, a 
thorough knowledge of the business and good executive ability, 
to achieve any marked success. Time is an important element 
in the profitable management of this as well as of farming and 
fruit-culture. The man who begins, even with a very moderate 
capital, takes good care of his stock, improves the breed 
carefully, and watches the small leaks, which ruin so many men, 
will find himself at the end of ten or twelve years, with a herd 
of cattle, which will yield him an ample income each year. 

Of course there are differences in the mode of management 
of herds of cattle in the different regions in which this is a 
prominent Industry. In Texas, the stock-raiser has some great 
advantages, and some disadvantages. One great advantage is 
the climate, which entirely precludes the necessity of any winter 
provision for his stock ; they are better provided on the range, 
if they can have easy access to water, than they could be if shut 
up in a corral, or provided with hay, or even green forage. He 
has the advantage also in regard to his pasturage lands; he need 
not, unless he chooses, pay out a dollar for all the grazing land 
he desires to occupy, especially in Northwestern Texas, or if he 
prefers that his cattle should not become so wild, as they may 



STOCK-RAISING IN TEXAS. I^ 

become on the great range, and wishes to have them where he 
can give some attention to them, and prevent them straying 
away, he can buy one, two, three, or a dozen square leagues of 
grazing lands, at a mere nominal price of a few cents per acre, 
and is not required to fence it; in this case he must employ a 
herdsman to every 1,500 or 2,000 head of cattle, though he will 
save most of the expense of rounding up, which he w^ould have 
if the herd were looked after only once a year, when they were 
to be branded. Of course, the expenses of rearing cattle are 
much less here than farther north; the first cost of cows with 
calves being only from ^S to $15, and of stock cattle from ^4 to 
^7 ; and Mexican herdsmen and rounders being plenty at from 
^12 to ^18 per month; but on the other hand, Texas cattle are 
not as large or as fat as those raised farther north, and do not 
command as high a price. Until 1872 or 1873 there was little 
effort made to improve the breeds of cattle in that State, but 
since that time, many Durham, Hereford and Devon bulls have 
been imported into the State. 

In Texas, more than in any other State or Territory, are found 
the two extremes of stock-raising ; the wealthy patriarch with his 
herds of 40,000, 50,000, 80,000, or even 100,000 cattle, perhaps 
1 5,000 or 20,000 horses, and 20,000 to 50,000 sheep ; and possi- 
bly in the same county, or as near as circumstances will permit, 
the small herdsman with his eighty or one hundred cows, two 
or three bulls, and possibly one or two hundred sheep ; and it is 
often the case that the man who now counts his cattle by tens or 
scores of thousands, began, twenty-five or thirty years ago, on a 
scale no laro-er than his humble nelcrhbor. Father Nuoent, an 
English Catholic priest, who visited Texas and spent some 
months there, wrote to the Liverpool Times, August 12th, 1S71 : 
" Here is one of a hundred examples of a poor man becoming 
rich without a copper. Twenty-five yeaj^s ago an Irishman en- 
gaged with a stock-raiser. There was no money to be given, 
but he was to be boarded and found in everything, and In the 
place of wages he was to receive one cow and a calf each month. 
Now he is worth ^100,000 in cash, and sends to market each 
year from fifteen to twenty thousand head of cattle. Here Is a 



j-Q OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

sailor, formerly a man before the mast, who has now six steam, 
ers on the Rio Grande, 80,000 head of cattle, 25,000 head of 
horse stock, 12,000 sheep, and 150,000 acres of land, and last 
year invested ^29,000 In the Jackson & New Orleans Railroad." 
Thomas O'Connor, a soldier in the Texan war of independence, 
received his discharge in 1837, when his only earthly possessions 
were a Spanish pony, saddle and bridle, two old belt-pistols, one 
of them broken off at the breech, and an old rifle-gun. He went 
into the business of raising stock on this capital, and forty years 
later had 80,000 head of cattle, 500 saddle and stock horses, 
and 26,664 acres of land, with a river front of six leagues. In 
1 85 1, a gentleman named Adams started a ranche (or grazing 
farm) twelve miles west of San Antonio with only 200 head of 
cattle. Upon his death his sons continued the business, and in 
1877 sold the ranche, delivering to the purchasers 68,000 head 
of catde. In 1S58 Captain Richard King, who had been a cabin- 
boy on board a coasting vessel, came to Texas with a capital of 
pluck and energy, but with no money. Selecting a ranche at 
Santa Gertrudes, thirty-five miles west of Corpus Christi, he 
commenced rearing stock in a very small way. In 1S78, twenty 
years later, he had 60,000 acres of land all fenced, over 50,000 
head of cattle, more than 10,000 horses and mules, 22,000 sheep, 
and 8,000 Angora and grade goats. He brands 15,000 calves 
yearly, sends about 10,000 beeves to market every year, and 
30,000 fleeces, besides a large number of horses and mules. 

The beginners on a small scale having, we will say, a ranche 
of 2,000 acres, which will not cost, on the pasturage lands of 
Texas, more than ^1,000, and with the cabins, corrals, etc., from 
^300 to $500 more, can purchase 100 cows with calves for from 
^12 to ^14 each, and two good Hereford or Durham bulls at 
^50 each— the entire investment not exceeding ^3,000. The 
milk from these cows, allowing one-half to the calves, will fur- 
nish milk, butter, and cheese enough to support the family from 
the first, with the aid of a small vegetable garden. The calves 
being detained for six months in the corral, and " roped off," 
after drawing about half the milk, the cows will be gentle and 
come home at night regularly, — until the herd becomes too large 



STOCFC-RAISTNG IN KANSAS AND COLORADO. I'j i 

to be managed easily at the homestead. The increase from this 
stock, as has been demonstrated by repeated experiment, will be 
in twelve years not less than 14,537, Selling off a portion from 
year to year, at a fair market valuation, and the remainder at 
the end of twelve years to close out the business, will show the 
aggregate receipts to have been not less than ^101,750, aside 
from the value of the ranche, which will have more than doubled 
in that time. From this is only to be deducted the cost of an 
extra hand after the fifth year and an additional one each year 
thereafter. For this expense ^4,250 is an ample allowance, 
leaving $97,500 net for the twelve years' work. The stock will 
support itself without the outlay of a dollar for hay or grain. 
This shows a very handsome profit, even with stock at low 
prices. But, of course, the profit of a great ranche, properly 
managed, is proportionately greater. 

In Kansas and Colorado stock-ranches or farms are managed 
somewhat differently. The buffalo and gama, or gamma grass, 
of the unbroken pasturage lands, is somewhat more nutritious 
and fattening than that of Texas, and the stocks of cattle are of 
better blood. At present it is not difficult to obtain pasturage 
for even a large herd, on unsurveyed government lands, the 
stock-raiser entering perhaps three quarter-sections under the 
Pre-emption, Homestead, and Timber Culture Acts, in order to 
secure water for his herd. But there is this difficulty in regard 
to these unsurveyed lands, that the surveys are going on with 
considerable rapidity, the frontier of arable farming lands is 
pushing westward at the rate of fifteen or twenty miles a year ; 
and ere long the stock-raiser will find himself pushed by the tide 
of farming immigrants, and will be compelled " to move on." 
Congress has now before it a bill to sell the pasturage lands 
supposed to be only fit for pasturage, at a low rate, in lots of 
four miles square, or about 8,000 acres, reserving its mineral 
rights below the soil. It will thus be possible to obtain, in per- 
petuity, stock ranges at a moderate price. 

The purchasable stock in these States is of better grade than 
the Texas cows or steers, and brings better prices. Cows are 
worth from $18 to ^20 per head at three years old, and steers 



1^2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

from ^8 to ^lo at two years old. No sensible stock-raiser would 
think of purchasing any but the best pure blood or high grade 
bulls. There must also be some provision made for the shelter, 
either by sheds or by means of natural or planted forests, if not 
for the feedinof of cattle from the severe storms of the elevated 
grazing lands of Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming ; and the wise 
manager will provide a moderate supply of good hay or forage 
and shelter for the storms which sometimes sweep down from 
the north. The herders or cow-boys are of a higher grade than 
most of the Texan herders, and command usually ^20 a month, 
with food and shelter, etc., found. 

All this costs money, but the Kansas and Colorado cattle have 
so high a reputation, both at the East and in England, that they 
command high prices and pay a large profit. But it results from 
this condition of things that stock-raising cannot be very success- 
fully carried on in these States, or indeed, in most of those north 
of the thirty-seventh parallel, except on at least a moderately 
large scale. A man with little or no capital, but thoroughly ac- 
quainted with the business and the care of stock, can make a 
good arrangement for conducting the business with a capitalist, 
who does not understand it, putting his skill and knowledge 
against the other's capital, and perhaps taking his salary in cat- 
tle. In many cases these large ranches are owned by joint-stock 
companies, and the business is conducted by a manager, who, if 
honest and capable, can, in a few years, make an immense for- 
tune for his employers, and a very satisfactory one for himself. 

Let us give one example of stock-raising on a large scale in 
Colorado : the Colorado Cattle Company's estate of Hermosillo, 
in Pueblo and Huerfano counties, on the Huerfano river and its 
tributaries. The estate consists of 91,000 acres, with half a mil- 
lion acres more of mountain land dependent upon it. Four 
thousand acres were under cultivation by the former owner, 
Colonel Craig, and yielded forty bushels of wheat to the acre ; 
seventy-five to eighty of corn, seventy-five of oats, and abun- 
dance of vegetables; 15,000 acres were in timber, mostly of the 
larger evergreens, and the remainder of the estate was dotted 
with clumps of the piuon pine, affording shelter to the stock. 



PROFITS OF A CATTLE-RANCHE. 



r73 



The sale was for ^350,000, and included 10,000 steers of the 
best grades, 100 Kentucky and Canadian bulls, great numbers 
of horses, sheep, goats, etc. The company immediately placed 
upon It 20,000 additional steers for fattening, and increased 
materially the number of cows, bulls and other stock, intending 
to feed their cattle with grain, before sending them to market, 
and to make this the most complete and extensive stock-ranche 
in the Union. One large source of profit is found in purchasing 
steers two years old, of good breeds, and keeping them a year 
or more at a very small expense, and selling them well fattened 
for the markets. A profit of from ^10 to ^15 per Head can be 
made on them, and the net profit, as in the case of this company, 
would be more than 5^200,000 per year. 

The following table, copied from Mr. Frank Fossett's "Colo- 
rado," gives the profits on the cattle increase alone for seven 
years. The company is supposed to have a nominal capital of 
^500,000, but there is nothing to indicate that more than one- 
half of it was paid up. The profits were to be enhanced by the 
purchase of, say, 5,000 two-year old steers each year, and their 
sale, after fattening, a year later. The amount of land is not 
stated, but it could not be less than 25,000 acres, with a 
reserve of unsurveyed Government lands, of perhaps 30,000 
acres more, for which no rent is paid. 

COWS. 



Year. 


7, ^ 






Value when 
yearlings at 
gio per head. 


„T3 

J! s 0, 


2 


u 

S nl <« 


One 

Two 

Three 

Four 

Five 

Six 

Seven 

Original Cows 
at ^18 a head 

* . 


4,000 
4,000 
5,600 
7,200 
9,440 
12,200 
16,096 

4,000 


3,200 
3,200 
4,480 
5-760 
7.552 
9.856 
12,877 


1,600 
1,600 

2,240 
2,8So 

3.776 
4,928 
6,438 


$16,000 
16,000 

22,400 
28,800 
37,760 
49,280 

at $6 per head 


^8,000 
8,000* 
11,200 
14,400 
18,880 


$4,800 
4,800 
6,720 
8,640 


$28,800 

28,800 
40,320 
51,840 
56,640 
49,280 

38,628 

72,000 

$366,308 

















174 



OUR WESTERN E: MP IRE. 

STEERS. 



Year 






urt 


c "-d 

111 


Increascd Value 

when iwo yr's old 

ai $6 per head. 


Increased Value 
when ihree yr's 
old ai gio a head. 




One 


and Heife 


r Cqlvpc 


1,600 
1,600 
2,240 
2,880 

3.776 
4,928 

6,438 

; 3^ nhnvp 


$16,000 
16,000 
22,400 
28,800 
37,760 
49,280 

■It $6 per Iiead 


$9,600 
9,600 
I3'440 
17,280 
22,656 


$16,000 
16,000 
22,400 
28,800 


$41,600 
41,600 
58,240 
74,880 
60,416 
49,280 
38,628 

364,644 
366,308 

$730,952 


Two 

Three 


Four 

Five 


Six 




Seven 


Add for Cow.s 


Total product 
ing cost of C 


in seven years of 4,000 C 

^ows 


3WS costing ^72,000, includ- 









The profits or increase on the seventh year alone would be $254,792, or 
more than fifty per cent, on the capital of $500,000. The profits on the eighth 
year would be $327,444; and for the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth 
years a constantly increasing proportion, viz.: ninth year $452,322, tenth 
year $519,473, and so on. 

To this may be added the profit each year of buying- 5,000 
two-year old steers and selHng the next year at ^10 or more ad- 
vance, netting ^50,000 of clear profit, which is much more than 
the annual cost of running the ranche. The annual increase of 
calves is calculated at 80 per cent, of the number of cows, allow- 
ing 20 per cent, (a liberal allowance) for accidents and losses, 
Mr. Fossett makes no estimate of the cost of the ranche and 
necessary buildings, and in his estimate of stock, makes no esti- 
mate for the bulls. Of these, for the herd with which they com- 
menced, eighty full-blood Herefords or Durhams, costing not 
over $6,000 (the best are the cheapest), or, if Holsteins, perhaps 
$8,000, would insure cattle which would bring the highest prices 
in the market. As these cattle are raised for beef, and not for 
milkers, there would be ho advantage in an Ayrshire, Alderney, 
or Jersey cross. 

Mr. A, A. Hayes, Jr., in Harper s Monthly, for November, 
1879, gives the figures for a ranche of about the same number 



FAT CATTLE VS. STORE CATTLE. I-rr 

of COWS, in Southern Colorado, somewhat more in detail, but 
unfortunately, he does not carry it beyond the third year. Still, 
in that time, with an investment of 5^154,149, of which ^50,000 is 
the cost of the ranche (10,000 acres, with privilege of grazing on 
other mountain lands), ^76,000 cost of stock, and ^28,149 capital, 
used in expenses for the three years, he shows net profits of 
^129,651 (^114,651 profits on stock and 5^15,000 in appreciation 
of the value of the property), making the total assets at the end 
of three years ^283,800. These profits would be greatly in- 
creased in the years that followed, for the first three years are 
the years of greatest outlay, and in the later years there is no 
possibility of such losses as would wipe out any considerable 
amount of the increasing profits. Land will, of course, soon be 
higher, and the free pasturage will diminish as the arable lands 
are more clearly defined, and the grazing lands are surveyed 
and put upon the market; but every ranche should have a con- 
siderable quantity of arable lands, as the ability of the stock- 
raiser to fatten his beeves for the market from his own crrain will 
make a great difference in the price he can obtain for them. All 
the great ranches of Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado will soon 
be within easy distance of the great trunk railroad lines which 
will take their beeves on the hoof to St. Louis, Chicago, or 
Duluth, whence they can be shipped for Europe direct. 

Hitherto they have been carried by rail from these States as 
store cattle (the steers weighing about 1,400 pounds), to Illinois, 
where they were fattened and shipped from Chicago to Liver- 
pool. The Chicago dealers paid about '^■x,'] for them in Colorado 
and sold them in Liverpool for ^100, while the entire trans- 
portation between Colorado and Liverpool did not cost over %2p. 

Hon. J. W. Barclay, M. P., who visited Colorado for the third 
time in the autumn of 1879, and from whose article in the Fort- 
nightly Review, of January i, 1880, these figures are taken, uses 
them to insist that the British Government should allow the im- 
portation by English farmers of store cattle ; from our position 
they seem to aftbrd a much more powerful argument for the fat- 
tening of his stock by the Kansas or Colorado stock-grower; 
as he might thereby receive the greater part of the %ZZ P^^* 



1-^5 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

head which now goes into the pocket of the Chicago dealer and 
shipper. Mr. Barclay demonstrates that we can land fattened 
cattle at Liverpool at an average price of ^90 to ^100, yielding 
us a very large profit and still greatly undersell the British 
stock-raiser in his own market. The shipping of slaughtered 
beeves in refrigerator cars and steamers with the recent improve- 
ments in artificial refrigeration offers still greater profits. 

In the more northern and northwestern States and Terri- 
tories, of which Montana may perhaps be taken as the type, 
there are some slio;ht differences in the manag^ement of the busi- 
ness, as well as in the pasturage and the character of the stock. 
In all these States and Territories pasturage is free; that is, the 
government lands, as yet unsurveyed, furnish, and will for years 
to come, abundant pasturage in well-watered valleys for much 
larger numbers of cattle than are likely to be raised there. 
There is no buffalo or gama grass there, but the bunch grass, 
especially in Montana, is more nutritious than either, and the 
stock fatten on it as well as they would on grain. The Montana, 
beeves have an excellent reputation for juiciness, tenderness, 
and flavor ; the only complaint in regard to them is that they 
are too fat. 

There are no Texas cattle here: they are all of the American 
or native breed, or grade animals from Short-horn or Hereford 
stock. Many of the stock-raisers keep them out on the range 
all winter, and claim that their loss is not more than one or two 
per cent, as the bunch grass, which grows to the height of two 
or three feet, is not often covered with snow on the hillsides ; 
but the best stock-men think it safer to provide some of the wild 
hay, which can be cut and stacked for ^i to $1.25 per ton, 
against possible emergencies, and also to provide rude shelter 
for their animals during severe storms. They have one cow-boy 
to 1,500 or 2,000 cattle. The cost of raising a steer for the first 
four years is from 60 cents to %\ per year. A three or four- 
year old steer is worth at the ranche about ^20, at the larger 
towns or railroad points from ^25 to ^30. Much of the stock- 
raising is done in these territories by companies, usually joint- 
stock companies, who trust the management to a competent and 



STOCK-RAISING IN CALIFORNIA. lyy 

skilful expert, who becomes, after a time, a partner. There is a 
fine opening for good stock-farmers with little or no capital to 
make large fortunes in this business. 

When railroads traverse these territories, as they soon will, 
the exceptionally fine stock raised here will command much 
higher prices, and can be shipped to England at considerably 
less expense than from Colorado. Increasing attention is being 
paid in Minnesota, Dakota, and Montana to dairy-farming, for 
which that region possesses fine facilities. Good butter com- 
mands a very high price all over that region, and the infusion of 
Ayrshire, Alderney, or Jersey blood into the stock intended for 
the dairies will enable the dairy-farmers to supply a vast demand 
at largely remunerative prices. Recent improvements In the 
breeding of dairy stock, and in all the processes of butter and 
cheese-making, have reduced the business almost to one of the 
exact sciences. 

Stock-raising in Califo^niia is not now comparatively so exten- 
sive a business as it was a few years ago, as former pasturage 
lands have been taken up for agricultural purposes. Before the 
American occupation much of the country was taken up in large 
ranches, often of from 50,000 to 1 50,000 acres, and the Hispano- 
American owner had his vast herds of Mexican cattle, lonor and 
sharp-horned, of vicious temper, thick hides, and lean, rather 
gamy flesh, droves of the Mexican or mustang horses, and very*" 
large flocks of the Mexican sheep, a degenerate breed from the 
original Spanish Merino. Very few of these ranches now re- 
main, and the Mexican cattle have, for the most part, given 
place to Eastern cattle brought in by the early settlers and im- 
proved by breeding from the best pure-blooded stock. The 
stock now actually raised in California is very little beyond what 
is demanded for home use, and akhoug-h considerable herds are 
exported, the deficiency in the Californian markets is made up 
by cattle brought from Oregon and Washington Territory. The 
general quality of California cattle is so high that they are in 
demand for breeding by the stock-growers of Colorado, Wyom- 
ing, and Montana, and command liberal prices for that purpose. 

The climate of California is so mild that stock requires no 



1^3 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

shelter, but the long dry season burns up the herbage so thor- 
oughly that the best stock-growers find it necessary to sow the 
Alfalfa and other forage grasses largely to feed their stock in the 
dryest months. There are still many large ranches, but the 
proprietors are usually wide-awake Americans, and they do not 
confine themselves to raising stock. Extensive wheat-fields, 
vineyards or olive-groves, or the rearing of great numbers of 
horses or mules, or large flocks of sheep, also occupy their atten- 
tion and prevent their exclusive interest in either pursuit. The 
herdsmen or cow-boys — vaqueros is the more sonorous Spanish 
name, and is most used in California — are often Mexicans, but 
quite as often French, German, Swiss, Swedes, or Irishmen. 
The lasso is used as in Texas in rounding up the herds, and the 
other features of the business do not differ materially from those 
already described, except that greater care is taken in improv- 
ing the breeds by the introduction of the best imported cattle. 

Dairy farming is rapidly increasing in California. The butter 
is generally good, and some of it of the "gilt-edged" quality. 
It brings a high price, ranging generally from 40 to 60 cents a 
pound, or, which is substantially the same thing, from 60 cents 
to $1.10 a roll, the roll, though nominally two pounds, always 
coming considerably short of that weight. The milk is of excel- 
lent quality, though there are comparatively few Alderneys or 
Jersey cows in the State. Cheese is not very largely produced, 
reliance for this product being had upon the Eastern cheese 
factories. 

The rearinor of horses and mules is not a laro-e branch of the 
stock-raising industry west of the Mississippi river, except in 
California, Texas, and Arkansas, though it is increasing in 
Kansas, Colorado, and perhaps New Mexico. In Texas the 
greater part of the horses raised on the ranches are either mus- 
tangs (the descendants of the Spanish horses introduced into 
Mexico three centuries ago), very tough and serviceable, but 
vicious and tricky, or a cross between these and our larger 
American horse, somewhat larger than the mustang and less 
tricky, but not quite so tough. These are usually called bron- 
chos. The Indian ponies belong to this cross. Horses of better 



RAISING HORSES AND MULES— CAMELS. I^rg 

breeds are raised on smaller farms and brought into these 
States from States east of the Mississippi, but never in large 
droves. In California the Norman and Percheron horses are 
now being introduced In large numbers for draught horses. 
The rearing of horses and mules is said to be very profitable, 
and some of the large stock-ranches in Kansas and Colorado 
are turning their attention to it. The rapid extension of rail- 
roads in these new States and Territories creates a vastly in- 
creased demand for good horses for purposes of draught, for car- 
riage use, and for the saddle. Every station has at least a dozen 
settlements tributary to It, all of which require teams to make 
the connection. The raising of mules is still more profitable, 
since the mule is more surefooted, hardier, and will live on 
poorer fare than the horse. He is more vicious and stubborn — 
granted, but that is partly due to the abuse to which he is sub- 
jected. Mules bring on the average a price considerably higher 
than horses. In the mining districts, and especially in the new 
mining regions, mules are in great demand as pack-animals, and 
for drawlnof the Immense freleht-wasfons, and command high 
prices for these purposes. The great stage company. Barlow, 
Sanderson & Co., whose lines run daily or oftener to all parts 
of Western Colorado and Northern New Mexico, where there 
are practicable roads, keep hundreds of horses and a still larger 
number of mules in their stables. 

An attempt has been made to introduce the camel Into Texas, 
and It has met with a moderate deo^ree of success. The animal 
would seem to be well adapted to a part of Texas, Arizona, 
Southern New Mexico, and Southern California, and if the 
Bactrlan species could be Introduced it might do well farther 
north ; but the camel is better suited to the indolent oriental than 
to our wide-awake, restless, impatient Yankees. 



I go OUR WESTERX EMPIRE. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Sheep-Farming AND Wool-Growing — Number of Sheep and Annual Increase 
OF-' Lambs in each State or Territory — The Great Wool States — Improv- 
ing THE Breed — Merinos — Cotswolds — Southdowns — Leicesters — 
Tastes Differ — Perils of the Flocks from Cold, Starvation, and Thirst 
— Winter Shelter and Winter Food Necessary in Kansas and further 
North — Diseases of Sheep — The Sheep that Browse and the Sheep that 
Crop their Food — Shrubs and Plants Poisonous to Sheep — Sheep-Farm- 
ing — The Shepherds — The Sheep-Farmer in Colorado — The Purchase 
of the Sheep-Farm — Buying the Sheep — The Account — Beginning on a 
Small Scale : the Man with only $i,ooo — Crossing the Breed with the 
Big-horn — The Angora and other Goats — The Rocky Mountain Goat. 

There are none of the States or Territories of the Great West 
which are not enorag-ed to a a-reater or less extent in the rearino- 
of sheep, either for their wool or their flesh, or both ; but the 
extent of the business, and the size of the flocks, differ very 
greatly in different sections. The latest statistics give the 
number of sheep in this Western Empire as approximately 
20,810,000, somewhat more than one-half of all in the United 
States, and the numbers are increasing, at a ratio which will soon 
enable them to rival Australia in the supply of mutton and wool 
to the world. 

California leads the whole country in numbers and perhaps in 
quality ; her flocks numbering about 7,300,000, and averaging 
ninety lambs each year to every one hundred ewes. Texas 
follows with about 4,560,000, of an average quality somewhat 
below those of California, but improving. Her sheep-growers 
claim about eighty lambs annually to one hundred ewes. Col- 
orado is next with 2,000,000 sheep, mostly of good quality, and 
modestly estimates her net increase at seventy-five lambs for 
one hundred ewes. Next follow in their order Missouri, Oregon, 
and New Tdexico, with 1,450,000, 1,250,000, and 1,000,000 re- 
spectively. Those of New Mexico are largely of the old Mex- 
ican breed, and the Navajo Indians have flocks exceeding 
500,000. Utah and Iowa are the only other States or Territories 
whose flocks approximate half a million. 



BREEDS— MERINO PREFERRED. jgl 

The original stock on which all, or nearly all these flocks were 
started, were Mexican ewes, from the original Spanish Merinos 
brought over here, by the early Spanish settlers, in the sixteenth 
century, and largely raised on the Missions, which were so 
numerous in Mexico. They were, in the beginning, good stock 
for that time; but in three centuries of neglect, they had degen- 
erated till they were a puny race, gaunt and small, and yielded 
only from three to four pounds of coarse felting wool annually. 
The California and Texas shepherds readily saw that there 
would be no profit, either in the wool or mutton of such sheep 
as these, and though a selection from these were the best ewes 
they could obtain, they procured, often at very high prices, the 
best imported or Eastern Merino, Cotswold or Leicester bucks, 
and began at once to improve the breed. Some of the experi- 
ments proved failures. It was found that the cross with the 
Leicester or Southdown was not desirable, at least until, by cross 
breeding, the size of the ewes had been materially increased. 
Moreover, it was more profitable to raise sheep for wool than 
for mutton, and while it was desirable to have an eye to increase 
of size, and to improvement of the flesh in the future, the most 
desirable improvement for the present was the increase of size, 
and of wool production, by breeding with the largest and best 
full Merino bucks; thereby producing in two or three crosses, a 
much larger and better fleeced sheep. The Merino wool is the 
best of the felting wools, and by careful breeding, the sheep can 
in five or six years be brought to yield from ten to twelve pounds 
per year, and eventually the bucks and wethers reach from 
seventeen to twenty-five pounds of washed wool. 

The crosses with the Cotswolds bring a better sheep for 
mutton, and a fleece of perhaps equal weight, but it is of a 
different character — a medium long and fine combing wool, 
adapted to the manufacture of all kinds of worsted or hard- 
twisted goods, but not suitable for broadcloths, merinos, 
cashmeres or any description of the softer woollens. 

Probably nine-tenths of these vast flocks, or nearly nineteen 
millions, approximate more or less closely to the Merino standard ; 
while over the line in the Dominion of Canada, where the sheep 



1 32 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

is raised quite as much for the flesh as for the fleece, the 
Cotswolds, Leicesters and Southdowns are greatly in excess of 
the Merinos. 

Even in Texas, those sheep-masters are wisest, who provide 
some shelter, if not fodder for their flocks, in the severe storms 
which occasionally visit the hill slopes, which form the best pastur- 
age for sheep. In Southern California, this is never done, but the 
greatest suffering to which the flocks are subjected comes from 
the failure of the pasturage, in the long and dry summer, and 
the failure also of water. In some years in that State, entire 
flocks have been almost annihilated by starvation and thirst, and 
when at last in desperation, the shepherds attempted to drive them 
to the fresher and moister pastures of the mountains, every foot 
of the way was strewn with the festering carcasses of the poor 
animals. By sad experience the sheep-masters of California 
have learned two things : first, that in the dry season at least, 
the pastures on the slopes and foot-hills of the mountains are 
much better for sheep, than those on the plains, or generally in 
the valleys : and second, that it is a wise measure of economy 
to sow Alfalfa, millet, Hungarian grass, or something of 
the sort, to feed to their sheep in seasons when the pasturage is 
scanty. 

In Kansas, Colorado, and all the States and Territories farther 
north, both shelter and hay or grain are necessary, though not 
always furnished. In New Mexico and Arizona, the general 
practice is to furnish neither, though sometimes the flocks suffer 
in consequence. The greater part of the flocks in these two 
Territories is the Mexican sheep, which is hardier, though far 
less valuable, than the improved breeds of the other States and 
Territories. 

Sheep suffer in some sections from a variety of diseases, many 
of them fatal, others greatly depreciating their value. Among 
these are the scab, the result of the attachment of an insect, the 
Acarus scabiei, first to the wool, and afterward to the skin and 
flesh of the sheep, causing severe torture and a most intolerable 
itching to the poor animal, causing it to rub off its wool and pro- 
duce ugly sores on its back and sides, in which the pestiferous 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. ig^ 

insect riots and multiplies. This is cured by dipping the sheep 
several times in a strong decoction of tobacco, or in strong lime- 
water, or, better still, in a wash to which the impure carbolic 
acid of the quality known as " sheep-dip," has been added. 
This is by no means the only disease caused by parasitic insects, 
from which the sheep suffers. The tick is an insect which 
works its way through the wool into the flesh of the sheep, and, 
like the preceding, causes intolerable itching and loss of wool. 
Dipping the sheep when they first manifest the symptoms of its 
presence is an effectual cure. The various worms or maggots 
which enter the body of the sheep, or are taken in with the food 
and hatched in the stomach, are a cause of great suffering and 
mortality to the poor animal. Among these are the g7'2ib in the 
head, the fluke, or liver-rot, tape-worm, lung-worm, the white 
intestinal worms which cause " the pale disease " in lambs, or what 
is known as '' papers ki?i" in the full-grown sheep — and hydatids 
or worms in the bladder and kidneys. Most of these diseases 
are Incurable, except In the earlier stages. The use of sulphur, 
spirits of turpentine, linseed oil, castor oil, Glauber salts, wood 
and cob ashes with salt, etc., are recommended, but in these, as 
in most cases of diseases of animals, the treatment is generally 
empirical, and without any very clear Ideas of the indications to 
be fulfilled. The foot-rot Is another troublesome and often fatal 
disease, which is especially prevalent In Texas. It Is said to be 
caused by pasturing the sheep on low, moist lands. It first ap- 
pears as a purulent sore behind the hoofs, and If not treated, not 
only produces great lameness in the animal, but causes the hoofs 
to slough off and the sheep to die. This is also best cured by 
the use of the " sheep-dip," or Impure carbolic acid. The black- 
leg is a more speedily fatal disease, usually affecting young 
lambs ; the legs become swollen, turn black, and seem filled with 
a black, decomposed blood, and the lamb dies within two or 
three days. It is said that bleeding on the first indications of the 
disease will cure It. Sheep are also subject to pleuro-pneumo- 
nia, to snuflHes and snoring, to colics, constipation, diarrhoeas 
and scouring. They are generally much more healthy in a 
tolerably dry atmosphere, and on high land along the slopes and 



1 34 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

foot hills of the mountains. The mesas, or isolated table-lands 
of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah, would afford them 
good pasture-grounds, if, by artesian wells, or reservoirs, they 
could be supplied with the very moderate quantity of water they 
require. Such a region was found in Palestine, east of the Jor- 
dan, on the elevated plains or mesas, where the King of Moab, 
Mesha, and his predecessors, kept their myriads of sheep, 
200,000 forminof his annual tribute to the Kino^ of Israel. 

Different breeds or varieties of sheep feed in different ways. 
The Cotswold and Leicester breeds crop the grass very closely, 
but do not browse, or eat the branches of trees or shrubs ; the 
Merino, on the contrary, is a browsing animal, and where there 
are shrubs, plants, or young trees having limbs within reach, it 
prefers them to grass. This necessitates two precautions in 
pasturing this breed ; they should not be pastured in an orchard, 
especially of young trees, as they will do great injury, though on 
a field of winter wheat during the winter or very early spring, 
their presence is rather beneficial than injurious, as they do not 
crop the roots so closely as other sheep. 

Great care should be taken in their pastures that no poison- 
ous shrubs or vines should remain within their reach ; for the 
sheep has not the keen instinct to avoid poisons which the hog 
possesses. If poke-root {^Phytolacca decandT'd), bitter-sweet 
{Solanum dulcamara), deadly nightshade {^Digitalis piirpuj^ea), 
aconite, henbane {^Hyoscyamus\ or either the green or white 
hellebores, the poison ash, or the poisonous species of the Rhis 
or sumach, comes in his way, the sheep, and particularly the 
Merino sheep, will be sure to eat them and die. 

Sheep-farming is more monotonous and unexciting than stock- 
raising, or the care of cattle or horses ; for the sheep is a timid 
and harmless creature, easily controlled, and not as intelligent 
or sympathetic as the horse, the cow, or the dog. The shep- 
herd has a lonely life in taking care of his flocks, and but for the 
companionship of his faithful and almost rational companions, 
the collies, or shepherd-dogs, his lot would be almost intolerable. 
But, humdrum as it is, it is more immediately profitable, and we 
suspect, even for a period of ten or twenty years, with flocks of 
large size, more permanently so, than the cattle range. 



THE YOUNG SHEEP FARMER AND HIS FLOCK. ig^ 

Let US illustrate this assertion by taking an actual case, in no 
respect exceptional, in Colorado. We select this State because 
from its central position we find here all or nearly all the advan- 
tages and disadvantages attending sheep-farming in any portion 
of "Our Western Empire." We take the case of a young man 
who has, or can command about ;^i 5,000, and who has resolved 
to put his money into a sheep-farm on the hills, or father 
plateaux of Colorado. He selects as his location El Paso county, 
on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, though he might 
have found locations, perhaps equally desirable, in Huerfano, 
Las Animas or Pueblo counties, or perhaps somewhat farther 
north. But in his choice, he must seek first for the ereat and 
important requisite — water. 

Having found a township containing the necessary number of 
streams and, if possible, some springs, he next proceeds to pur- 
chase or secure title to his lands ; for thouofh he mieht, as the 
stock-raisers do, pasture his flock on the government lands, yet 
there is an irrepressible conflict in Colorado between the cattle- 
herders and owners, and the sheep-farmers and their shepherds, 
and the sheep-master will be better situated if he owns his land. 
If there is a land office near him, and a sale takes place, he can 
purchase a quarter section (160 acres) at the government price, 
^1.25 per acre. He can next pre-empt 160 acres more for $1.25 
per acre and fees, having six or thirty months to pay for it and 
receive his title. Next he can claim 160 acres more under the 
Homestead Act, paying only fees, and having lived on it for five 
years can obtain his title, and lastly he can claim 1 60 acres more 
under the Timber-Culture Act, planting in the course of five years 
forty acres of trees upon it which he will need for the shelter of 
his flocks. He has now 640 acres, or one mile square, which 
may cost him, all told, possibly $500, But he needs more. How 
is he to obtain it? In one of three or four ways. If, as is prob- 
able, the bill now before Congress passed during the recent 
session, he can purchase, at a very low price, a tract of from 
four to eight square miles as pasturage land, subject to the lia- 
bility of being explored below the surface for minerals, but with 
a guarantee of all his surface rights. If it did not, he can 



1 86 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

buy up soldiers' or bounty land scrip at ^3 or $3.50 per acre, 
which he can locate where he pleases. If he is within six or 
eight miles of a land-grant railroad (and all the railroads here- 
abouts have land-grants), he can purchase from them, probably 
at ^5 per acre, on long time, the additional land he wants. 
Or he may very possibly find, as the man described by Mr. A. 
A. Hayes, Jr., in Harper s Monthly for Januar}^ i8So,'^ did, a 
sheep-farm for sale with its corrals, cabins, etc., favorably situated, 
but which its owner, tired of this monotonous life, and anxious to 
go back to civilization and Eastern comforts, was willing to sell 
for ^4,000. It is ample for 5,000 sheep, but in order to be secure 
he avails himself of his privileges already described and secures 
an additional 640 acres. This purchase made, the young sheep- 
farmer has next to buy his sheep. 

He avails himself of the judgment of an expert, buys 2,000 
selected ewes, " second cross " if they are to be had, at ^3 
per head — ^6,000; and 60 bucks at an average of ^30 — ^1,800. 
He needs also a pair of mules and a saddle-horse, for which he 
has to pay about $275 more, and finds it best to break up eighty 
acres and sow it half in wheat and half in Alfalfa or some other 
forage crop. This costs him, perhaps, $500 more. He has 
now left, of his ^15,000, $1,925 as working capital. This 
transaction is completed, we will say October i. He must 
employ for this flock one herder, a cook, and for a time team- 
sters, etc. His ewes will come in during the following May, 
and from the 2,000 ewes, he will have living, on the first of the 
following October, a year from the time of making his purchase, 
at least 1,500 lambs or seventy-five per cent, of the whole 
number. (The Merino ewe very seldom has twin lambs.) This 
is a very liberal estimate for losses, blunders, etc. The Texan 
sheep-masters claim that they raise from eighty to ninety per 
cent., which would be 1,800, and surely with all his precautions 
he should do nearly or quite as well, but we prefer to understate 
rather than overstate the probable results of the business. Let 
us now go on with his account (supposing him to be an accurate 

* We are indebted to Mr. Hayes' very able article on the " Shepherds of Colorado," for most 
of the details of this account of the expenses and profits of a sheep-farm. 



A SHEEP-MASTER'S PROFITS. ig-r 

and careiul accountant) for the next three years. His gross 
increase of values and receipts for this first year will be ; 

1,500 lambs (average one-half ewes, one-half wethers), at %2 each . ^3,000 00 

In June he shears his wool, and gets from : 

2,000 ewes, 5 lbs. each, or 10,000 lbs., at 21 cents . ^2,100 00 

60 bucks, 17 lbs. each, or 1,000 lbs., at 15 cents . . 150 00 2,250 00 

^5,250 00 
Expe7ises : 

Herders, teamsters, cook, and provisions ;^i,835 00 

Shearing 2,060 sheep, at 6 cents 123 60 

Hay and grain 275 00 

$2,233 60 
Losses (all estimated as made up, in money) : 

Ewes, 4 per cent, on ;^6,ooo 1^240 00 

Bucks, 5 per cent, on ;^i,8oo 90 00 330 00 

Depreciation : 
On bucks, 5 percent, on i,Soo 90 00 2,653 ^o 

Net profits for first year ^2,596 40 

SECOND YEAR. 

The 1,500 lambs will be a year older, and worth an additional 15 per 

cent, (or 15 percent, on ^3,000) ^4So 00 

1,500 new lambs will be worth, as before 3>ooo 00 

And there will be of wool from 

2,000 sheep, 5 lbs. each, or 10,000 lbs., at 21 cents . $2,100 00 
1,500 lambs, 4 lbs. each, or 6,000 lbs., at 21 cents . 1,260 00 
60 bucks, 17 lbs. each, or 1,000 lbs., at 15 cents . 150 00 3,510 00 

^6,960 00 
Expetises : 

Herders, etc ^2,060 00 

Shearing 3,560 sheep, at 6 cents 213 60 

Hay and grain 350 00 

$2,623 ^° 
Losses : 

On ewes, 4 per cent, on $6,000 $240 00 

On bucks, 5 per cent, on $1,800 .... 90 00 

On lambs, 7 per cent, on $3,000 .... 210 00 540 00 

Depreciation : 

On ewes, 5 per cent, on $6,000 ;^3oo 00 

On bucks, 5 per cent, on $1,800 .... 90 00 390 00 3,553 60 

Net profits for second year $3,406 40 



1 88 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

THIRD YEAR. 

The second year's lambs will be worth an additional 15 per cent., or, 

say (15 per cent, on ^3,000) ?4So 00 

There will be 1,500 lambs from original 2,000 ewes, and, say, from 
new 750 ewes (one-half of 1,500, not more than 60 per cent, 
in first lambing, or, say, 450 — in all, 1,950 lambs, at $2 . 3,900 00 
Wool will be : 

Prom 3,500 ewes, 5^ lbs. each, or 19,250 lbs., at 21 

cents ^4>o42 50 

Fromi,95olambs, 4lbs. each,or7,8oolbs.,at2icents 1,638 00 

From 60 bucks, 17 lbs. each, or 1, 000 lbs.,, at 15 cents 15000 5,83050 

^10,180 50 
Expenses : 

Herders and fodder ^2,970 00 

Shearing 5,510 sheep, at 6 cents .. . 330 60 

New corrals, etc 300 00 

^3,600 60 
Losses : 
On ewes, 4 per cent, on ^6,000 .... ^240 00 
On new sheep, 4 per cent, on $4,500 ... 180 00 

On lambs, 7 per cent, on ^3,000 . . . . 210 00 
On bucks, 5 percent, on ^i,Soo .... 90 00 720 00 

Depreciation : 
On old ewes, 10 per cent, on $6,000 . . . $600 00 
On bucks, 20 per cent, on $i,Soo .... 360 00 960 00 5,280 60 

Net profits for third year $4,899 90 

RECAPITULATION. 

First year's profits $2,596 40 

Second year's profits 3,406 40 

Third year's profits 4,899 90 

Total $10,902 70 

At the end of five years after selling off the original 2,000 
ewes, which are now more than replaced by those of a better 
grade, which will give larger lambs, and yield heavier fleeces, and 
disposing also of 2,000 wethers and lambs, our young sheep- 
master finds that his net profits received within the five years 
amount to a little more than $37,500, and that he has still on 
hand 3,500 ewes and ewe lambs, 2,013 wethers and male lambs 
all over a year old, 150 bucks of high grade and good size, and 



SHEEP- FARMING ON A SMALL SCALE. l3g 

that the increased value of his land and buildings being added 
to his stock Its present value is ^28,767. In other words he has 
earnings, stock on hand and improved land to show to the 
amount of ^66,267, for an original investment of not more than 
^13,200, or about 500 per cent, advance in five years. Extend 
the time to ten years, and if he can obtain land he will, after 
selling off his surplus stock to the amount of at least ^25,000, 
have a flock of 25,000 sheep, 450 bucks, and can shear from 
180,000 to 200,000 pounds of wool annually, and his possessions, 
in land, buildings, and animals in the absence of any extraordinary 
misfortune, are worth from ^100,000 to ^120,000, and his net 
income over ^40,000 a year. 

Of course it is possible to build up a handsome fortune in the 
course of ten or twenty years from a much smaller beginning- 
than this ; there were instances, when lainl was lower and sheep- 
ranges on government lands were more available than now, when, 
an investment of ^1,000 resulted in an ample fortune in fifteen 
or twenty years. If, however, the emigrant knows something 
of the care of sheep, and has but a thousand dollars, our advice 
to him would be to secure land, if he can, under the Homestead 
and Timber-Culture Acts, or by pre-emption, and hire himself 
out in some capacity to a large sheep-farnier, either taking his 
pay in lambs to be herded with his employer's flock, or investing 
a part of his money in them, and gradually getting ready his 
cabin and corrals, putting out his trees, and hire, say, forty 
acres of his land broken and seeded to wheat, and perhaps an 
equal quantity to corn, Alfalfa or millet. In this way he can, at 
the end of three or four years, have a range of his own with 
1,000 ewes to stock it and can go on swimmingly from that time. 
His wheat and forage plants, for wh;i ch there is a ready sale, will 
bring him not only an ample support, if he takes his pay for 
herding in lambs, but will give him additional means for the pur- 
chase of land and stock. But we would not advise a young man 
to marry or to bring his family to this wild primitive life till he 
has a comfortable cabin and sheep-ranche of his own. The life 
of the shepherd on a large sheep-farm is isolated and lonely, 
though not in most sections fraught with any considerable dan- 



igC OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

ger; but his family would find it monotonous and wearisome 
beyond measure. In Texas the sheep-farmer usually resides 
with his family in a village, which may be ten, twenty-five, or 
even fifty miles from his farm and flocks. It is not necessary 
that he should be daily in attendance there if he has competent 
and faithful shepherds. 

As land becomes more valuable even for pasturage in this 
Great West, and there comes a demand for a hardier breed of 
sheep which can ascend to the higher mountain pastures, and 
whose flesh will be of finer flavor, it may be worthy of experi- 
ment to try the crossing of the wild native Rocky Mountain 
sheep or Big-horn with the largest Merino grades, and thus pro- 
duce a large and hardy breed which will combine the excellen- 
cies of both. The Big-horn ranges in weight from 250 to 350 
pounds, and thrives and fattens where the common sheep would 
starve. Its coat or fleece is a fine and silky hair rather than 
wool. Its flesh is tender and of excellent flavor. Its form and 
motions are graceful. If these qualities could be grafted upon 
the Merino, without materially injuring the value of its fleece, 
though they might change its character, it would be a great gain 
to the sheep-masters. 

The rearinp' of the Anofora fjoat has become a favorite in- 
dustry with many of the larger stock-farmers of the West. A 
single stock-farm in Colorado has 8,000 of these animals, and 
they are largely raised in California, Texas, and to some extent 
in Kansas and Wyoming. Those raised here are usually grades 
from pure Angora or Syrian bucks crossed with selected she- 
goats of the native stock, and the crossing continued until the 
progeny is not more than one-eighth or one-sixteenth of the 
common stock. The mohair or curly glossy hair from these is 
said to be fully equal to the best Syrian mohair. They are 
hardy, of much larger size than the common goat, will live and 
thrive on the roughest and poorest fare, while their fleece is very 
valuable. If the so-called Rocky Mountain goat [Aploccrtis 
Montanus) is really a goat and not a goat-like antelope — a point 
not yet quite settled — a cross of this and the Angora goat, which 
it strongly resembles, might be still better. 



OTHER EMPLOYMENTS. jOI 

The flesh of the Angora goat is better than that of the com- 
mon goat, and it yields about four quarts daily of an excellent 
and rich milk, while the cost of its keeping is only about one- 
twelfth that of a cow. In some seciions this is an important 
consideration. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

Employments in Cities, Towns and Villages — Horticulture, Floricul- 
ture, Arboriculture — Mercantile Business — Banking — The Profes- 
sions, Clergymen, Lawyers, Physicians, Engineers, Artists, Musicians, 
AND Teachers of Music, Vocal and Instrumental — Teachers and Edu- 
cators — Artisans of all Trades — Machinists, Operatives, and Em- 
ployes in Manufacturing Establishments — Employments Connected 
with Mining, Reducing, Smelting, and Refining Metals — Farming, 
Herding, and other Employes — Day-Laborers — Facilities for Manufac- 
turing — Water-Power, Steam-Power — Woollen Manufacture — Cot- 
ton Manufactures and Cotton Seed — Other Textiles — Iron and Iron 
Wares — Machinery — Manufactures of Wood, etc. 

** But," says the man who is contemplating a migration to the 
Great West, and who has read the preceding pages with great 
interest, " in all this, I do not find anything which exactly hits 
my case. I have not the capital necessary for the purchase or 
opening of a mine of gold or silver, of platinum or copper, of 
lead, zinc, or iron ; nor have I the education in metallurgy, which 
would qualify me for that business, if I had the capital. I am 
not familiar with the timber or the lumber trade, and the capital 
for engaging in that is lacking. I have no practical acquaintance 
with farming, am no judge of soils, and if I were to put what 
little money I have into a farm, I should probably lose it all, and 
find myself a penniless stranger in a strange land. I have never 
been accustomed to the care of larcre herds of cattle or flocks of 
sheep, and if I had, these callings require a capital which is far 
beyond my means. Is there not something which a professional 
man, or an educated man of small means, or of a limited fixed 
income, or a retired army officer, engineer, chemist, or govern- 



102 OUR WESTER IV EMPIRE. 

ment clerk, banker's clerk, accountant, tradesman, gardener, 
florist, nurseryman, carpenter, builder, painter, mason, marble 
worker, glazier, tinman, jeweller, blacksmith, brass-founder, 
paper-maker, factory operative, or willing and honest day- 
laborer can do?" 

Yes, friend, there Is room enough and work enough for all 
these classes, and to whichever of them you belong, if you are in 
prime health and vigor, and have enterprise, patience, endurance, 
and even a small capital, you can do well in your calling. 

An English immigrant, who had tried a great variety of pur- 
suits without adhering long to any, and whom Mr. A. A. Hayes, 
Jr., met on a sheep-farm in Colorado, herding sheep at ^20 a 
month and his keeping, said to Mr. Hayes, with a grim resolu- 
tion, " I tell you a feller can just make money in this country, 
but lies got to have sandT Sand is the Colorado vernacular 
for grit, or dogged resolution. 

The Great West is no place for any man who is easily dis- 
couraged or disheartened, and who, after a two or three months' 
trial of a business, into which he has thrown very little energy, 
becomes home-sick, and concludes that he had better return to 
the East or to Europe. Such a man will not succeed anywhere. 

But to the man who has energy and pluck, who is not cast 
down because everything does not go just as he expected it 
would T the man who has given pledges to fortune, who has a 
wife and little ones dependent upon him, or who is looking for- 
ward to having a home to which he can bring one dearer to him 
than life, or who has parents or minor brothers and sisters, who 
must look to him for support, the man who knows how to do at 
least one thing well, and who is observant, patient, brave, honest 
and true, there is no part of the world where he can do better, 
whatever his calling, than this great Western Empire. 

Such a man has been an assistant to a market-gardener, 
florist, or nurseryman at the East or in Europe. He has become 
familiar with the plants, flowers, shrubs, or young trees to be 
raised, and with the best methods of propagating and cultivating 
them, and he has been sufficiently prudent and far-sighted to 
save $400 or $500 to start in his new home at the West. Let 



THE FLORIST OR MARKET- GARDENER. Iq, 

him locate his garden, or nursery, or market-garden, as near as 
may be to some one of the new towns, which are springing up 
all over this region. If he is early enough to take up his forty 
acres under the Timber-Culture Act, it will be just the thing, for 
he can plant his ten acres with trees for nursery purposes, and 
while obtaining his land for ten or fifteen dollars, can be making 
a profit from the trees, which give him the land. But if there is. 
no suitable location of this kind available, he can buy land from 
the government, near the railroad, for $2.50 an acre, or with sol- 
diers' bounty warrants, or from the railroad company, so that it 
will not cost him at the utmost over ^200 for the forty acres he 
takes, and this on suf^cient time, to enable him to realize on his 
first crop before paying for it. The breaking up the sod will be 
the first considerable expense, and this he can provide for, either 
by changing works with a neighbor, or, which will be better, by 
hiring out for a year to seme one in one of the same lines of 
business with himself. Meantime he can put in his first crop, 
and, if he is wise, he will make that a root crop, potatoes, beets, 
turnips, ruta-bagas, sweet potatoes, or something of the sort. 
From this crop, even on twenty acres, he will realize enough to 
build his cabin, stock his nursery, fiower-garden, or market- 
garden, and obtain a horse and wagon, or a pair of pack-mules 
or asses. Starting thus fairly in his second year, he will find, if 
he will make his place and wares known, that there is a ready 
and good market for everything he can raise ; and so rich is the 
virgin soil, that for perhaps a score of years, no manure, or at 
most only that made on the place will be needed. At the end 
of three or, at the most, four years from the time he first plants 
his foot in the West, he is so well situated as to be able to sup- 
port his family, or those dependent on him, in comfort, and that 
without impairing his business capital. If he is very enterprising 
he will be likely by this time to combine the three vocations of 
market-gardener, florist, and nurseryman, and acquiring more 
land, and employing the necessary help, he will soon be on the 
high road to fortune. 

The intending immigrant has been perhaps a clerk or small 
proprietor of a grocery or a dry-goods shop, or of a druggist's 



IQ^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

or apothecary shop. He has saved, by careful economy, |,6oo 
or ^800. He understands his business well, knows where, when 
and how to buy, and how to sell. What can he do ? 

This is the most difficult class to provide for, and yet the case 
is by no means a hopeless one. We would advise that the im- 
migrant should select some point where a village or town is just 
commencing, either in a mining or farming region, and visit it 
before purchasing his goods ; find out what goods will be wanted, 
and what quantities, and then, having secured a town-lot before 
they have had an opportunity to rise much, and, if he can buy to 
advantage, a forty-acre lot in the vicinity, and arranging for the 
erection of a shop, of sods, logs, or slabs, only so that it is suffi- 
ciently roomy and cheap, let him buy his goods, if east of the 
Rocky Mountains, at Minneapolis, St. Paul, St. Joseph, Omaha, 
Kansas City, or Denver, Galveston, or Houston ; or if he needs 
and can afford a larger stock, at Chicago, St. Louis, or New Or- 
leans. There is no advantage in going farther East for the quanti- 
ties he will want, and, ere long, the commercial travellers will visit 
him and take his orders, if he will allow them to do so. At first 
he will be obliged to buy on credit in part, but as soon as possi- 
ble he should pay cash for his purchases, and in selling, a week's 
credit is better than a month's. Grocers, shopkeepers, and the 
mercantile class generally, are sure to be ruined if they buy and 
sell on credit. The shopkeeper should make his prices as low 
as possible, and deal justly and honestly by his customers, but 
he should insist on cash payments, or, at the utmost, give credit 
only for from ten to thirty days. Dping this, and buying closely, 
paying cash for everything as soon as possible, and living eco- 
nomically, the merchant, shopkeeper, or grocer, though he may 
not make money so rapidly as those in some other callings, can- 
not fail, whatever the times, and will be likely, in the course of a 
dozen years or so, to acquire a competence. The purchase of 
forty or eighty acres of land will prove -advantageous, as it will 
add to his credit much more than its value, and when improved 
will add to his profits also. 

For the young banker who is skilled in finance, and has a good 
credit at the East for his honor and integrity, even though he 



BANKERS, CLERGYMEN. igr 

may not have much capital, there is a good opening in almost 
every part of the West. Coming to a town or city with good 
references, and plenty of enterprise, he can, in the legitimate 
course of his business, make a fortune in a few years, if he will 
carefully avoid all reckless speculation. Men, and men in new 
mining and farming communities especially, are very credulous 
and reckless in trusting their money with anybody who will 
promise to take care of it for them ; but they will be furious if 
they find that they have been defrauded. But both mining and 
the sale of crops require banking operations, and if these are 
well and honestly conducted, the young banker has an excellent 
opportunity for success. 

The professions are somewhat in danger of being crowded, 
though " there is always," as Horace Greeley said, " plenty of room 
at the top," Clergymen coming to settle in the new towns or 
villages, if dependent upon their professions for a living, and 
having sufficient health to preach and act as pastors, will find it 
necessary in most cases, at first, to take an appointment from 
their denominational missionary boards, and draw a part of their 
pay from thence, as the young churches, in these new settlements^ 
are generally composed of those who have yet their fortunes to 
make ; and though they may be, and often are, liberal, even to 
an extent beyond their means, they cannot, at first, erect churches 
and support their pastors without aid. This condition of things 
is, however, but temporary, and the missionary societies at the 
East, with their wealthy clientage at home, furnish most of the 
aid required, till they are able to go alone. In cases of emigra- 
tion in colonies, of which we shall have more to say by and by, 
the colonies are often of a single denomination, and bring their 
pastors with them. This has usually been the case with the 
Scandinavian, Mennonite, and Roman Catholic colonies from 
Europe, and with many of those from the Eastern States. If a 
clergyman of moderate means, who is not disposed, on account 
of health or for any other cause, to devote himself solely to his 
clerical duties, migrates to this western region, the way is open 
to him, of course, to engage in farming, wool-growing, stock- 
raising, mining or any other reputable employment, and his 



jq5 our western empire. 

chances of success are not lessened by his profession, while he 
may, if he is really an earnest Christian man, do a great amount 

of OrQod. 

The lawyers have a better chance for a fortune than the clergy- 
men, especially in the mining districts, although they congregate 
there in large numbers. There is always a great deal of litiga- 
tion in regard to mining property, and the disposition of mining 
estates ; and in addition to this, crimes against the person, fights, 
shooting affrays, murders and suicides, the results of the two 
great vices of mining towns in their early history, — gambling and 
intemperance — are sufficiently rife to give employment to very 
many lawyers. In the farming towns there is less litigation, but 
conveyancing and disputes about boundaries, transportation, 
and prices of crops, and other matters, give the legal profession 
generally, a fair share of business. The joint-stock companies, 
which now carry on most of the mining, and a large part of the 
farming, stock-raising, and sheep-growing ranches, each have 
their counsel, and sometimes more than one. 

In addition to this, the legal profession have almost a monop- 
oly of politics. They slide into political life as easily as a duck 
takes to water, and sooner or later some of its prizes — mem- 
bership of the State House of Representatives, State Senate, or 
Congress, United States Senatorships, Judgeships, from the 
lowest to the highest, United States Commissionerships, United 
States Marshalships, Clerks of courts, and of counties, or State 
offices — fall to their lot. 

Physicians have not so good an outlook as the legal profession, 
though they swarm in the newer towns in great numbers, and 
perhaps the most arrant quacks have, at first, as good a chance 
as the best educated and most accomplished physicians. But 
time in this, as in most matters, brings about its revenges. Edu- 
cation, talent, integrity, and skill, will in the end triumph. There 
are probably, in most of the towns and villages of the West, 
more physicians than can get a living by their profession ; but 
some of them, who are skilful as chemists or metallurgists, will 
become connected with mining interests; others, accomplished 
botanists, anatomists, zoologists, or geologists, will turn aside to 



PHYSICIANS, ENGINEERS, ARTISTS. igj 

these pursuits, and perhaps fill a professor's or teacher's chair ; 
while others still will engage in farming, or sheep, or stock- 
raising; and with the rapidly increasing population, there will be 
room for more, if they are of the best sort. We cannot, how- 
ever, advise physicians, born and educated in Europe, to come 
to the West, unless they come with colonies of their own coun- 
trymen ; as our diseases and modes of practice differ materially 
from theirs, and our own physicians, like our own lawyers, would 
generally have the preference. 

For engineers, and especially mining and civil engineers, of 
high character, intelligence and integrity, there is a wide field. 
The immensity of the mining interest and its rapid development 
will furnish profitable employment for every honest and skilful 
mining engineer who will go there. It is not the mines, or 
smelting and reduction works of gold, silver, quicksilver or lead 
alone which will furnish employment to them, but the great iron, 
copper and coal interests also will give them ample business. 
Civil engineers and surveyors will find their services needed in 
the construction of railroads, in the superintendence and design- 
ing of machinery, in the laying out of new lands, in the construc- 
tion of new tunnels, draining and irrigating canals, and the erec- 
tion of great public works. 

The true artist is cosmopolitan, and will find himself as much 
at home, perhaps more, among the grand phenomena of nature 
in the West ; its lofty mountains, often lifting their heads to the 
perpetual snows; the broad valleys, covered with verdure and 
flowers; the deep and frightfully dark caiEions ; the unusual forms, 
often grand and inspiring, sometimes grotesque, into which the 
water currents and the glaciers have cut and moulded the rocks ; 
the geysers ; the hot springs with their rainbow-hued basins ; 
and all the wonders of scenery which Dame Nature spreads 
before his eyes as profusely as anywhere in the world, and he can 
draw from them an inspiration which will prompt him to 
loftier flights of genius than he has yet attained. But the artist 
is mortal, and must be sustained like the rest of the world, on 
mundane food, and wear such raiment as the exigencies of the 
seasons and of society demand. Can he find patrons of art in 



jgg OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

these new lands? Most assuredly he can, and the hicrher and 
purer his artistic attainments, the more abundant will be his 
patronage. The vast wealth attained by a large number of 
mining and other capitalists in this region, is freely lavished on 
objects of art, and they are not generally so ignorant as not to 
know a good picture or group of statuary when they see it. 
Nowhere is the true artist more sure of hearty appreciation than 
here. 

As to musicians and teachers of music, vocal and instrumental, 
there is no calling in greater demand. A very large proportion 
of the emigrants from Europe are Germans, lovers of music 
from their birth. Another considerable portion are Scandinavi- 
ans, equally gifted in natural fondness for music, while for the 
others instrumental and vocal music has come to be considered 
a necessity. Nowhere is the performance of a really excellent 
brass band more thoroughly appreciated than in any of these 
western towns ; the best opera-singers receive a far more enthu- 
siastic reception, in the towns and cities of this western region, 
than awaits them in the great cities of the East. Every church 
and hall has its choir, and every town of 3,000 inhabitants its 
musical association for culture in vocal or instrumental music. 
As an instance of the fondness of the western people for parlor- 
music, an incident related by a visitor to Colorado may suffice. 
This gentleman went to Leadville, Colorado, when it was in the 
formative plastic condition, in the winter or spring of 1878. 
There were very few even frame buildings yet erected, and the 
majority of the citizens were living in large tents, happy if they 
could secure boards enough for a floor to keep them from the 
mud. Sod-houses were also in demand, among those who 
found the tents a little too frail for the strong winds. The near- 
est accessible railroad station was 130 miles distant, and the 
roads leading to it were horrible beyond description. The low- 
est price of transporting freight from the railroad station to 
Leadville was fifty cents a pound, and the railroad freights to 
their final station were also very high. There were yet very 
few women in the town, as the accommodations were so rough 
and poor. He had been doing some business with a young man 



MUSICIANS AND MUSIC-TEACHERS. Ioq 

who was working energetically at a shaft of a new mine, and 
whom he found very intelligent, though roughly clad ; and at the 
conclusion of his business, the young miner asked him to go 
home and dine with him if he could put up with " canned vittles." 
He accepted the invitation, and the miner led the way through 
the mud to one of these tent-houses. They were met at the 
door by a very beautiful young lady, whom the miner introduced 
as his wife. She was plainly but tastefully dressed, and her 
manners and conversation showed that she was a well-educated, 
refined and accomplished woman. As she arranged the table 
for their meal, the visitor looked about the room, and was aston- 
ished to see on one side a Chickering grand-piano. " How did 
you ever get that here?" he asked. "Oh," was the reply, "it 
was brought piece-meal on the backs of pack-mules, and we put 
it together after it came." " But it must have cost you an 
enormous sum to transport it so far?" "Well, yes, a little 
under ^200, but then we were both so fond of music, and my 
wife is one of the best players I ever heard, and I was afraid she 
would be lonely here amid so many discomforts." The visitor 
expressed a desire to hear some pieces played, being himself a 
connoisseur In music, and when his hostess compHed with his re- 
quest, without any apologies or excuses, he was fain to confess 
that her husband had not overrated her skill. 

The railroad has but just reached Leadvllle, but among the 
wares offered for sale In Its principal thoroughfares, pianos and 
cabinet organs, as well as other musical instruments, hold a con- 
spicuous place. In the farming districts the great ambition of 
the farmer, after he has purchased and paid for his harvester, is 
to get a "pianny" for his daughter. 

"But," asks another anxious Immigrant, "can you tell us 
whether the schoolmaster, or the teacher of any description has 
a chance there?" "Yes, indeed! There is a very active de- 
mand for good teachers all over this vast region, greater per- 
haps in the northern and middle tier than in the south, but a 
good teacher will find employment very readily anywhere. 
The immense amount of school-lands and their judicious man- 
agement In all the new States and Territories, Insures for them, 



200 



Oi-K IVES TERN EMP/A'E. 



in the not distant future, such an endowment as can be found in 
no other country. Two sections (1,280 acres, or one-eighteenth 
of the whole area) in each township are set apart for common or 
public schools, and beside the interest on these funds, there is a 
State school fund, from the proceeds of fines, civil or military, 
the sale of estrays, etc., and a district tax which is at present 
three or four times the amount received from the school funds, 
Kansas, which is a fair representative of these States and Terri- 
tories, will have, when its school lands are sold, a school fund of 
$13,000,000 for its common schools alone. It expended on these 
schools, in 1879, about $1,400,000, of which a full million was 
paid for teachers' wages ; paying its male teachers a monthly 
average of about "^^iZ^ and its female teachers about $26. This 
included town and country ; the average wages in the towns 
were, of course, higher. In the older settled and more populous 
counties the average of monthly wages is, for the whole county, 
from $43 to $50 for male, and from $30 to $40 for female 
teachers. 

There are also liberal appropriations of lands, in all these 
States and Territories, for the endowment of a State University, 
a State Agricultural College, and generally of Normal Schools 
and State Institutions for the Blind and Deaf Mutes. There are 
also, in each State and Territory, many private and denomina- 
tional schools, some of them liberally endowed. These educa- 
tional endowments are not suffered to remain unused. The 
progress of common school, as well as of higher education, has 
been, in nearly all this region, rapid beyond any former prece- 
dent. No village, no hamlet even, is without its district school, 
and the settler pays no tax with greater alacrity, than that for 
the maintenance of the school. There are two or three excep- 
tions to this general prevalence of a desire for the best educa- 
tional privileges. 

In Utah the school funds, and generally the public schools, are 
under the control of the Mormons, and the opportunities of 
primary education do not average more than twelve weeks of 
tuition to the pupils in attendance, who are only 43.5 per cent, 
of the school population ; and the higher schools are few and 



EDUCATIONAL CONDITION. 201 

not of high grade. This deficiency is partly made up by private 
or denominational schools, but these are not very well sustained. 
In New Mexico, where a large proportion of the inhabitants 
are Hispano-Americans and Pueblo Indians, and more than 
ninety-live per cent. Roman Catholics, the control of the school 
funds has fallen into the hands of the Jesuits and other monastic 
and teaching orders of the Roman Catholic Church, and these 
moneys have been perverted to exclusive denominational 
teaching, and even to paying the board of theological students 
in Roman Catholic seminaries. These abuses cannot be pre- 
vented until there is a more enterprising and larger non-catholic 
population ; but, until a change takes place, the Territory cannot 
come Into the Union as a State, since it has not a fully Repub- 
lican form of orovernment. 

o 

In Texas and Arkansas, there has been, until recently, less 
Interest in public Instruction than In some of the more northern 
States ; but this difference is fast disappearing, and the school 
systems of these States are being rapidly and efficiently organ- 
ized.* Texas has a large number of private and denominational 
schools, many of them of a high grade. On its admission into 
the Union, having been previously an independent Republic, It 
did not cede its unclaimed lands to the United States Govern- 
ment, but retained them all In its own possession. The State 
has, however, made a very liberal provision of lands for school 
purposes, and will eventually have a large school fund. 

For artisans of all the usual trades there is, in the newer 
States and Territories, ample employment. Carpenters and 
builders, masons and bricklayers, and generally tinners, painters, 
and glaziers, are in especial demand, and at fair wages. Bakers 
and confectioners find employment in the towns and cities, a-nd 
the plumbers, gas-fitters, and brass-founders are mostly confined 
to the larger cities. Butchers are, of course, wanted everywhere, 
and fishermien and fish-dealers find generally ample employment 
on the coasts, and in the rivers and lakes of the interior, which 
aibound in fish of most of the edible kinds. 

* The newly awakened zeal for public school education in Arkansas is said to be almost phe- 
nomenal ; and indicates a brilliant future for a State, which, in spite of great natural advantages, 
has, in the past, been apathetic, and lacking in public spirit and enterprise. 



202 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Hatters and furriers find business enough where furs and pelts 
are so plentiful ; the blacksmith finds constant employ, and 
the saw-mill and grist-mill are kept busy, and profitably so. 
Machinists have abundant work in the minincr districts, and to 
some extent also in the farming region, since the universal use 
of agricultural machinery often necessitates repairs which are 
beyond the ordinary skill of the blacksmith ; and where there 
are extensive flouring mills, they, too, require the skill of an 
expert for their repairing. 

ManufachLring Is conducted with great advantage at many 
points, the admirable water-powers being so abundant, and oper- 
atives from woollen mills, cotton mills (a limited number), all 
kinds of wood-working factories, millers, sugar-boilers, brewers, 
smelters, furnace men, and workmen on coats, vests, and panta- 
loons, overalls, etc., etc., will find employment In Minnesota, 
Nebraska, Kansas, California or Texas, and the metal workers in 
most of the mining districts. Farm-hands, herdsmen, and shep- 
herds will seldom fail of employment, in the farming and grazing 
regions, if they are trustworthy and faithful, even though they 
may not have had much previous experience. 

The day-laborer, unskilled in any of the arts or trades, is wel- 
comed in all parts of the West, if he is honest, temperate, and 
willing to work. -On the farms there Is plenty of work for him, 
except In mid-winter; in the grazing districts, there is always 
need for extra hands at fair wages, and he can, if he will, acquire, 
for a merely nominal sum, a piece of land sufficient for the needs 
of his family, and erecting a sod-house at only the cost of labor, 
can be comfortably situated, and, in a few years, can attain what 
to him will be a competence, such as he could never have 
acquired in the East or in Europe. In the mining districts, too, 
there is abundant work for brawny arms and powerful muscles. 
Here, also, he can have what land he needs, almost for the 
asking, and the chickens, eggs, potatoes, and other vegetables he 
can raise, and the pigs he will contrive to keep, will always com- 
mand a high price at his own door. Then there are railroads to 
be built, canals and irrigating ditches to be dug, and sluices to be 
laid and tended. 



FACILITIES FOR MANUFACTURING. 203 

The industrious, well-behaved, and honest day-laborer can 
nowhere have a better chance of bettering his position than in 
the Great West. Not a few of the great bonanza capitalists 
and mine-owners have, with commendable enterprise and 
industry, worked their way up from this very class. One of 
these men said to a friend, a few months ago, " Tom, I read the 
papers now-a-days what I can, though I make rather slow work 
of it, for you know my early eddication was neglected, all along 
of my having to carry a hod so much when I was a boy ; but I 
find some things in the papers that bother me. I thought I knew 
all the wild varmint about here pretty well, for I have shot 
enough of 'em, but the papers are telling about a new one, which 
they say is very plenty, but I don't seem ever to have heerd of 
it before." 

"What do they call it?" asked his friend. "A lynix," was the 
answer, " and that's what bothers me ; I don't seem to remember 
no lynixes round here." "How do they spell it?" asked the 
other. "L-y-n-x — lynix," said the capitalist. "Why that spells 
lynx ; you certainly know what lynxes are ? " ''Lymx, is it ? To be 
sure I do ; I've killed hundreds of 'em ; but who ever thought of 
spelling lynx that a way; I supposed it was spelt l-i-n-k-s. What 
a fool I was, to be sure." 

As to 77ianufactu7dng, it is believed that no part of the world 
offers greater facilities for it than this Western Empire. Wher- 
ever water-power is desirable, there is no lack of the most 
magnificent water-falls on the globe. In the whole northern tier 
of States and Territories, Minnesota, Dakota, Montana, Idaho, 
Washington, and Oregon, there is water-power, yet unutilized, 
sufficient to put in motion all the machinery on the globe. In 
the middle tier — Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Wyoming, Colo- 
rado, Utah, Nevada, and California — there is an abundance; 
though in some of these States, as, for instance, in Kansas and 
Nebraska, the fall is not as great; while in the southern tier — 
Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, Indian Territory, Arizona, and New 
Mexico — the water-power is sufficient, and more than sufficient, 
for all practical purposes, present and prospective. 

If it should be contended that, under favorable circumstances;. 



204 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Steam-power is more economical than water-power, though we 
might be inchned to doubt it, where the water-supply was con- 
stant and from a sufficient head or height, still we can point the 
advocates of steam to the immense coal-beds already described, 
which traverse nearly or quite every State and Territory, and 
furnish a fuel which is very cheap, abundant and admirably 
adapted to its purpose. Within the next ten years wool will 
become one of the largest products of this region, and the wool- 
growers of the vast grazing districts will not consent to send 
their wool to the East, and have it manufactured there, to be 
returned to them, with its value enhanced, five or ten fold, or as 
in the finer goods, twenty or thirty fold. They will prefer to 
have it manufactured in their own vicinity, and thus not only the 
cost of a double transportation saved, but a considerable portion 
of the manufacturer's profit also. 

Already the woollen goods of California and Oregon have a 
much higher reputation, in certain lines, than those produced 
elsewhere in Europe or America ; and commanding the finest 
and most perfect machinery and workmen of the highest skill, 
with their wool at a lower price than it can be obtained elsewhere, 
there seems to be no good reason why any goods made wholly 
or in part of wool, should not be produced there, in the greatest 
perfection, and at the lowest price. The mohair goods made in 
part from the hair and fleece of the Angora goat, and in 
part from the long combing wool of the Cotswold or Leicester 
sheep, and, in the cheaper grades, a filling of cotton, can be made 
equally well here. The material is all at hand for making these 
goods of better quality, and at lower prices than they have ever 
yet brought. 

In the southern tier of States and Territories, the manufacture 
of cotton goods can find its finest development. By a process 
discovered a few years since, the cotton can be spun into yarns 
of all degrees of fineness, just as it comes from the field, 
unginned, and with its beautiful and glossy fibres unbroken and 
unbruised by the teeth of the gin, while the cotton seed can be 
pressed for its valuable oil, and its oil-cake sold to the farmers 
and stock-raisers for their cattle. The cloths made from this 



MANUFACTURES OF TEXTILES, IRON AND WOOD. 205 

ung-'inned cotton will far surpass in beauty and durability any 
cotton croods made elsewhere ; while the cost of manufacture 
will be greatly reduced, and there will be no waste. 

Other textiles, the growth of this region — flax, hemp, jute, 
ramie, agave and other fibres, the cactus fibre and the tule rush, 
bunch grass, straw, etc. — can be manufactured very largely into 
cloths and into paper pulp, the uses of which are every day in- 
creasing, till already everything, from the driving-wheel of a 
locomotive, to a petroleum barrel, or a linen handkerchief, a 
house, a wash-pail, a lamp, or a pill-box, is made from it. 

But it is not simply in the department of textiles that the 
Great West offers the best field for manufactures. Iron and 
steel can be smelted and manufactured more cheaply than any- 
where else, and the telegraph wires which span the world, the rails 
which stretch across the continent, the steel plates for our new 
navy, the huge steel guns which will constitute its offensive 
armament, the locomotive and stationary engines, and the vast and 
complicated machinery used in the reduction or smelting of gold, 
silver, quicksilver, copper, lead, or zinc, as well as the agricultural 
machines which now cannot be manufactured fast enough to 
supply the demand, and the infinitude of iron and steel castings, 
will all be manufactured in this western land, not simply on its 
borders, as now, but in the very heart of the country. 

The manufactures of wood in all their numberless varieties of 
wooden ware, furniture, machinery, carriages, wagons, carts and 
drays, doors, sashes, blinds, and even houses all complete, with 
inner walls of a compound of paper and gypsum, are already 
largely produced in many parts of this Great West, and are 
desdned to an infinitely larger production, as the demand for 
them croes on increasine. There is then abundant room and 
employment for every honest, industrious man who will come, 
but no room for the idler, sluggard, or drone. 



2o6 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

The Future, the Glorious Future of this Grand Empire of the West — 
The Causes which have led to its Growth — Bishop Berkeley's Pre- 
diction — The "Empire" he saw — The Germ of the Great Repub- 
lic — What the Empire is, and what it is to be — Irs Growth and 
FUTURE Capacity — The future Climate — The future Soil and Pro- 
ductiveness — Influence of Railroads in Developing this Region 
— The Gold and Silver Mines as aiding in the Development of the 
Country — The Future of the Mines of the Precious Metals — The 
Western Slopes of the Rocky Mountains full of Gold and Silver — 
Results of Increased Production of Gold and Silver — Effect of 
Increased Production of other Metals — No Metal but Tin to be 
Imported — Mineral Earths and Elements to be Developed — Coal — 
Petroleum — Metallic and Mineral Products of the Far West in 1880 
— The Production of a. d. 1900 — Vegetable Products — Whp:at — Indian 
Corn — Corn Crop of 1879 — Sorghum — Sorghum Sugar — Oats — Barley — 
Rye — Buckwheat — Egyptian Rice Corn — Summing up of Cereal Products 
— Root Crops — Potatoes — Sweet-Potatoes — Other Root Crops — 
Orchard Products — Textiles — Cotton — The future Demand for Cotton 
— Wool — Wool Clip in a. d. 1900 — Other Textiles — The Hay Crop — 
Dairy Products — Tobacco — Sugar, not from Sorghum — Hops — Summary 
of Vegetable Products, Exclusive of Cereals — Fisheries of the Pacific 
and the Gulf, of the Lakes and Rivers of the Interior — Fish-Culture, 
Present and Prospective — Live-Stock in 1880 and 1900 — Forest 
Products — Various Ways in which Wood is used and destroyed — 
Probable Value of Forest Products in 1900 — Manufactures — Future 
of Manufactures — Commerce — Internal and Interstate Commerce — 
General Summary — Character of future Population — Little Danger 
of War — Indians — Probable early Extinction of Indian Tribes — The 
Colored Race — The Mexicans, Chinese and Japanese — Probability of 
A LARGE Influx of Chinese on the Pacific Coast in the near Future — 
European Immigrants^Emigrants from the Eastern United States 
— The Character of its Citizens the best Guaranty of its Future. 

" Westward the course of empire takes its way; 
The four first acts already past, 
A fifth shall close the drama with the day ; 
Time's noblest offspring is the last." 

So wrote Bishop Berkeley more than a hundred and fifty 
years ago, when this Great Western Empire, which we have 




A VISION i)V OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



GROWTH AND FUTURE CAPACITY, 20/ 

endeavored to describe, was utterly unknown to the civilized 
world, except from the reports of adventurous navigators who had 
touched upon its southern or western shores, or the journals of 
Jesuit missionaries, who had established themselves in California, 
New Mexico, and Texas, or the few hunters and trappers who had 
penetrated up the Missouri or its tributaries. The empire which 
he then saw in vision (for he had not at the time of the publi- 
cation of this poem visited America) was composed of the 
colonies, which lay between the Appalachian range and the 
Atlantic. A population of not more than 1,200,000 was the 
nucleus of the future empire. 

Yet in this mere handful of people scattered along the 
Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia, lay the germ of the 
grandefit empire this world has ever seen — an empire destined to 
realize in altogether another sense than the late British premier 
gave to it, when he quoted a few months ago, the dictum of the 
great Roman orator, — Impei'umi et Libertas. Here is, and is to 
be, the empire in its vastness of extent, its teeming population, its 
immensity of resources, its ripe and universal culture, and its 
moral power over the nations of the earth, and united with this 
the ItQei^ty which is the right and privilege of a great people — a 
liberty which is not license, but law ; a government ^the people, 
for the people, and by the people. And of this great empire, the 
portion largest in population, most abundant in resources, and 
foremost in all great enterprises is to be the region lying between 
the Mississippi river and the Western Sea. To-day, this region 
has more than eleven millions of inhabitants. In a. d. 1900 it will 
have fifty millions. In a. d. 1950 who shall say how many ? The 
capacity of the country^, in point of production, to sustain human 
life, has never yet been tested ; but if, when our arable lands are 
not one-twentieth developed, and our grazing lands can feed 
twenty times the cattle and sheep now there, we are feeding 
fifty millions at home, and nearly twenty-five millions in Europe, 
what can we not do when our resources are tasked to their full 
extent? 

But where shall we begin to speak of the future of this goodly 
heritage, with which God has endowed this Nation ? We have 



208 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

told 3-ou of its present varied but beneficent climate, with its 
western Gulf stream from the north, bringing mild and genial 
breezes to the Pacific shore ; of its torrid heats, coming up from 
Mexico, to be tempered by the Arctic cold from the Valley of the 
Red river of the North. Is there to be an improvement in its 
climates ? We fully believe so. The vast plains beaten almost 
to the solidity of stone by the hoofs of the buffalo for many 
hundred years, are being rapidly broken up by the plow, and 
warmth and moisture penetrate the soil. The rainfall is in- 
creasing, and these treeless plains are fast becoming clad with 
groves and islands of forest trees, which will turn what was once 
a desert into a fertile field. The mesas and plateaux beyond the 
Rocky Mountains, drained of their moisture by the deep canons, 
cut by the rivers, were once densely inhabited, and again, by the 
planting of forest trees, and the boring of drive and artesian 
wells, their capacity for cultivation, and for sustaining a large 
population, drawn thither by their mineral wealth, will be fully 
restored, and the region so lonof remarkable for its intense heat 
in summer will enjoy an equable temperature. 

Are we to look for any improvement in the soil and its culti- 
vation ? There is every reason to expect it. The greater rainfall 
will render those lands arable, which have not hitherto been con- 
sidered so ; and irrigation, which is only yet in its infancy, will 
develop the best qualities of a soil, whose fertility is almost 
incredible. Deep plowing and careful seeding should largely 
increase the grain crops, and the use of forage grasses and 
cotton-seed cake give opportunity for much larger herds of 
cattle and sheep on smaller ranches, than the great herds now 
occupy. All these changes will come, for the spirit of en- 
terprise and improvement is rife among these western citizens. 
It is difficult to predict to what points the tide of immigration 
will flow most strongly during the twenty or fifty years to come;. 
The extraordinary efforts made by the railway companies, which 
have lands to sell, have had a great influence in directing it 
toward certain States and Territories. The railway companies of 
Minnesota, the Northern Pacific and its feeders, have made known 
to immigrants both in Europe and the United States, the great 



LEADING FACTORS OF IMMIGRATION. 200 

advantages offered by the climate, soil, and manufacturing privi- 
leges of Minnesota, and especially the great fertility and pro- 
ductiveness of the Red River valley, and the lands adjacent in 
Dakota ; while other railroad companies in Iowa and Southeast- 
ern Dakota have commended the farmmor lands of that section. 

o 

The Chicago and Northwestern Railway, with its extensive con- 
nections, the Wabash, and the Chicago and Burlington, all of 
them connected with the Union and Central Pacific Railways, 
as well as the latter roads themselves, have rendered great 
service to Iowa, Nebraska, and Northern Kansas, and Colorado, 
as well as to the Territories beyond. So, too, the Atchison, 
Topeka and Santa Fe Railway has been so important a factor 
in the settlement of Southwestern Kansas, and Southern Colo- 
rado, that it is within the bounds of truth to say that it has hast- 
ened their development by more than twenty years. The roads 
extending from Missouri, through Arkansas and the Indian Ter- 
ritory into Texas, as well as the Texan roads themselves, have 
added three-fourths of a million cf souls to the population of 
that State within the past ten years. On the Pacific Slope these 
agencies have not been so actively at work, but they are now 
fast developing at the Northwest in Oregon and Washington, 
and at the Southwest in Southern California, Arizona and New 
Mexico. 

The wonderful development of the mines in Colorado, Mon- 
tana, Utah, and the Black Hills, has contributed largely to the 
influx of population into those sections, within the past three or 
four years. There is every reason to suppose that the discov- 
eries of the precious metals in these States and Territories are 
as yet only in their infancy, and that they will go on for years to 
come with increasing magnitude each year; while New Mexico, 
Arizona, Texas, Idaho, and Nevada, with its added facilities from 
its Sutro and other tunnels, and possibly Eastern Oregon and 
Washington, will fill up the measure of prosperity in this direc- 
tion to overflowing. 

it is vain to attempt to predict the quantities of gold and silver 
which will be produced in this region within the next fifty years : 
we only know that already the yield of silver has disturbed the pro- 
14 



2IO 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



portionate value of silver and gold, which had existed for the last 
five hundred years, when fifteen ounces of silver would purchase 
an ounce of gold. Now the ounce of gold is worth more than 
fifteen and a half ounces of silver, and with our vastly increased 
production it will soon require sixteen ounces to purchase an 
ounce of gold. 

The prevalent opinion among the best mining geologists is 
that the western and some of the eastern slopes of the ranges 
composing the Rocky Mountain chain, and the spurs running east 
and west from it, are charged with lodes or veins of gold and 
silver-bearing ores; and there is every reason to believe that the 
eastern, and perhaps the western slope, of the Sierra Nevada, 
through its whole extent, is equally rich in these ores. They 
have been traced as far north as the line of British America, and, 
indeed, beyond it; they exist in Montana, Idaho, and Eastern 
Oregon, and Washington, in Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming, in 
Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona (in the last three, perhaps, 
most abundantly of all), and in Western Texas. The valuable 
mines of California are mostly on the western slope of the 
Sierra Nevada, though a few are on the eastern slope of the 
Coast Ranore. 

If this opinion of the geologists shall prove to be correct there 
is nothing to prevent the opening of three hundred thousand 
mines, all profitable, if well managed, and a yield of one thousand 
millions of gold and silver annually. Such a yield could not fail to 
produce two results : the further disturbance of the ratio between 
the values of gold and silver, since the production of silver will 
be far greater in bulk, and probably greater even in value, than 
that of gold ; and a universal advance in the price of other com- 
modities, or, which is the same thing, a depreciation of the pur- 
chasing power of gold. 

But it is not solely in the so-called precious metals that the 
production will be so greatly increased ; lead is combined with 
silver in certainly eighty per cent, of the ores ; copper and zinc 
with both gold and silver in a very considerable proportion, and 
iron, platinum, osmium, and other rare metals in a small num- 
ber. But all these metals, or rather their ores, are found in 



INCREASE OF METALLURGICAL DEVELOPMENT. 21I 

great abundance without any admixture of the precious metals, 
and the ores of lead, copper, zinc, and iron are capable of im- 
mense development. Another decade will see copper ores 
reduced, and the copper refined, in the immediate neighborhood 
of the mines. In such quantities that there will be no necessity 
of Importation of that metal, and still less of sending the concen- 
trated ores to Swansea, or anywhere else, for reduction. Iron 
and steel will be made so abundantly and cheaply from the very 
best ores and by the best processes, that, Instead of importing 
either to supply our greatly increased demand, we shall export 
both iron and steel to all the nations around us. Before the 
dawn of the twentieth century, tin will be the only metal we shall 
have occasion to Import ; and if, as seems probable, the small 
veins of tin already discovered in California, Nevada, Utah, Col- 
orado, and Texas shall enlarge as they go deeper Into the earth, 
this, too, may be stricken from the list of our Imports. Platinum, 
nickel, aluminium, all destined to play an Important part in our 
manufactures, In the near future, exist here, and can be produced 
as cheaply as anywhere else In the world. 

All the metallic and mineral earths and elements used in 
medicine, chemistry, farming, or the useful arts, and all the salts 
of these, either exist as the natural productions of this region, or 
are capable of easy transformation into the compounds adapted 
to use. 

Of other mineral products, coal exists in too large quantities, 
and of every known quality and variety, to make any lack of it 
possible for ages to come ; whether required for the production 
of heat or steam, for manufacturing or for smelting, for coking 
coal for the production of Iron and steel, or for family use, an- 
thracite, semi-anthracite, bituminous, seml-bltuminous and lig- 
nites, in all these forms, are to be had for the asking, at reason- 
able prices and at hundreds of points. 

Petroleum, whose existence has long been known, but which 
has not been largely developed, Is now found In such quantities 
in Wyoming and California as to have already become a large 
item in the traffic, and will eventually prove a formidable rival 
of the Eastern oil wells. If, before the close of the century, elec- 



212 OUR WESTERJV EMPIRE. 

tricity does not become the universal illuminator, the oil wells 
of Wyoming- and California may be taxed to the utmost to 
supply the illuminating and heating material for this Western 
Empire. 

An eminent metallurgist and scientist has recently estimated 
the entire mineral production of the region west of the Missis- 
sippi for the year 1880 as worth ^1,000.000,000, and has given 
the items on which his estimate is based. With the wonderful 
development which is now taking place in ever^^thing appertain- 
ing to mineral products and metallurgy, it is certainly within 
bounds to predict that the product of the year a. d, 1900 will 
not be less than |; 5, 000,000,000, and the man who should esti- 
mate it at twice that sum could hardly be regarded as exces- 
sively sanguine in his anticipations. 

Turning now to the vegetable and animal products of this 
region, what shall be our forecast for them twenty years hence? 

Wheat, though not our largest grain crop, is the pioneer 
among the grains, being "especially adapted to new lands, easily 
raised, and readily marketed, usually at a paying price. We 
estimate that the population of the United States, in a. d. 1900, 
will be not far from one hundred millions, of whom at least 
90,000,000 will require wheat bread ; and a barrel of flour, 200 
pounds r= eight bushels of wheat, will not be more than a fair 
supply for each. This would require 720,000,000 bushels for 
home consumption. Our last year's product (1879) was in 
round numbers 450,000,000 bushels, of which fully one-half, or 
about 230,000,000 bushels, was grown west of the Mississippi. 
But our export demand is now from 150.000,000 to 200,000,000 
bushels, and is constantly increasing. Within the next twenty 
years, all the wheat districts of this Western Empire will be 
traversed so thoroughly by railroads that the wheat-grower in 
Montana, Orecron, or Washino-ton will be able to obtain a fair 
price for his wheat, and to market it at once ; the greater part 
of the arable lands of the whole region, and especially the wheat 
lands, will be under cultivation ; better methods of plowing, seed- 
ing, and where necessary, irrigating and fertilizing the soil, will 
prevail, and the lowest average for the wheat crop will be twenty 



INDIAN CORN IN A. D. 1900. 213 

if not twenty-five bushels to the acre. Under these circum- 
stances the wheat crop of that year ought not to be less than 
2,000,000,000 bushels, and may exceed that amount. This would 
be ample for our own supply with 1,000,000,000 bushels of wheat 
or its equivalent in flour for export. This crop should certainly 
be worth 5^2,000,000,000. 

Indian corn is the largest of our grain crops, yielding, in 1879, 
in round numbers, 1,545,000,000 bushels. It is not certain to 
mature in the extreme northern portions of the Great West, but 
is a successful crop to the extreme southern limit, requiring for 
its perfection a longer summer than it can always command 
near the line of British America. We export of Indian corn and 
its various preparations, the equivalent of about 100,000,000 
bushels, and our export of this is increasing ; though the foreign 
demand for it is less than for wheat. But our home consump- 
tion is large and varied. It forms the principal food employed 
for fattening cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry, is largely used for 
feeding horses, especially those which are constantly worked, 
forms the staple article of food of at least 6,000,000 of our peo- 
ple, is manufactured into corn-meal, samp, hulled corn, or 
hominy, maizena, corn-starch, common starch, glucose, sugar, 
and syrup, fusel oil and whiskey. When the price is low, and 
markets not easily accessible, it is burned instead of coal, being 
somewhat cheaper and making a hotter fire. Its leaves and 
stalks, green or dried, are used as a fodder for cattle, and from 
the juice of its stalks, cut when the corn is just ripe, a cane- 
sugar is made. In all of these ways this grain is utilized, large 
as the crop may be. 

Of this great crop which, at a low valuation, was worth nearly 
^600,000,000, a little more than two-fifths or about 650,000,000 
bushels was raised in the region west of the Mississippi ; lowa^ 
being second only to Illinois in the magnitude of its corn crop, 
and Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Texas, and Minnesota being 
the other States of largest production. Although the produc- 
tion of this grain west of the Mississippi is destined to increase 
largely within the next twenty years, and may very possibly 
reach in that time the present product of the entire United 



214 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

States or even a little more, yet we do not anticipate for it so 
rapid an increase proportionally as in the wheat crop, for several 
reasons. It cannot be grown so successfully or with as much 
certainty as some other crops in the whole of the region where 
the greatest agricultural activity and enterprise is displayed ; 
other crops produced more easily and with greater certainty, 
will, to some extent, take its place. Among these we may name 
the pearl and other millets, and the Egyptian rice corn, all of 
which yield larger crops and with less labor, and are better liked 
by cattle, and form a less heavy food for horses and swine ; the 
great progress which is making in the cultivation of barley, 
three-fifths of the whole crop being raised west of the Missis- 
sippi, and its substitution to some extent for corn for horses and 
cattle; and the wonderful impulse recently given to the culture 
of sorghum, and especially of the early amber sorghum, for the 
production of sugar. All the sorghums, as well as the millets, 
the rice corn, and the broom corn, belong to the Zea family, and 
the seeds of the sorghum furnish a valuable food for animals, 
while its stalk yields a considerably larger quantity of saccharine 
juice than the Indian corn. There is, however, an increasing 
demand for corn for the manufacture of grlucose sugrar and 
syrup. This industry has very recently become largely devel- 
oped, immense factories for its production having been estab- 
lished, mostly since January, 1880, in Buffalo, Chicago, and 
other cities and towns in Indiana, Illinois and Iowa. One in 
Chicago has cost ^650,000, and is said to have a capacity of 
20,000 bushels of corn, equal to 300 tons of sugar per day. The 
net profit is said to be 300 per cent. The export demand for 
corn, while increasing, is not likely to be enlarged very rapidly, 
and will be rather in its products than in the corn itself, since its 
cultivation is also increasing in the south of Europe. But with 
the multiplication of the facilities for speedy and cheap trans- 
portation, the price will be enhanced, and it will no longer com- 
pete with coal as fuel. Should the crop of corn, in the region 
west of the Mississippi, amount, in a. d. 1900, to 1,600,000,000 
bushels, it would be perfectly safe to estimate its value at 
^1,200,000,000. 



SORGHUM. 215 

We have alluded to die great probable increase in the culture 
of sorghu7n, and especially of the early amber variety, which 
ripens its seed long before frost comes. Though the smallest 
of the sorghums, and yielding a smaller quantity of juice than 
the other, the early amber kind is the one best adapted to the 
Northern States and Territories. Careful and oft-repeated ex- 
periments demonstrate that in ordinarily good corn-land, either 
by manuring and irrigation, or without, as is the case in most of 
the arable lands of the Great West, a crop can be raised which 
will yield on an average a ton or more of raw crystallized sugar 
to the acre.* With that yield it would be by far the most pro- 
fitable crop which could be cultivated, as, in addition to the 
sugar, the leaves and seed form a very valuable food for cattle, 
and even the bagasse or exhausted stalks, where not required to 
furnish fuel for the evaporators, have a value for paper stock 
and for other purposes. Even if but three-quarters of a ton of 
sugar could be made to the acre, worth from ^70 to ^75 per 
ton, which is considerably below the present price of raw sugar, 
it would still be a very profitable crop, and one for which there 
would be an unlimited demand. We are importing annually 
from ^80,000,000 to ^100,000,000 value of sugar and sugar pro- 
ducts, besides the amount made in Florida, Louisiana and Texas 
from the sugar-cane ; and all our exertions to increase the pro- 
duction of sugar from the cane have proved ineffectual, and 
must continue to do so, because the sugar-cane cannot grow 
here from the seed, but is only propagated by cuttings, and gives 
but imperfect results, with very frequent failures. The culture 
of the sugar-beet for sugar has not, so far, proved successful on 
a large scale, and cannot probably compete with the sorghum. 

If, by the cultivation of this plant, we can supply the present 
and constantly increasing demand for sugar, and prevent any 
necessity of importation, the devotion of three or five million 
acres to this crop will be one of the best measures which our 
Western farmers can adopt. The processes for sugar-making 

* The experiments of the Agricultural Department in 1879, which were all with the early 
amber cane, give an average of 1,588 pounds to the acre, but these were not a fair test of what 
can be accomplished with other and larger varieties. 



2i6 0^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

from sorghum are much simpler and less expensive than those 
for the sugar-cane. With an apparatus costing only from ^loo 
to $150, any farmer can boil it down to a syrup which will yield 
at least twelve pounds of sugar to the gallon, and the syrup can 
be crystallized from this at any time within a year. General Le 
Due advises that the farmers should not attempt anything more 
than the production of the syrup, and that there should be one 
or more sugar-mills in each county where the sorghum is culti- 
vated, which will find constant employment throughout the year 
in crystallizing the sugar from the syrup. It is not to be for- 
gotten, also, that when sugar becomes a domestic product, and 
the price of the refined article is lowered, as it will be, the con- 
sumption will be greatly increased, irrespective of the increase 
of our population, so that if we are paying ^150,000,000 for 
sugar now, we shall expend certainly ^500,000,000 for it twenty 
)'ears hence, with our population doubled, and their appetite for 
sweets increased. 

The next great cereal crop is oats, of which we now raise 
?).bout 420,000,000 bushels in the entire United States, of which 
<)ne-third is grown west of the Mississippi. The present value 
of the entire crop is about ^125,000,000. Oats are so valuable 
both for human and animal food that we may confidently expect 
that the crop, which is so well adapted to the Northern and 
Central States and Territories, and yields so bountifully there 
(seventy to eighty bushels or more to the acre), will be more 
largely cultivated each year. Our exports of this grain, though 
not large (5,500,000 bushels In 1879), are increasing, while our 
imports of it have nearly ceased. We may safely set down the 
oat crop of the Great West, in a. d. 1900, at 500,000,000 
bushels, and its money value as at least ^175,000,000. 

Of the other cereals, the production of barley, of which we 
now raise from 40,000,000 to 45,000,000 bushels, and import 
6,000,000 or more, is likely to increase — not so much, it is to be 
hoped, for its use in the manufacture of malt liquors, as for its 
value for horses and cattle, and the fondness which the German, 
Scandinavian, and Russian emigrants have for it as an article of 
food. It is grown and marketed as easily as oats, and on suit- 



RYE AND BUCKWHEAT. 217 

able soils yields almost as largely. It brings from seventy-five 
cents to a dollar a bushel, and on the newer lands is a fairly 
profitable crop. The product of barley In the Great West, in 
A. D. 1900, may be safely set down at 200,000,000 bushels, and 
worth as many dollars. 

Rye will also Increase moderately. The crop for the whole 
country now ranges from 23,000,000 to 28,000,000 bushels, and it 
Is worth from sixty to eighty cents per bushel. Not. quite one- 
fourth of the whole crop was grown west of the Mississippi. It 
is not here, as in Europe, now largely used for food, though 
there is some demand for it in the manufacture of whiskey ; it is 
seldom fed to cattle, but with the influx of emigrants from 
Central and Southern Europe, It will be more largely used for 
food. 

It grows well on poor soils, and most of the soil in the Great 
West is too rich for It. It may reach 50,000,000 bushels, west of 
the Mississippi, by a. d. 1900, but that will be Its utmost limit. 

Buckivheat, the cereal which is least grown in the United 
States, Its largest crop being only a little more than 13,000,000 
bushels, Is hardly an appreciable crop, west of the Mississippi, 
350,000 bushels being the largest crop ever grown there. It is 
not probable that It will become a very Important crop at any 
time, though it may reach 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 bushels, worth 
fifty or sixty cents per bushel. 

The Egyptian rice corn, and the pearl millet, both cereals 
belonging to the millet family, are likely to be largely cultivated, 
U^Ithin the next twenty years, both as forage plants, and for their 
seed or grains. They yield nearly as much seed as oats, and 
the amount of fodder which may be cut from them Is from forty 
to eighty tons of green forage, or from seven to ten tons of dry, 
in three cuttlnors, in a sinfjle season. The crrain of the rice corn 
is regarded by the Kansas farmer as superior to Indian corn for 
cattle and hogs, and many prefer its meal to corn or oat meal 
for human food. We may confidently expect that from these 
cereals or their congeners, the crop of a. d. 1900, west of the 
Mississippi, will not be less than 50,000,000 bushels of seed, or 
its equivalent of forage. 



2i8 OUR WESTERiY EMPIRE. 

Thus much for the cereals.* We foot up the crop of a. d. 
1 900 as follows : 

Wheat 2,000,000,000 bushels, Value $2,000,000,000 

Indian Corn . . . 1,600,000,000 " *' 1,200,000,000 

Sorghum Sugar, etc. . ** 500,000,000 

Oats 500,000,000 " " 175,000,000 

Barley 200,000,000 " ** 200,000,000 

Rye 50,000,000 " " 40,000,000 

Buckwheat . . . 5,000,000 " " 2,500,000 

Millet and Rice Corn 50,000,000 with forage, " 50,000,000 

$4,167,500,000 



Of the cereal production at dates still farther in the future it 
is not wise to speak. Circumstances may change ; an oriental 
population, if largely in the ascendancy, may prefer other grains, 
and cultivate them by other processes, in the coming century; 
or root crops, or such edibles as the bread-fruit, the cassava, or 
the pith of the sago-palm, may be deemed preferable to those 
grains which we have been accustomed to consider the staff of 
life. The future century must provide its own bread. 

We turn next to the root crops and the vegetables, which, 
though perhaps neither tubers, nor bulbs, serve to sustain life in 
man and beast. Potatoes rank first in the list — our common, 
sometimes called Irish potatoes — because they did not come from 
Ireland, — the Solanum tuberosum. Of these about 185,000,000 
bushels were grown in 1879, although it was not regarded as a 
very favorable year for this crop. Of these about one-third, or 
62,000,000 bushels, were grown west of the Mississippi. The 
labor of harvesting this crop is greater than that required on 
some others, though now materially diminished by the use of the 
potato-digger ; but very few crops pay as well. In all the newer 

* We have not deemed it necessary to speak of the production of iice,oi which there are a 
few plantations in Western Louisiana and Texas ; it is undoulHedly capable of great develop- 
ment, and in the event of a large migration of Mongolians to this Western Empire within the 
next twenty years, may receive it ; but the experience of all the past is that, in warm 
climates, the cultivation of such cereals as require much labor and exposure of life and health, 
is not successfully prosecuted, except where labor is compulsory. Other cereals more easily cul- 
tivated will be substituted for this. The wild rice, a plant of northern growth, is extensively 
gathered for forage and hay, but is not cultivated, so far as we are aware. 



VEGETABLE AND ROOT CROPS. 2IQ 

lands, and many of the old ones, the yield is from 1 50 to 400 or 
even 500 bushels to the acre, while the price at the nearest 
market seldom falls below thirty-three cents per bushel, and 
ranges from this to sixty cents. A crop which will bring from 
^60 to $125 per acre is a profitable crop for the emigrant to 
raise, and as there is, and is likely to be, a demand for all that 
are grown, we may well expect that there will be a great increase 
in the production. The autumn of the year 1900 will very pos- 
sibly give a crop of potatoes, west of the Mississippi, of not less 
than 650,000,000 bushels, worth probably half that number of 
dollars. 

The sweet potato and yam, though largely grown in California, 
Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Arkansas, and Kansas, will never 
approach to these figures, but may, twenty years hence, yield 
50,000,000 bushels, and at a value of perhaps seventy-five cents 
per bushel. Neither of these tubers are exported to any great 
extent. In 1879, 625,000 bushels of the common potato were 
shipped to other countries, 550,000 bushels going to the West 
Indies and South America. There is some prospect of an in- 
crease of this demand both from the Pacific and the Texan ports, 
but the principal consumption will continue to be in the home 
markets. 

Of the other root and vegetable crops, turnips, rutabagas, 
onions, leeks, mangel-wurzel, cabbage, kale, cauliflower, peas, 
beans, pumpkins, squashes, melons, okra, spinage, celery, cucum- 
bers, tomatoes, pie-plant, egg-plants, salsify, green corn, radishes, 
lettuce, etc., though we know the present aggregate to be very 
large, and the prospective one vastly greater, yet it is difficult to 
arrive at any very definite estimates concerning it. The census 
of 1870 reported these products very imperfectly, probably 
omitting more than it reported. Its aggregates were nearly 
^27,000,000, while it is perfectly safe to put down the actual 
production as nearly or quite ^50,000,000. Since that time these 
products have undergone an immense development, and what- 
ever may be the census figures, the actual production cannot 
fall short of ^100,000,000; indeed, the consumption of twenty- 
five of our largest cities would very nearly reach that sum. We 



220 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

think that a fair estimate of the consumption of those articles by 
the 50,000,000 of people west of the Mississippi, in a. d. 1900, 
would not be less than ^150,000,000. 

The oj'chard prodticts and the small fruit sales, including the 
wine and raisins from the grapes, the cider, etc., from apples, and 
the preserved, dried, and canned fruits, are next to be considered. 
In 1870 these products for the whole United States, so far as 
reported, amounted to about ^53,000,000. Since that time the 
orchard, grape, wine, and small fruit products have nearly or 
quite quadrupled. The State of Kansas, which then was set 
down as having ^173,000 of these products, reported, in 1878, 
^6,500,000 of orchard products alone, with less than half her 
trees in bearing ; California has made even greater advance, and 
Oregon, Washington, Dakota, Nebraska, Minnesota, and Iowa 
at least an equal one. One hundred and sixty million dollars 
is a low estimate of these products for 1880, for the whole coun- 
try, and twice that amount is equally low for the region west of 
the Mississippi in a. d. 1900. 

Textiles come next in order. The cotton crop of 1879-80 is 
exceptionally large, the largest ever produced in this country, 
and, owing to the lateness and mildness of the autumn and early 
v/Inter, picking was continued much later than usual. It is esti- 
mated as equal to 5,750,000 bales of 480 pounds, worth not less 
than ^320,000,000. Nearly one-half of this great crop Is raised 
)vest of the Mississippi, mostly In Louisiana, Texas, and Ar- 
kansas, though the Indian Territory, California, Arizona, Kansas, 
and Missouri add small quotas to the amount. The State of 
Texas alone has excellent cotton lands, as yet mostly uncultivated, 
of sufficient extent to grow not only the whole crop of 1879, but 
the entire supply of cotton needed for the consumption of the 
world — about 1 2,000,000 or 1 3,000,000 bales. And as the cotton 
lands east of the Mississippi, unless their methods of cultivation 
are greatly improved, shall be worn out, and become sterile, the 
natural tendency will be to transfer the greater part of the cotton 
production to Texas and Arkansas, where virgin soils will yield 
larger crops. 

The culture of cotton in the South is not so scientific and thor- 



TEXTILES. 



221 



ough as it should be. The average yield per acre in Texas is 
only about 275 pounds per acre, when it should be, and might 
be, with proper management, 960 pounds. Greater efforts for 
improvement are now making than at any previous time, and 
these cannot fail to result in increased production per acre. 

Twenty years hence the largest demand for cotton vvill be for 
home consumption. Now less than one-third of the crop is 
retained here, and all the rest exported. That demand may 
reach 10,000,000 or 11,000,000 bales. If it does so, we believe 
that the whole amount or nearly the whole will be grown west 
of the Mississippi. We are led to this conclusion from the fact 
that the tendency in all our manufactures is to bring the place 
of manufacture as nearly as possible to the place of the produc- 
tion of the raw material. This is particularly true where the raw 
material is bulky and cumbrous, as is the case with cotton. For 
many long years the cotton was brought with great labor and 
cost to the shipping ports, sent thence to England and France, 
where it was made into yarns, thread, and fabrics, and these re- 
exported hither, and thus we were buying back our own cotton 
and paying from 400 to 600 per cent, for the privilege of doing 
so. Our manufacturers in New England sought to save a part, 
of these profits to our own people, but the transportation of the 
cotton from the South to New England cost nearly as much as 
to England, and though there was some gain, yet there was a 
more excellent way. Already the change has begun, and it will^ 
be carried forward with rapidity. The yarns, at least, will be 
made from the unginned cotton, near the place where it is grown, 
and the seed utilized for oil and food for cattle and horses, while 
the yarn supplied to mills, perhaps in an adjacent State, is there 
manufactured into cloths, stronger, more lustrous, more beau- 
tiful, and wearing longer than any made in English, French, or 
Northern mills, and at a lower price. Manufacturing in this 
way, we can export our goods instead of our raw material ; since 
no other nation can compete with us, either in the cheapness or 
the intrinsic value of our cotton goods. China, India, South 
America, Europe, and Northern and Southern Africa, and Aus- 
tralasia will gladly take all the cotton goods we can spare,' and 



222 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



it will task the energies of our manufacturers to supply all these 
and our home market; while our agriculturists will be stimulated 
by the demand to make two bales of cotton grow where now 
only a half bale is grown. 

Wool has improved as much in quality as it has increased in 
quantity within the past decade, and the improvement and in- 
crease has but just begun. The wool clip of the region west of 
the Mississippi in 1879 exceeded 100,000,000 pounds, and was 
fully equal in quantity, and much superior in quality, to that of the 
whole United States in 1870. 

The rapid multiplication of flocks of sheep of improved grades, 
throughout the whole region, insures to that region within twenty 
years, an annual clip of not less than 350,000,000 pounds, of an 
average value of not less than twenty-two cents per pound, or 
an aggregate of ;^ 7 7,000,000. This will all be required at home, 
and we shall cease to import wool for our manufacturers. The 
hair of the Angora goat and the grade goats, and possibly also 
that of the camel, will also be largely in demand, and there will 
be a sufficient supply at remunerative prices. Probably these 
textiles will make up the amount to full ^100,000,000 by the 
year a. d. 1900. 

Raw, or rather reeled silk, is now imported, to the extent 
of from ^7,000,000 to ^12,000,000 annually, to be manufactured 
here. If common sense, without excitement or mania of any 
sort, shall ever take possession of the minds of our people on 
the subject of rearing silkworms, every farmer who has been 
five years on his place will be as sure to have a cocoonery as he 
will to have a barn. The children and young women of the 
household will rear the worms, gather and stifle the cocoons, and 
the town or village filature will reel them. Then instead of 
sending ^i 2,000,000 abroad for raw silk, and ^25,000,000 more for 
silk goods, we shall export both. Fifty millions of dollars will 
be less than the value of our raw silk and silk products, raised 
and made west of the Mississippi in the year a. d. 1900. 

Of the other textiles proper, flax, hemp, ramie, juie, cactus 
fibre, etc., they are all destined to have a considerable develop- 
ment, and if methods of bleaching equal to those provided by 



THE HAY CROP AND DAIRY INTEREST. 223 

nature in Ireland, can be invented or discovered, there is no good 
reason v^hy the culture of flax, ramie, jute, hemp, nettle and 
cactus fibre, should not increase to an enormous extent. Flax is 
now cultivated principally for its seed, and the oil obtained from 
it. The present value of this for the United States is about 
^5,000,000 ; that of hemp about ^2,000,000, and of the other 
textiles perhaps ^150,000 in all. To what extent these values 
may be increased within the next twenty years it is impossible to 
say. We imported in the year 1879 nearly 5^1,000,000 worth of 
raw flax, and ^1,829,000 of raw hemp; and ^^14,600,000 worth 
of manufactures of flax, and ^107,000 worth of manufactured 
hemp, $3,781,037 worth of raw jute, and $1,776,750 worth of 
manufactured jute. All of these articles and raw material should 
be produced here, and perhaps they will be, within twenty years. 

But we have not yet noticed a crop which ranks third among 
our great national products, being surpassed only by Indian corn 
and wheat — the hay crop. In 1879 ^^'=> 'was estimated by the 
United States Agricultural Department «/ 35,648,000 tons, having 
a value of $325,851,280. This crop, in the nature of the case, 
must increase ; the great increase of cattle and sheep will require 
it, in all the Northern and Middle States and Territories of the 
Great West,' and the magnitude which the dairy interest is 
assuming, will add to the necessity. Under this general head of 
hay, all plants cultivated for forage must be included. Much of 
the hay, in the north especially, is wild, and costs only the labor 
and expense of the gathering, but this will eventually give way 
to the cultivated grasses. The value of the hay crop of the 
Great West in a. d. 1900 will not be less than $700,000,000. 

Intimately associated with this crop is the dairy interest, which 
is now rapidly i^pcreasing under the stimulus of a large export 
demand, a demand which, by good management, may be almost 
indefinitely enlarged. The exports of butter and cheese in the 
year ending June 30, 1879, were $18,000,000, and for the coming 
year they 'will probably be much greater. It is estimated that 
1,500,000,000 pounds of butter are now made in this country, and 
about 900,000,000 pounds of cheese; 1,000,000,000 gallons of 
milk are sold, and condensed milk to the extent of about 



224 ^^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

^6,000,000. The value of these dairy products in the aggregate 
is about $590,000,000. That the region west of the Mississippi 
will require in a. d. 1900 not less than $500,000,000 worth of 
dairy products is absolutely certain, and the export demand may 
reach another $100,000,000. Three other items close our sum- 
mary of vegetable production, present and prospective, viz. : 
I. Tobacco, the crop of which varies in different years, but its 
value is not far from $22,000,000 annually. The production of 
this in the Great West will be in the future quite large, as some 
of the land is admirably adapted for it, and it is regarded as a 
profitable and desirable crop. We doubt, however, if that region 
will in A. D. 1900 much exceed the whole present United States 
crop in quantity, though the quality may be somewhat better. 
It may be safely esdmated at $25,000,000. 2. Sugar and syrup 
from the sugar-cane, maple and sugar-beet. The value of these 
products in 1879 was about $18,000,000, and it does not seem 
to us likely to increase. As the sorghum sugar begins to tak*^. 
possession of the market, the sugar from the cane being in som •. 
sense a forced product, and an uncertain crop, will fall off. Tht: 
sugar maple is not a very abundant forest tree west of the Mis- 
sissippi, and will not gready increase Its present production of 
sugar ; while the sugar-beet sugar is so dependent upon the soil, 
and upon rather complicated processes of manufacture, and costs 
so much more to make than the sorghum, that it cannot add very 
materially to the aggregate producdon. We should be loth to 
allow more than $15,000,000 as the value of these products in 
A. D. 1900 west of the Mississippi. Adding to these the glucose ' 
product, mosdy from corn, and we have probably $75,000,000. 
3. Hops have been a very uncertain crop, cultivated only in 
certain localities, and in many instances failing even there. It 
has been more successful in California than elsewhere in the 
West, but is so unreliable that it is difficult to estimate its prob- 
able prospective value. The crop of 1877 was the best for 
several years. It was about 23,000,000 pounds, and was valued 
at about $4,250,000 dollars. That of 1879 would not bring half 
that amount. It is doubtful if it will ever be worth $3,000,000 
west of the Mississippi. 



SUMMAA'Y OF OTHER CROPS. 225 

The oil-bearing plants and seeds are largely those which have 
other claims to be considered than the oil they produce. Yet 
they ought not to go entirely unnoticed. Cotton-seed oil is in 
such demand that its production is sure to increase largely. 
Linseed oil is also in great demand ; the oil from colza or rape- 
seed, and the other vegetable seeds of its class, tar-weed, 
sesame, etc., is always sure of a market, and the pea-nut or 
ground-nut is now largely cultivated for its oil. The castor-oil 
plant [Ricinus connnu7iis and sangimtarius) is largely cultivated in 
several States for its oil ; and we are just beginning in California, 
Texas, Arizona, and some other States, the cultivation of the 
olive, mainly for its oil. It is difficult to estimate the amount of 
all these oils which will be produced beyond the Mississippi 
twenty years hence with any great definiteness, but probably of 
them all, ^25,000,000 would be a very low valuation. 

Let us sum up now in regard to these farm crops other than 
cereals, and their yield in a. d. i 900. 

The Common, or Irish Potato . . 650,000,000 bushels, Value ^325,000,000 

Sweet Potatoes 50,000,000 " " 37,500,000 

Market-Garden Vegetables of all kinds ** 150,000,000 

Orchard Products ** 320,000,000 

Textiles — Cotton 10,500,000 bales *' 588,000,000 

Wool " 77,000,000 

Goat's Hair, Alpaca, and Camel's Hair ..." 23,000,000 

Silk and Silk Products " 50,000,000 

Flax, Hemp, Jute, etc " 30,000,000 

Hay and Forage " 700,000,000 

Dairy Products • . . . " 600,000,000 

Tobacco ** 25,000,000 

Sugar and Syrup, not from Sorghum " 75,000,000 

Hops " 3,000,000 

Oils ofVegetable Production, Cotton-Seed, Linseed, Olive, etc. " 25,000,000 

Total 1^3,028,500,000 



The fisheries of the Great West demand our attention also. 

The salmon fisheries of the Pacific coast and of the Columbia 

river have already attained a great magnitude, and but for the 

artificial replenishing of its waters with this right royal fish, they 

IS 



22(5 O^^R WESTERN EMPIRE. 

would exhaust the supply within ten or fifteen years. In 1878 
more than $10,000,000 worth of canned salmon was shipped 
from the vicinity of the Columbia river, and in 1879 the catch 
and shipments were fifty per cent, greater than the previous 
year. Salmon are also brought in large quantities from our 
great northern Territory of Alaska. ^ 

But this vast product from a single fish, greater than all the 
products of all the fisheries in the United States, in 1870, by 
twenty-five per cent., by no means exhausts the resources of the 
fisheries of the Pacific. The seal, sea-otter, sea-lion, and other 
fisheries of the mammals of the sea, amount to over $3,500,000, 
while the markets of the Pacific coast swarm with fish of all 
kinds ; and the whale fishery, conducted from Pacific ports, has 
taken the place of that from the former whaling ports of the At- 
landc. The Great Lakes at the Northeast and the coast of 
Texas and Louisiana on the South are teeming with edible fish. 

But far beyond these, in its aggregates, within the next twenty 
years, will be the fisheries of smaller lakes and rivers from ardfi- 
cial propagation. Every State and Territory of the interior can 
profit by this. Minnesota claims 7,000 lakes, many of them of 
considerable size ; Dakota, Montana, Oregon, and Washington 
abound in lakes. California has many, and most of them of 
great purity. Utah has them both of fresh and salt water, and 
all the States and Territories have greater or less numbers. 
Then the rivers, which have their sources and many of them 
their entire course in this region : the Columbia with its gigantic 
affluents, the Clarke and Lewis, or Snake; the Missouri, with its 
scores of affluents, some of them themselves mighty rivers ; the 
Platte, the Kansas, the Arkansas, the Red river of the South, and 
the Red river of the North ; the Brazos, the Colorado, and the 
Rio Grande of Texas and New Mexico ; the great Colorado of 
the West with its tributaries, the Grand, Green, San Juan and 
Little Colorado, the Sacramento and San Joaquin of California, 
and the Gila of Arizona, and the numerous bays and estuaries 
of the Pacific and Gulf coasts are also teeming with the finny 
tribes. All these lakes, rivers and estuaries are now being- 
stocked, or have already been supplied with thousands and mil 



LIVE-STOCK lA A. D. 1900. 227 

lions of young fish of the best kinds ; the larger lakes have the 
lake trout, the land-locked salmon, the white fish, the muske- 
longe, the black bass, the grayling, and the smaller fry ; the 
streams are replenished with the brook trout, which, in some of 
them, attains a huge size, while in the streams flowing into the 
sea, the salmon is introduced, or its waste supplied, the shad, 
striped bass, white fish, Spanish mackerel, and other fish equally 
valuable, but not so well known, are introduced in large num- 
bers. The result is likely to be that fish will be plentiful in all 
parts of the West, and at such prices as to make them in de- 
mand for the food of all classes. The fish product of the Great 
West in a. d. 1900 will not fall below ^,100,000,000. 

We turn next to the live-stock of this vast region. In 1870 
the States and Territories west of the Mississippi held, accord- 
ing to the census of that year, live-stock of the value of $347,- 
350,790. In the summer of 1878 the numbers and value of the 
live-stock of the same regfion had increased until it was worth, 
at the very low prices then ruling, ^625,314,521, which was 
divided as follows: Horses, ^^204,753, 432 ; mules and asses, 
$45,367,560; milch cows, $92,870,880; oxen and other cattle, 
$i95>237,488 ; sheep, $39,424,200; swine, $47,160,981. The 
ratio of increase which had ruled from 1875 to 1878, if continued 
in 1879 and 1880 (and it has gone much beyond the average of 
those years), would give for the value of live-stock, in the sum- 
mer of 1880, in these States and Territories, $706,518,831 ; a lit- 
tle more than double the value of the live-stock of the same 
region in 1870. We are warranted in believing that, owing to 
the extraordinary activity displayed in all parts of that region, in 
the rearing of horses, mules, cattle, sheep, and goats, and the 
great care taken to improve the stock, as well as the increased 
attention paid to the breeding of milch cows, the census of 1890 
will show the value of live-stock to be not less than $1,500,000,- 
000, and that of 1900 somewhat more than $3,000,000,000. 
The greater part of this increase will be in the items of horses 
and mules, of milch cows, and of cattle for draught and for sale, 
and of sheep. Swine will increase when the population shall 
increase, but their increase will not be proportionally as rapid as 
that of sheep or neat cattle. 



228 (^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

It is difficult to estimate what may be the future supply of 
1^^ prodticts of the forest. Under this head are included all the 
timber, spars, and lumber exported or consumed in our own 
country, all railroad ties and track beams, all the wood used for 
fuel and for fencing, clap-boards, laths, shingles, telegraph 
poles, hoop-poles, shooks, staves, hogsheads, and barrels, every 
description of v/ooden w^are, the wooden portion of agricultural 
and other machines, house furniture, the wood used for car- 
riages, cars, wagons, trucks, sleighs and sleds, the consumption 
for spools, matches, tooth-picks, etc., etc., all barks of trees or 
shrubs used for tanning purposes, the wood made into paper 
pulp, all the tar, pitch, turpentine, rosin, and wood spirits, 
charcoal, crude, pot, and pearl ashes, and wood ashes generally. 
The timber and lumber production alone was in 1870, in the 
region west of the Mississippi, of the value of nearly ^125,- 
000,000, and since that time it has enormously increased. The 
extensive forests of Northern Minnesota have furnished logfs 
enough for the immense saw-mills of Minneapolis and the 
upper waters of the Mississippi and its tributaries, to manufac- 
ture into timber, lumber, shinq-les, and staves for its great flour- 
ing mills, and for a wide region of the Northwest ; and Washing- 
ton and Oregon have been increasing, to an almost equal extent, 
their lumber production. The 40,000 miles of railway has 
gathered up all the available timber within its reach for railway 
ties and telegraph poles, for stations, snow-sheds, and signal- 
posts. The factories, which are turning out so many scores of 
thousands of agricultural machines and implements every year, 
are eating up the forest at a fearful rate ; the furniture produc- 
tion, though less extensive here than in the East, yet consumes 
year after year, vast quantities of the harder w^oods, as well as 
much pine and cedar. The consumption of the forest trees for 
fuel has been enormous and wasteful. In the mining regions, 
charcoal has been largely used instead of mineral coal for smelt- 
ing and reduction of the metals. The production of small articles 
of wood, such as spools, matches, tooth-picks, nine-pins, and of 
paper pulp, from bass w^ood, etc., etc., has used a far greater 
amount than is generally supposed. Fencing the farms has also 



PRODUCTS OF THE FOREST 22Q 

required vast quantities of timber, and the erection of log- 
houses, the timbering of mines, tunnels, and shafts which 
requires in some sections all the available timber for many hun- 
dred square miles ; the erection of bridges, and the making of 
corduroy roads, have added to the consumption of the forest 
till its aggregate, in any year of the past ten, must be enormous. 
The use of the bark of the hemlocks and oaks for tanning pur- 
poses has not hitherto been as great in the West as in the East, 
but it is increasing, and unless It can be supplied by the wattle, 
the mezquite, the sumacs, or the hardbacks, it must prove very 
largely destructive of timber ; and on the Pacific coast and in 
Louisiana and Texas there is a constantly increasing demand 
for naval stores, tar, pitch, rosin, and turpentine, which will ere 
long denude the mountains of the pine forests. 

In all these ways the products of the forest annually con- 
sumed In the region west of the Mississippi cannot have been 
less than ^500,000,000 at any fair valuation, and may have 
greatly exceeded that sum. Unless the planting of trees goes 
on much more rapidly than now, in the Immediate future, and 
some means are found of substituting other materials for wood, 
in many of the purposes for which it is now used ; as Iron and 
glass for buildings ; glass, metal, or stone for railroad ties ; 
paper made from straw and condensed Into a hard wood for 
furniture ; artificial stone or cement for supports of mines ; and 
coal for fuel and smelting purposes, the whole West will be, by 
the year 1900, a treeless region ; but before that time comes, 
the coming scarcity of forest trees will enhance the price of all 
the products, and even if the consumption should be no greater 
than now, its money value would not be less than a thousand 
million dollars. 

The manufacturing industry of this region did not make a 
comparatively large showing In 1870 with the Eastern States. 
Of the ^4,232,325,442 of reported manufactured products for 
the preceding year, only ^437,232,117, a less amount, probably, 
by «^6o,ooo,ooo or ^70,000,000 than the existing condidon of manu- 
factures there warranted, was set down as the production of the 
entire Western region, and of this amount, nearly one-half was to 



230 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the credit of Missouri alone. At that time only Missouri, Califor- 
nia, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas and Texas had manufactures 
exceeding in value ^10,000,000. The other States and Terri- 
tories were new, and had not yet emerged from their almost 
wholly agricultural condition. Nine years later, Minnesota had 
manufacturing industries exceeding ^^75,000,000 in value ; Kan- 
sas about $95,000,000; Iowa more than $100,000,000; California 
more than $150,000,000; Texas about $50,000,000 ; and Missouri 
over $300,000,000. The newer States and Territories were 
wheeling into line, and in 1879-80 the total manufacturing 
interest of this region was over $1,000,000,000. 

In the near future, the amount of manufacturing here will 
exceed that in the East. The water-power, the raw material, the 
coal, the iron, the cotton, the wool, flax, hemp, jute, etc., the 
wood, copper, lead, zinc, grain, paper, and paper stock, every- 
thing indeed which enters into the composition of any kind of 
manufactured goods, is at hand. The skilled labor is there also, 
and if the capital is not now, it soon will be. It is not a rash or 
hap-hazard prediction, which we make, when we say that the 
census of a. d. 1900 (the twelfth census) will show that the manu- 
factures of the region west of the Mississippi exceed in annual 
product $5,000,000,000. 

The amount of the commerce of this Western Empire at 
the end of the next twenty years is not easily predicted. The 
number of good seaports on the Pacific coast is not as large 
as on the corresponding extent of the Atlantic, but a few of 
them are among the best in the world. On the Gulf coast, 
aside from New Orleans, which hardly belongs to our Western 
Empire, none of the ports are of the first-class, though several 
are good for all but the largest vessels. There is also a great 
extent of river and some lake navigation. The commerce with 
'Eastern Asia, with Australasia, with the Sandwich Islands, with 
the Northwest Coast, Mexico, Central America, and the west 
coast of South America is likely to be greatly increased, and 
from the Gulf ports, Europe, the Mediterranean, Northern 
Africa, India, and the eastern coast of South America will be 
readily reached. 



SUMMARY OF ANNUAL PRODUCTION. 



231 



The internal and Interstate commerce, by coast and river 
steamers, and by tlie numberless railroads which gridiron the 
whole region, will also attain a magnitude almost beyond our 
conception. On the ocean and coast steamers, the river 
steamers, and the railroad freight trains, almost the entire yield 
of our mines, placers and quarries, of the farms and forest pro- 
ducts, and all the surplusage of live-stock, as well as the wool 
and hides, and the flesh of all the slaughtered animals, all the 
machinery, dry-goods, groceries, hardware, drugs, oils, etc., in- 
tended for the consumption of 50,000,000 of people, will be car- 
ried. We dare not attempt to reckon up the aggregate of this 
commerce, lest we should be accused of oriental extravagance 
of statement; but a summary of the various items of production, 
which we have demonstrated as probable twenty years hence, 
will give some Idea of what the outgoing commerce of that 
period may be, and the incoming commercial receipts will be 
very nearly as much more. 

We sum up, then, as follows : 

Mining Products and Quarries in A. d, 1900 ;$5, 000, 000, 000 

Cereal Products 4,167,500,000 

Root Crops, Textiles, Market Garden, Dairy Products, Hay, 

Tobacco, etc 3,028,500,000 

Fisheries 100,000,000 

Live-Stock 3,000,000,000 

Forest Products 1,000,000,000 

Manufactures 5,000,000,000 

Grand Total ;g2i, 296,000,000 

Or more than ten times our present national debt. It is to be 
remembered that this is only the valuation of the products and 
crops of a single year ; that it does not include either the value 
of the real or personal estate of the 50,000,000 who will inhabit 
our Western Empire at that time. 

And what shall we say of the population which, twenty years 
hence, will fill this vast region with life and industrial activity? 
Remember, it is but twenty years, but little more than half a gen- 
eration ; and many of those who are actively engaged in business 
now will be active and useful then ; but who that remembers the 



2,2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

year before the civil war, and the changes through which our 
nation has passed in twenty years, can fail to realize that even 
two decades may separate us from an era, which seems to belong 
to the half-forgotten past, and from circumstances which have 
entirely changed our condition and character as a nation. 

There is very litde reason to apprehend either a foreign or a 
civil war within that time. The magnitude and comparative 
isolation of our territory prevents our position from being one 
which menaces any other great power; while our resources are 
ample to repel any foreign invasion. As to a civil war, there are 
now no sufficient causes to provoke it. While slavery existed, 
it was a standing menace against a free government. But, now, 
there may be temporary discontent, on the part of a single State, 
from some real or imaginary hardship ; while the great mass of 
States are so bound to each other by a multiplicity of ties, finan- 
cial, commercial, sanitary, charitable, literary, and religious, that 
there can be no general movement which would lead to a civil 
war. Questions like that of the disposition of the Indians, that 
of the prohibition of polygamy among the Mormons, and that 
of undenominational public schools, may excite a temporary 
ripple in the smooth sea of our prosperity, but the calm will soon 
return. A bitter Presidential contest may produce excitement 
and apprehension for a time, and some fear of Caesarism on one 
hand, or of a revolutionary dictatorship on the other; but the 
nation is too patriotic to sustain any attempts at unconstitutional 
rule. Vexed questions of the rights of labor and capital, or of 
the right to prohibit the migration of particular nationalities to 
our soil may excite temporary strife and discord, but in the end 
we shall settle down upon the broad principles of the universal 
brotherhood of man and the equality of all men before the law. 

It would have been better in some respects if our male suffrage 
had not been quite so nearly universal as it is, but the dangers 
apprehended from that source are now very nearly obviated. 
Let us glance, then, at the races and nationalities which will 
probably make up the 50,000,000 to be found west of the Mis- 
sissippi in A. D. 1900. 

It may, we think, be taken as a settled fact that by the com- 



PROBABLE DWINDLING OF INDIAN TRIBES. 233 

mencement of the twentieth century, the Indian, especially in his 
nomadic condition, will have ceased to be a disturbing factor in 
the West. The tribes are diminishing in a very rapid ratio. In 
i860, there were somewhat more than 500,000 of them within 
the limits of the United States. In 1870, the number had dwin- 
dled to 383,000. In 1878, there were but 275,000, and the super- 
visors of the census, in 1880, will hardly report more than 250,- 
000. At this ratio they would be extinct by A. D. 1900. This 
is hardly probable, but they will be so few as to be of very little 
importance. There are natural laws which would bring about 
this result in time, but it must be said that for nearly the whole 
of the present century the policy of our government has been to 
hasten it. They have been removed from one district of country, 
and from one reservation to another, and have been exposed to 
the frauds of unscrupulous traders, who have plied them with the 
vilest liquors, and have plundered them of all their property, 
while, in too many instances, the government agent has stood 
by and permitted the wrongs, without even protesting against 
them. Moreover, the government has not observed its treaty 
provisions, and the Indian, learning only the worst vices of civil- 
ization, has come to his death, either by vice, disease, or murder 
Inflicted by the whites. 

While we write, a treaty has been negotiated which will, very 
soon we hope, put an end to the system of large reservations 
and give to the Indians about 480 acres of land per family in 
severalty, and pay them an annuity, while the remainder of their 
reservations is to be put upon the market. This plan, just 
adopted on the great reservation of the Utes in Colorado, by 
which more than 1 1,000,000 acres of their lands are to be offered 
for sale, will undoubtedly be followed by similar action in regard 
to the great reservations in Dakota, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, 
Idaho, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, California, and perhaps 
Arizona, and the Indian Territory. The measure is, in itself, a 
ofood one, but to be of much benefit to the Indians it should have 
been adopted years ago. The diminution and final extinction 
of the Indian races will not be materially delayed by It. 

We may safely predict^ that with the exception of the Indian 



234 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Territory, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and possibly Idaho, 
Montana, Washington and Dakota, the Indian will, by a. d. 1900, 
have ceased to be an appreciable element of the population, and 
even in these Territories, except possibly the Indian Territory, 
their numbers will be so small as to excite no alarm, and lead to 
no difficulties. Nearly 200,000,000 acres of land, some of it 
excellent farming land, and perhaps more containing valuable 
mineral deposits, will thus be thrown upon the market. 

The colored race, which in 1870 numbered in all the States 
and Territories west of the Mississippi less than 900,000, or 
only about one-sixth of the whole number in the United States, 
has since that time increased largely by immigration ; and 
probably at the census of the present year will show i ,400,000 
or 1,500,000 in that region. The natural increase in this race 
is not likely to be large, for in time they too will become extinct, 
under the pressure of a higher civilization, but the accessions from 
the East will continue for some years to come. It is doubtful, 
however, whether there will be more than 3,000,000 or 3,500,000 
in the territory west of the Mississippi in a. d. 1900. 

The Mexican races, whether HIspano-American or pure 
Indian, fail to hold their own by the side of our more robust 
civilization. It is to be hoped, both for our sakes and theirs, that 
the mania for annexation may not seize our people before that 
time, and Mexico be brought into the Union, either peacefully or 
by force — for our sakes, because we have already a sufficient 
territory, and the accession of a weak nation almost wholly 
uneducated, and speaking another language than ours, would 
degrade rather than improve our national character; and for 
theirs, because they would inevitably be placed in an inferior 
position, and might be goaded to a resistance which would prove 
fatal to them. But, for the Mexicans who are residing in the 
Great West, we can predict no considerable accessions, except 
from Immigration. They are not aggressive, and taking an 
inferior's position, they will be likely to be kept there. 

The Chinese and Japanese are likely to be exceptions to the 
general law in regard to weaker races. The immigration of the 
Chinese hitherto has been, with but few exceptions, of the coolie or 



CHINESE AND OTHER NATIONALITIES. 23 C 

peasant class. When a better class come, bringing their families, 
such a tide of immigration will pour in upon the Pacific coast, as 
will materially change the situation of affairs there, thouo-h not 
necessarily for the worse. The better classes in China are by no 
means barbarians, but people of as much refinement and delicacy 
of manner as can be found anywhere, and in morals vastly the 
superiors of their persecutors in California. 

It is worthy of notice, that wherever the Chinese have 
emigrated in considerable numbers, they have always in the end 
become the masters of the countr)^ however intelligent and 
physically vigorous and powerful the natives might be. This has 
been the result at Singapore, at Saigon, at Bangkok, and in 
other parts of Malaysia. They can, if they choose, plant 
50,000,000 of Chinese colonists on the Pacific coast and the 
interior, within the next twenty years ; but that will hardly be 
their policy. If they obtain a foothold they will become largely 
engaged in commercial transactions, in which they possess great 
skill, and the peasant class will be in demand for both skilled 
and unskilled labor. We regard it as altogether probable that 
the census of 1900 will report not less than 10,000,000 of them 
west of the Mississippi. 

Of the emigrants from Europe, it is probable that the nation- 
alities will prevail in about the following order : Germans, Irish, 
Scandinavians, English, Scotch and Welch, Italians, Russians, 
Canadian French, French, Swiss, Spanish, Belgians and Hol- 
landers. There will also be a considerable number of emigrants 
from the West Indies, and from South America. But the larger 
proportion of immigrants will be from the States east of the 
Mississippi, not a few of them originally European emigrants, 
who are now drifting westward ; others, the children of such 
emigrants, but a fair proportion of the genuine Yankee stock, 
drawn thither to become farmers, mine-owners, stock-raisers, 
sheep-masters, or manufacturers. Very many of our best 
citizens are among these setders in the Great West, and they 
will do good service in making it and keeping it patriotic, loyal 
and pure. 

The future of this Western Empire is to be what its citizens 



236 '^^■^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

shall make It. With all the advantages of mineral wealth vastly 
surpassing that of Ormuzd or of Ind ; with a soil of such extent 
and fertility, that it could supply the world with bread, with flocks 
and herds beyond the dream of the most opulent of the 
patriarchs of the East, and all the elements of material prosperity 
in such abundance as to defy description, if Its citizens are 
industrious, enterprising, intelligent, moral, law-abiding, God- 
fearlno- men and women, there is in reserve for It a future which 
not all the dreams of the poets, or the rapt vision of the seers, 
can describe In too glowing colors — a future which shall make 
the ancient Paradise a- modern reality, and cause men to flock 
thither, as to a new Eden. 

But if industry and enterprise are lacking, if morals are 
debased, and intelligence wanes ; if reverence for law and 
order is lost, and there comes a time when they do not fear God 
and keep His commandments ; if pride, self-confidence, and 
fullness of bread, lead to all the vices which ruined the empires 
of the Old World ; all this material wealth and prosperity, all 
these advantages of situation and production, will only make 
its downfall the more sudden and terrible. And its swift de- 
struction will call forth a wail of anguish from all the nations of 
the earth, as much deeper and more distressing, as its position 
had been grander and more imposing, than that of any of the 
older empires. Which shall it be ? a government of the people, 
for the people, by the people ; a government firm and persistent 
for liberty and law, for freedom, justice, and right, between man 
and his fellow-man, and between man and his Creator ? or a 
government without law, without justice, without purity, without 
right, and without order ; — an anarchy, where men's evil pas- 
sions and corrupt practices, all the arts of the demagogue, all 
the schemes of the hypocrite, and all the vices of the debauchee 
are allowed to destroy the nation, without check or restraint ? 

Rome and Greece, Babylon and Nineveh, Corinth and 
Ephesus, the most powerful empires and cities of their times, 
owed their ruin to this uncontrolled spirit of license and mis- 
rule, and in modern times, we have seen powerful nations 
brought to the verge of destruction from the same causes. Let 
us heed the warning while there is time. 



PART 11. 

IMMIGRATION. 

Who Should Go, and Why? The How, When and Where of 
Emigration to the Far West. 



CHAPTER I. 

Who Should Migrate to this Western Empire, and the Reasons Why — • 
Desirableness of Accurate Information — Intentional and Unin- 
tentional Misrepresentation — Who should not come — The Land- 
Grant Railway Companies, and the Emigration Societies — Age Beyond 
which Emigration is Undesirable — Other Obstacles— Amount of 
Capital Necessary — This varies with the Occupation — What are 
Necessary Expenses — Why some Emigrants are Dissatisfied. 

"Are you thinking of emigrating to tliat ' Far West ' in 
America, about which we hear so much lately ?" asks one neigh- 
bor of another in England, in the winter of 1879-1880. "Yes," 
is the reply. " I am thinking of it very seriously, but I find it 
hard to come to a decision. All my acquaintance are here ; I 
feel strongly attached to the country and place in which I was 
born and reared, where I found my good wife, and where my 
little ones were born. England is very dear to me ; and yet I 
cannot buy an acre, no, nor a rood of ground, even to be 
buried in ; I must be a tenant all my life, and liable to be evicted 
at the landlord's pleasure. I had, in past years, laid up a little 
money, but it is fast going, in these past three years of bad 
crops, low prices, and poor markets, and yet I am paying five 
pound rent per acre for my place. Then again, my children 
cannot get on here, and as I belong to the Methodists, they can 
have no chance unless they go to the church, which I don't like 

(237) 



2^8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

to have them do. Now, I am told that I can take up a farm of 
1 60 acres in that western country, under what they call the 
Homestead Act, for less money than I pay rent for one rcre 
here, and excellent land too, and that in five years' time I can 
have as good a farm as this — yes, and better — all my own, and 
a steady income of ^500 or ^600 a year, and good schools 
and churches, all convenient. When I consider all these things 
I think I must go, though it will be a sore thing to leave dear 
old England. How I wish now, that I had some book, or some- 
body that I knew wouldn't deceive me, to tell me all about 
the country, just as it is, and enable me to decide what I oughj; 
to do." 

There are many thousands not only in England, but in Ireland 
and Scotland, Germany, Sweden and Norway, in Austria and 
Russia, in Italy and France, who are asking themselves and 
others the question, Vv^hether it is not best to emigrate to this far- 
off western land, and thus escape from evils, discomforts, and 
oppressions of all sorts, which have become well-nigh intolerable. 
And there are scores of thousands more in our own country, 
who, from one cause or another, are revolving the same ques- 
tion in their own minds, and are sincerely desirous of light in 
reg-ard to it. 

To all such honest inquirers, we propose to give the informa- 
tion which they seek, and we beg leave to assure them at the 
start, that we have no object in view, except their benefit. We 
have no interest in any railroad, land grant, colony, mining, 
farming, stock-raising, or wool-growing company or organiza- 
tion west of the Mississippi river ; we do not own a square 
foot of land west of that river, and do not expect to do so ; but 
we know the country, its advantages and disadvantages, and we 
propose to state these honestly and fairly. We could obtain the 
indorsement of all the governors, senators, and representatives 
of that entire region, to the truthfulness and fairness of our 
book, if it were needful ; but we think that every one who will 
read it will be satisfied for themselves that it is an honest 
and trustworthy book. 

Having thus avouched the honesty of our purpose, and the 



HORRORS OF THE OLD EMIGRATION. 239 

knowledge of the subject which we possess, we will proceed to 
answer the very important questions, Who should emigrate, and 
why ? The emigration societies, the railroad companies, and the 
steamship agents, would answer the question very promptly, by 
saying, " Every one who has the means to reach the West 
should go ;" and they would be greatly in the wrong, and if 
they were believed, would do much wrong to emigrants by such 
an answer. 

No ! 7iot every one who has the means to reach there should 
go; not even every one who has from ^1,000 to ^10,000 to 
invest, after reaching the country. The question, "Who should 
go?" requires a previous consideration of many other questions 
before it can be rightly answered. There are always many hard- 
ships attending emigration ; not so many now as there were in 
former days, when the European emigrant took passage across 
the Atlantic in the steerage of a sailing packet, and was tossed 
on the waves, with but scant fare and horrible accommodations, 
for from thirty to sixty, or seventy-five days, and landing at 
the end of his tedious voyage, at New York, found himself the 
prey of the landsharks and confidence men, who swarmed around 
him. He was very fortunate, if he succeeded in making his way 
by barge and canal boat to Buffalo, and thence by other sailing 
vessels to distant Ohio, Indiana, or Illinois, and amid the forests, 
or the wide treeless plains, shaken by chills and fever, reared his 
rude log-hut, and set out resolutely to make a home and a for- 
tune for his family. That is not so very long ago either. Forty 
or fifty years ago, the emigrant had to take all these hardships 
into the account, if he would make his home in the West. It is 
not thirty-five years, hardly more than thirty, since those who 
sought homes beyond the Mississippi were obliged to go with 
their huge wagons — " prairie schooners " they were called — 
drawn by five, eight, or even twelve yoke of oxen, carrying with 
them their entire household goods, and travelling for many 
weeks, eight or ten miles a day, before reaching their new 
homes. 

When we compare the present facilities of travel and settle- 
ment with the hard lot of these pioneers of civilization, and the 



240 ^^-^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

speed and safety with which our emigrants reach their desired 
location, and the perils and dangers from Indians, from storms 
and snows, from hunger and thirst, from the giving out of their 
cattle, or the prairie fires — perils which marked the whole trail 
from the Mississippi to the Pacific with the skeletons of their 
cattle, and, not so rarely as could have been wished, with human 
bones also — with the present freedom from these dangers and 
miseries, we are almost inclined to declare that there are now 
no hardships for emigrants to face. This, however, would not be 
quite true. To the emigrant from Europe, the ten or twelve 
days' passage in the steerage of these magnificent ocean steam- 
ships, though a vast improvement on the old sailing vessels, is 
not quite an " earthly paradise," as indeed it could not well be. 
Most of these steamship lines, also, are in some way connected 
with some one or more of the emigration companies, which, in 
turn, have their arrangements with some of the great railway 
companies, and are under obligations to send their emigrants to 
particular sections of country, where their lands are situated. 
Of course, these emigration companies and railroad agents extol 
their particular section in the highest terms, and cannot say any- 
thing too strong in disparagement of every other region. They 
have no intention, probably, of misrepresenting either their own 
lands, or the lands in other States or Territories; but human 
nature must be differently constituted from what it now is, if the 
emigrant does not find that some things have been overstated, 
and that the advantages of other localities have been unduly 
depreciated. 

There are two remedies for this difficulty : one, that the emi- 
grant should inform himself thoroughly before making arrange- 
ments to come to this country, what will be the best location for 
him, taking into consideration climate, chances of employment, 
accessibility to good markets, prices of land, condition of society, 
advantages of education, etc., etc. His sources of information 
must be free from all temptation to misrepresentation and self^ 
interest, and they must be from parties who are fully informed of 
the present condition of affairs there, for so rapid are the changes 
which are taking place in this Great West, that statements which 



PRESENT HARDSHIPS OF EMIGRATION. 24I 

were perfectly true two years ago, are now very far from the 
truth. It has been our sole object in the preparation of this work, 
to make it as perfect a guide to the emigrant as it could be made, 
one which should be in every respect impartial, and have no 
interest except that of the emigrant to serve. If the intending 
emigrant will study such a book faithfully, he will find no diffi- 
culty in determining what is the best locality for him, and then 
can make his arrangements with that steamship or emigration 
company, which will take him directly to his desired location ; but 
he should be careful to make no contract, binding him to pur- 
chase land of any emigration company till he has seen it for him- 
self. He can, of course, procure his tickets and transportation 
at a considerable reduction, if he takes his land from the emi- 
gration company, but the extra cost of this will much more than 
make up the difference, if the land they allot to him should prove 
undesirable from any cause. 

The other way of avoiding the difficulty is this : the emigrant, 
having by inquiry and study come to a conclusion as to the best 
location for him, takes passage on a steamer for New York o^ 
New Orleans, and thence by rail to the point where he desires 
to settle, leaving his family, if he has one, behind him, till he can 
provide a home for them. This will cost him more than to buy 
his ticket from the emigration company, but if he wants a farm, 
he can take up his land under the Homestead or Timber-Cul- 
ture Acts, or pre-empt it, and the cost under either of the former 
plans will not exceed ^25 for 160 acres, and under the latter not 
over $1.25 per acre with thirty months to pay for it, while that 
must be very poor land which he can get from the emigration 
company at anything less than ^5 per acre. As soon as he is 
able he can send for his family, and buying the ticket here it will 
cost him no more than if he had bought it of the emigration 
company. But, in whatever way the emigrant secures his land, 
there are still hardships ; his first home will be in all probability 
a log-cabin, an adobe,* or a sod-house. If he purchases in the 
northern, or even the central tier of States or Territories, the 
deep snows, and the consequent embargo on travel, will annoy 

* A house built of sun-dried bricks or of clay mortar. 
16 



242 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

and distress him, as being so different from all his past experi- 
ence. The climate, too, may, very possibly, affect his health at 
first ; an unusual languor and listlessness may oppress him, the 
effect of his acclimatization. There will be times when he feels 
as if he must go back to his European home ; as if he could not 
endure life in a region where everything is so different from the 
home of his childhood. But if he is brave and resolute these 
feelings will soon pass away, and when his first crop is harvested 
and sold, he will look forward hopefully to a better future than 
he could have had at home. 

In general we may lay down these rules in regard to immi- 
gration : 

1. Age. A man who has his fortune to make, or a family to 
support, should not emigrate from Europe to the West, after 
he has passed his forty-fifth year. There may be a few excep- 
tions to this, but they are very few. After a man has reached 
his forty-fifth year, he finds it far more difficult to change all his 
habits and modes of life and thought, than when he was younger. 
If he Is a farmer, stock-raiser, or sheep-master, or has been a 
foreman or manasfer In either of these callino-s, he will find that 
it is necessary to learn all his business anew, from the difference 
in soil, climate, and ways of doing business. A capitalist who 
has money to invest In these or any other kinds of business, can 
come and make his investments at any age, when he is able to 
travel, and examine the property for himself; but we are not 
making a book for capitalists, but for workingmen. 

2. As a general rule an invalid, or a person in feeble health, 
will not find it advisable to come to the West to become a per- 
manent resident, unless he has sufficient property to Insure his 
support. Some do migrate under these circumstances, espe- 
cially those whose lungs are affected, and In Minnesota, Dakota, 
Montana, Colorado, Southern California, New Mexico, Utah, or 
Washington Territory, find positive benefit ; while Arkansas, 
Texas and Arizona have a good reputation for rheumatic affec- 
tions. But, in either disease, the beneficial result is contingent 
upon a permanent residence there. To come away, even after 
several years. Is, In most cases, certain to prove fatal ; while a 



WHO SHOULD NOT COME. 



243 



majority of those who go to these States and Territories for 
their health, after a brief and temporary improvement, suddenly 
become worse and die of the disease. The invalid, if he will 
come, should not stay in the larger towns but resort to the hills, 
where an open-air life is possible, 

3. No man should come who is averse to work, or who ex- 
pects, by coming, to lead an easier life, for some years at least, 
than he is leading at home. Since the primeval sentence at the 
expulsion from Eden, " In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat 
bread, until thou return unto the ground," there has been no 
reprieve from toil, of hand, or brain, and there will not be, till the 
lost Eden returns, which will not be in our day. Industry will 
reap a better reward here than elsewhere, and the honest toiler 
may hope, in the later years of life, to enjoy a competence ; but 
it can only be procured by hard and wearisome labor. 

4. No man should come whose temper is fickle, and who will 
give way at the first rebuff and become discouraged, despondent 
and home-sick. The persevering, earnest, and sanguine worker, 
who grows stronger under defeats and discouragements, who 
will not give up, is the man to succeed. 

5. No man can come with much hope of success, unless he 
has a little capital beyond what is necessary to bring him to the 
West. This is particularly true of a man who has a family. If 
he brings his family with him, which it is not always wise to do 
at first, they must have something to live upon till he can receive 
some return for his labor; and he will need money to purchase 
his land, break it up, sow it, cultivate it, and reap the harvest. 
If he attempts to raise stock, or to keep sheep, still more capital 
will be wanted ; if he starts a market-garden, a nursery, or raises 
flowers for profit, he must still have some capital to start with ; 
if he is a mechanic or a tradesman, he cannot start without some 
capital. How much he must have will depend very much on 
what he proposes to do ; for what would be sufficient for a 
mechanic or a market-gardener, might be too little for a farmer, 
a stock-raiser, or a tradesman. 

The safe rule will be, as much as the emigrant can command ; 
but in no case less than $500 after the travelling expenses are 



2AA Oi'/^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

paid ; and for a farmer, stock-raiser, sheep-master, miner, or 
tradesman, not less than $i,ooo, and as much more as he can 
honestly command. 

If the man has a family, these sums should be doubled. " But," 
asks the intending emigrant, " isn't it possible to go to the West 
and settle down with less money than this ? With the utmost 
economy I have not been able to save but £\oo in ten years, 
and it will take at least ^25 of it to pay the passage and trans- 
portation for myself and family. Must I be cut off from all hope 
of realizing the object for which I have been saving and working 
so long?" 

No, friend ; hope springs eternal in the human breast, so you 
need not give over hoping ; but as to the emigrating, you have 
just a choice of two alternatives : either to postpone your emigra- 
tion for two, three, or five years, in the hope of being able to make 
up the amount you need — a somewhat doubtful expedient in the 
present depressed condition of the markets and failure of the 
crops; or, leaving with your family, say ^75 of the £100, take 
the rest and go alone to the West, and seeking employment as a 
farm-hand, or herder, or shepherd, or miner, secure as soon as 
possible a homestead farm of 80 or 160 acres, on which the only 
payments will be from fourteen to twenty-five dollars (^2 i6j". to 
;^5) ; get twenty acres of it broken up by changing works, and 
have it planted to root crops, or sown with wheat ; by the 
second year a sod-house can be built and a crop raised, which 
will not only pay for further improvements, but leave £20 or 
£,2"^ to be sent to the family at home. At the end of four 
or five years, with good management, you can send for them, 
and welcome them to a home, humble and rude indeed, but 
your own, and with a fair prospect of improving your condi- 
tion rapidly. We recommend the latter alternative, because 
homestead lands, in desirable locations, are becoming daily more 
scarce, and in two or three years may not be obtainable at all. 
But to come with a family, with too small a sum to sustain them, 
and make the necessary outlay for the scanty comforts of the 
pioneer, until you can receive a return from your crops, is to 
expose yourself and them to severe suffering, and, perhaps, to 



THE DISSATISFIED EMIGRANT. 245 

premature death. Farther on we propose to show what can be 
done with ^i,ooo by a careful and intelHgent emigrant. 

6. It is unwise for aged people to come, even if it is with their 
young and robust children. The hardships of the pioneer life 
fall with peculiar severity upon the aged ; they miss the little 
comforts and privileges to which they have been for many years 
accustomed ; and the fatigues and exposures they must undergo 
very often shorten their days, without adding to their happiness. 

It is because these precautions have not been heeded, because 
so many emigrants have come without more means than were 
just sufficient to carry them to their destination, firmly believing 
that they could pick up money in the streets, or that they could 
obtain employment which would be immediately remunerative, 
that there are so many disappointed and homesick emigrants in 
the country. Without employment, without money or food, sick 
from the long voyage and journey, from the change of climate 
and water, or possibly from some malarious influences to which 
they have been exposed, they are indeed in a pitiable condition ; 
and though the kind hand is almost invariably stretched out to 
help them (for the western people are full of kindness and 
charity) they often become so utterly wretched as to be unmindful 
of the kindnesses they have received ; and even when they have 
been helped to return to their old homes, they will often denounce 
the country and those who have aided them in the strongest 
terms, when the fault has only been with themselves, that they 
came hither so entirely unprepared for their new life on the 
frontier. The prudent, energetic emigrant who comes expecting 
hardships, but prepared to meet them, who does not expect others 
to do for him what he can do for himself, and who recognizes the 
necessity of providing for his own support and that of his family 
until he can receive returns for his labor, will encounter soma 
hardships, but he will rejoice in triumphing over them, and very 
soon will be in a position to help others. 

The emigration societies and the land-grant railroads, though 
they make such a fair showing, and paint in such glowing colors 
the prosperity of the emigrants who have come out under their 
auspices, cannot guarantee success to those emigrants who have 



246 O^R WESTERN EMPIRE. 

no disposition to help themselves. The railroad companies and 
the emioration societies also crive the emiorant from six to eleven 
years to pay for their land, but the price is high, and the interest 
at from seven to ten per cent, adds materially to the price, vv^hile 
the first payment comes hard on a man who has little or no 
money, and his title is not complete till he has paid for the land, 
"U'hile a default in payment works a forfeiture of his farm, and 
the loss of most of what he has paid. Meanwhile, if he has no 
money, how is he and how is his family, if he has one, to be fed 
before he can raise a crop, or earn money for immediate support? 
Neither the emigration society nor the railroad company can or 
will support him. He would have done better to have gone to 
work for any one who would give him his board and even mod- 
erate wages, and if he could secure a farm under the Homestead 
or Timber-Culture Act, he would at least have no heavy debt to 
weigh him down, and no ground of anxiety about his own food 
and raiment. 

No industrious, willing, able-bodied man need starve if he 
reaches the West alone, with but a dollar in his pocket, but he 
will rkot accumulate property so rapidly as if he had a little to 
start with. John Jacob Astor, the founder of the Astor family, 
once said, that the only difficulty he had in accumulating his vast 
estate was in earning the first thousand dollars. 

We have purposely presented the dark side of the picture to 
emigrants, because they need to know the worst as well as the 
best. The rosy and pleasant side is presented to them every 
day, and they are tempted to believe that there are no shadows 
till they come into the actual experience of them, and then they 
find them so dark and gloomy that they are ready to recoil from 
them, and say, " If we had only known, we would not have 
come." 

But the emigrant who goes to the West with small means 
should know beforehand that there are awaiting- him and his 
family, if he has one, exposures to severe cold and intense heat ; 
hard beds, perhaps of pine or spruce boughs, or dried leaves 
on the ground ; scanty food at times, with hunger for his only 
sauce ; poor cooking, from the want of proper utensils ; clothing 



THE HARDSHIPS OF THE EMIGRANT. 247 

which he would have disdained at his old home ; a lack of all 
the conveniences of life ; very possibly at first no schools, no 
church, no post-office within twenty or thirty miles ; a house of 
one or two rooms built of sods or of logs, with a floor of earth, 
and upon this humble house, perhaps the summer's sun beats 
fiercely, and the winter's snows may bury it out of sight. But 
he should know also that these privations and discomforts will 
be but temporary; that in, perhaps, four or five years, he will 
have a pleasant home and farm, with all the comforts of life, 
and all his own ; that school and church, and town-hall and post- 
office, with perhaps a daily mail, will all have come by that time ; 
that good clothing and the luxuries of choice beds, excellent and 
toothsome fare, and the music of organ or piano, may gratify 
his tastes ; and knowing these things, he should decide whether 
the privations of the first few years were worth enduring, for the 
sake of the comforts and substantial benefits which will probably 
follow. 

There is another view of this subject of emigration to which 
attention should be directed. For some years past great efibrts 
have been made to direct emigration to other countries than the 
United States ; the Dominion of Canada, Australia, Brazil, Bue- 
nos Ayres, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, and Chili, have sought to 
attract emigrants to their respective countries. The Dominion 
and Australia have been moderately successful, for the whole 
influence of the British Government has been exerted, properly 
enough, in their favor ; but the emigrants to Canada have had 
much greater hardships to undergo than those to our western 
country, and very nearly two-thirds of them have eventually 
crossed the border and located themselves under the Stars and 
Stripes.* The Australian emigrants have struggled manfully 
with the trying climate, and the very great hardships which they 
have had to encounter, but many of them have come into the 

* Lately there is much complaint among the emigrants to Manitoba, that by recent Acts 
of the Colonial Legislature, they cannot secure lands within five miles of the proposed 
railway to the Pacific coast for less than six dollars per acre, and all homesteading is cut 
off from that belt, and, further, that by the Act of July last, the homestead grant, however 
distant from market, is limited to eighty acres, while the United States Government make it 
160 acres. 



248 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

West by way of San Francisco, and the tide of emigration to the 
United States to-day is more than four times that to Australia. 
The emigration to the South American States has in most cases 
proved a complete failure. Liberal as were the offers of the 
governments, the whole matter was badly organized and man- 
aged, and the sufferings of the emigrants became so intolerable 
that they were glad to escape to their old homes with the loss 
of everything, being indebted in many cases to the consuls of 
their respective countries for a free passage homewards. The 
present rapid influx of emigrants from Europe to the United 
States, and their strenuous objections to going to any other 
country, shows conclusively that the experience of sixty years 
of emigration has convinced the people of Europe that the' will 
fare best here. 



CHAPTER II. 



The Routes by which our Western Empire is Reached — The Northeastern 
Region — The Central Region — The Southern — The Southwestern — 
The Pacific States and Territories. 

The immiofrant who has valiantlv resisted at Hamburg;, Bre- 
men, Rotterdam, or Havre, at Southampton, Liverpool, Glasgow, 
Bldinburgh, or Cardiff, the blandishments of the emigration com- 
panies, and the glowing representations of the railway companies, 
and who lands at Castle Garden, New York, unpledged to any 
company, and under no obligation to take a poor route when 
there is a better to be had, may well rejoice in his freedom ; but 
he will find himself beset by as hungry a horde of runners and 
canvassers for all the different routes, as ever drove a poor man 
to distraction. 

If he has made up his mind to what section of the West he 
will migrate (and he should have done this before leaving home), 
our advice to him would be to stop over a day at Castle Garden 
and make choice of the route which will bring him most directly, 
quickly, and safely to his desired destination. He cannot well 
do this from the flaming posters placarded there ; nor from the 



ROUTE FOR NORTHWESTERN EMIGRANT. 249 

noisy vociferations of the runners; and there Is a strong possi- 
bility that even some of the officials may have been slightly in- 
fluenced by interested persons to give the preference to one 
route or another from motives not altogether disinterested. 

Knowing where he wishes to go, and knowing also, as he may, 
what railway lines will take him thither most surely, directly, with 
the greatest amount of comfort, and the smallest amount of cost. 
he can make up his own mind as to his route as well as anybod), 
else can do it for him, and, as all the routes have their real 
eastern termini at Castle Garden, he can purchase his tickets 
there and have no further trouble, except occasionally looking 
out for his meals and his baggage, till he reaches his destination, 
or the railway terminus nearest to it. 

The journey on an emigrant train will be at the best a long 
and weary one, but if he has a fellow-countryman or shipmate 
of his own way of thinking, and bound for the same vicinity as 
himself, the companionship will relieve the journey of some of 
its tedium for both. 

If our immigrant is a farmer, or farm-hand, and desires to 
establish himself in Iowa, Minnesota, Dakota, Northeastern 
Montana, or Nebraska, he will probably find It desirable to make 
Chicago his point of departure for the Northwest. Chicago is 
distant from New York about 950 miles, the five trunk roads 
running thither varying from 933 to 975 miles In the length of 
their lines to it. There is very little room for choice between 
the Hudson River and New York Central, the Erie, the Penn- 
sylvania Central, and the Baltimore and Ohio roads, all of which 
run trains through to Chicago. They are all good roads, and 
give the immigrant as nearly the worth of his money as they can 
possibly afford. These lines, we believe, now all make close 
connection with the Chicago and Northwestern lines, which are 
the connecting lines with the Northern Pacific, and the Minne- 
sota, Iowa, and Dakota Railways. By taking a through ticket, 
via the Chicago and Northwestern, to any point reached by this 
railway or its connections, he will be insured a passage with as 
few annoyances as he will find on any route. One precaution 
he should not fail to take. The number and class of his railway 



2 CO OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

ticket, and the railroads over which he is to pass, and the num- 
bers and stamps of his baggage checks, should all be noted down 
in a little memorandum, and he will do well occasionally to see 
that all his baggage is on board. In case of loss of either baggage 
or ticket, he will recover damages much more readily if he can 
tell on which of the affiliated roads it was lost and what were the 
numbers. He should also have a printed time-table of the roads 
over which he passes, which will be furnished him for the asking 
at the office of the railroad on which he is to travel, in Castle 
Garden. It seems a pity to be obliged to caution a man against his 
fellow-man, especially when he is a stranger in a strange land ; but 
it is necessary to say, once for all, not only to emigrants from 
Europe, but to our own people who may be migrating westward, 
that it is best to be shy of strangers, unless they are introduced 
to you by those whom you have reason to confide in as honest and 
trustworthy, and even then it is not necessary or wise to become 
too confidential with them, to tell them all your family history, 
to show your money to them, or inform them just the amount 
you carry about you. It is very imprudent and foolish to engage 
in any games of chance or skill with strangers, especially in any 
involving the winning or losing money. If you win, your antag- 
onist has probably lost what he can ill afford to lose ; if you lose, 
as you probably will (for generally, it is only sharpers who pro- 
pose to play in a public conveyance), you will feel the loss and 
have occasion at the same time to lament your folly. Never 
manifest a suspicious disposition in regard to those who are about 
you. If there is anything you cannot understand, ask the con- 
ductor, courteously and pleasantly, and he will generally be cour- 
teous in his reply. Do not make yourself conspicuous by loud 
talking, or a swaggering manner. There are always people on 
the train who will weigh a man at what he is really worth, not 
at the value he may set upon himself. Do not judge of people 
by their dress or their pretensions. You will often find in the 
West, a millionaire in plain, rough clothing, or an eminent scholar 
in a dress which might be worn by a tramp ; while a gambler, 
black-leg, or horse-thief may sport his diamonds, or dress in irre- 
proachable taste. 



ROUTES FOR THE PACIFIC STATES. 251 

The immigrant who is attracted to Nebraska, Kansas, Colo- 
rado, Wyoming-, Western or Central Montana, Idaho, Utah, 
Nevada, or New Mexico, Texas or Arizona does not need to 
make Chicago his point of departure, unless he chooses to do so. 
His more direct route will lie through St. Louis ; and Omaha, 
Nebraska, Kansas City, Missouri, St. Joseph, Missouri, or Atchi- 
son, Kansas, will be his points of departure. Omaha is the east- 
ern terminus of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railways, 
though recently a part of its traffic has been transferred to Kan- 
sas City. St. Joseph is the terminus of the St. Joseph and Den- 
ver branch of the Union Pacific, and is otherwise a railroad cen- 
tre of some importance, Atchison is the eastern terminus of the 
central branch of the Union Pacific and also of the Atchison, 
Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, the most enterprising and energetic 
railway in the Western Empire, but which is now also extended 
to Kansas City. The last-named place has recently become one 
of the greatest railway centres west of the Mississippi. It is the 
most easterly terminus of the Union Pacific, and commands from 
its position the travel and transportation of the Kansas Pacific, 
the Denver Pacific, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, the Utah 
and Northern ; the Missouri, Kansas and Texas ; the Houston and 
Texas Central ; the St. Louis and San Francisco, and the Texas 
Pacific. All these roads but one are now controlled by one man, 
or rather by a combination, of which he is the head. The immi- 
grant leaving New York by either of the great trunk roads, 
Erie, New York Central, Pennsylvania Central, or Baltimore and 
Ohio, will do better as matters now stand, to buy his through 
tickets via the Wabash Railway, which connects directly at Kan- 
sas City with all these roads. By either of the other lines, 
Chicaeo and Northwestern, or Chicag^o and Burlingfton, he will be 
obliged to change cars and re-check his baggage at Kansas City, 
Omaha, Atchison or St. Joseph. He may be required to do so 
on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, but probably he will not. 
If the emigrant's destination is to Oregon or Washington, he 
will still find it best to take this route going by the Union and 
Central Pacific, and stopping off at Kelton or at Junction, twenty 
miles east of Sacramento, and going thence by stage and rail to 



2C2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Oreeon or Washino-ton, or contlnuin": on to San Francisco and 
taking a steamer thence to Portland, Oregon. If the emigrant's 
destination is to Southern CaHfornia or Arizona, this route is 
still the best, taking the Southern Pacific Railway at Lathrop on 
the Central Pacific, and going by this railway to Southern Cali- 
fornia, or to any point in Arizona between Yuma and Tucson. 
The States and Territories on the Pacific can also be reached 
from New York at about the same expense by steamers to San 
Francisco, via Panama Railroad, and other steamer lines plying 
from San Francisco to Portland, Oregon, to the Columbia river 
and Puget Sound, and southward to Los Angeles, San Diego, 
and up the Gulf of California to Fort Yuma, near the mouth of 
the Rio Colorado. Very soon, probably within two years at the 
farthest, all Southern Arizona, Western Texas, and Southern 
California, will be reached by a much shorter and more direct 
route through Texas. Those emiofrants whose destination is to 
Missouri, Southeastern Kansas, Arkansas, Indian Territory, 
Western Louisiana or Texas, will make St. Louis their point of 
departure, and can go from thence either by Mississippi river 
steamer to any points below, and by New Orleans steamer to 
any points on the Texas coast, or by Missouri river steamer to 
any points in Missouri, Dakota or Montana, lying on that river 
or on its principal navigable affluents, such as the Dakota, Yel- 
lowstone, Jefferson, Gallatin, etc., etc. 

If they prefer, however, to continue their journey by rail, they 
can go from St. Louis by the Cairo and St. Louis, the St. Louis, 
Iron Mountain and Southern ; the Atlantic and Pacific, or the 
Missouri Pacific with its continuation in the Missouri, Kansas 
and Texas, and some of its branches, and the Texas Pacific. Or 
they may take the New Orleans or Galveston steamers from 
New York and qto direct to Louisiana or Texas. 

On the railroads the emigrant trains move slowly, being under 
the necessity of switching off frequently, as the faster trains have 
the right of way. The emigrant train from Kansas City or 
Omaha to the Pacific coast, on the Union and Central Pacific 
Railways, is usually nine or ten days on its journey. The emi- 
grant cars are fairly comfortable, about equal to the third-class 
cars in Europe. They have no cushions, are warmed by flat- 



RAILROAD FARES. 2C^ 

topped Stoves, on which the passengers can heat any food or 
drinks they need for young children or invaHds ; have an arrange- 
ment by which, by the use of boards furnished by the company, 
bunks can be made in which, with the aid of coats, blankets and 
shawls, the passengers can sleep as well as in the steerage of a 
steamship. The following table, compiled with great care, gives 
the railroad fares which prevailed in the autumn of 1879: 



Destination. 
States and Territories. 



Portland, Oregon . 

Portland, Oregon. 
Portland, Oregon., 

Portland, Oregon . 



Fort Benton, Montana. 
Fort Benton, Montana. 

Helena, Montana 

Helena, Montana 

Helena, Montana 



Denver, Colorado 

Pueblo, Colorado 

Colorado Springs, Col.. 
Canon City, Colorado . . 
Alamosa, Colorado. ... 



Del Norte, Colorado . 
fLeadville, Colorado. 



fLake City, Colorado 

■fSanta Fe, New iMcxico . . 
MesiUa, New Mexico . . . . 
Ojo Caliente, New Mexico 

Cheyenne, Wyoming 

Emporia, Kansas 

Wichita, Kansas 

Hutchinson, Kansas 

Great Bend, Kansas 

Kinsley, Kansas 

Dodge City, Kansas 

Ogden, Utah 

Salt Lake City, Utah 

Provo, Utah 

York, Utah 

San Antonio. Texas 

Galveston, Texas . . . 

Waco, Texas 

Denison, Texas 

Fort Worth, Texas 

Vinita, Indian Territory . . 

Fort Smith, Arkansas 

Houston . Texas 

Dallas, Texas 

Deadwood, Black Hills, 

Dakota 

E>eadwood, Black Hills, 

Dakota 

Virginia City, Nevada 

Carson, Nevada 

Los Angeles, California... . 

San Diego, California 

\ Tucson, Arizona 






#75.00 

I^JO.OO 

108.00 

75.00 

II?. 53 

46.50 
97-50 
61 50 
68.50 

33-56 

33-56 

33-56 
35-56 
38.56 

41.56 

47-56 

55-56 
51.81 

98.31 

5356 

40.00 

16.76 
I7.S6 
17.41 
18.46 
19.41 

20.11 
60.00 
62.00 

64.50 
66.00 
36.90 
33.00 
29.50 
25-50 

27.00 
20.00 

28.55 

30.50 
27.50 



OS.OO 

67.00 

75.00 



Railroad or Steamer Routes, and Points of 
Departure. 



via San Francisco & Oregon S. S. Company 

via U. P. R. R. and Stage by Kelton & Umatilla, 
via U. P. R. R. & Stage by junction Redding 

and Roseburg 

By Pacific Mail to San Francisco, and thence by 

Steamer to Portland 

By Union & Cen. Pacific, and Utah & Nor. R. R. 

By Missouri River 

By Union & Ccn. Pacific, and Utah & Nor. R. R. 

By St. Louis & IVIissouri River _ 

Later rates by Union Pacific, Utah & Northern 

R. R...... 

via St. Louis, Kansas City, and the Atchison, 

Topeka & Santa Fa R. R 

via St. Louis, Kansas City, and the Atchison, 

Topeka & Santa Fe R. R 

via St. Louis, Kansas City, and the Atchison, 

Topeka & Santa Fe R. R 

via St. Louis, Kansas City, and the Atchison, 

Topeka & Santa Fe R . R 

via St. Louis, Kansas City, and the Atchison, 

Topeka & Santa TFe R . R 

via St. Louis, Kansas City and the Atchison, 

Topeka & Santa Fe R. R.' 

By Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe R. R.,orby 

Union Pacific, Colorado Central, and Stage . 



By Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe R. R. 



By Union Pacific R. R 

By Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe R. R. 



By Union Pacific 

By Union Pacific & Utah Narrow Gauge R. R. 



By St. Louis & Missouri, Kansas & Texas R. R. 



By U. P., and Stage from Sydney to Deadwood. 

By Northern Pacific, and Stage from Bismarck. 
By Union and Central Pacific 



By Union, Central & Southern Pacific - 




32.56 
84.00 
48. 00 



20.00 

20.00 

20.00 

22.00 

25.00 

28.00 

34.00 
42.00 
38-^5 
84.7s 
40.00 



3.70 

4.80 

4.35 

5.40 

6.35 

7.05 

46.44 

48-44 

50.94 

52-44 
30.93 



39.00 
47.00 
43. = 5 
89-75 
45.00 
20.00 
1.70 
9.80 
9.35 
10.40 
"•35 
12.05 
40.00 
42.00 
44.50 

46;oo 



40.00 

47.00 
55.00 

66,00 
69.00 



83.00 



'103.00 

37.00 

88.00 
53-0O 

55-50 

15. 55 

28.00 

25.00 

27.00 

30.00 

33.00 

39.00 
47.00 
43.25 
89.7s 

45.00 



1.70 
9.80 

9.35 

10.40 
it-35 
12.0S 
50.00 
52.00 
55.00 
56.50 
27.40 
23.50 
20.00 
16.00 
17.50 
10.50 
19.05 

21.03 

iS.oo 
30.00 



*In March, 1880, the Utah and Northern R. R. was completed to Helena, Montana, and the fares to that town 
and to Fort Benton, have consequently been reduced somewhat on this route. 

fThe completion of the railroad to Leadville, Alamosa and Santa Fe, has reduced these fares somewhat. 
JThe Southern Pacific is now completed to Tucson, and fares are lower. 



254 ^^'-^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 



CHAPTER III. 

How TO OBTAIN LaND — GOVERNMENT LaNDS — PRICES OF ARABLE OR FARMING 

Lands — Purchase at Auction or Private Entry — Pre-emption — The 
Homestead Sales — Land-Warrants — The Timber-Culture Act — Terms 
AND Mode of Purchase of Timber Lands — Grazing Lands: how Secured. 

Having arrived at his destination, the immigrant, if a farmer, or 
if disposed to invest in arable lands, looks about him, to see how- 
he can best secure a farm. If he is a member of a colony formed 
in Europe, or in our own Eastern States, or if he comes out 
under the management of an emigration company, he is spared 
that trouble. He takes what is allotted to him, whatever its 
quality, and without any privilege of change ; or if he is allowed 
a voice in the allotment, it must still be in the same tract of land. 
Not all the immigrants, however, are disposed to come into such 
an arrangement as this. It is very well in a small colony, where 
all the colonists are friends and acquaintances, and where the town 
lots and farming lands are about equally eligible, to unite together 
in this way, but to be only one of several thousands to whom 
land is allotted without choice of the party who is to cultivate it, 
and without the stimulus of individual enterprise, though it may 
suit foreign colonists, is not much to the taste of our independent 
and self-reliant American emigfrants. 

We will suppose, then, that our immigrant, having decided where 
he desires to locate his farm, proceeds to secure it. There are 
many ways in which he may do this ; some of them depending 
upon the amount of money he has at command, others upon the 
locality itself, and the amount and desirableness of the govern- 
ment land in the market. If he has a sufficient capital and 
proposes to farm his own land, he will perhaps find it advisable 
to purchase a partially improved farm from some settler who 
desires to pay off the debts he has incurred and start anew on 
government land farther west. There are very often such oppor- 
tunies by which an immigrant, who has some capital, may, for less 
money than he would have to expend on new and unbroken lands, 
procure a good farm, with such improvements as may enable him 



HO IV TO SECURE A FARM. 255 

to enter upon it at once. In all these cases, however, he should 
carefully examine his title, and see that there are no clouds on it. 
If, however, there is no such opportunity where he wishes to 
locate, he will do well to purchase, if he can find it, government 
land of the best quality, either at auction or by private entry, 
being careful to select a farm with either a spring or running 
water on it, and, if it is to be had, one of the alternate sections 
on or near a railway line, present or immediately prospective. 
The land, if not near a railway, will be held by the government 
at $1.25 per acre and the fees, which may bring the price up to 
^1.33 or $1.35 per acre. If it is within the railroad limit the 
price will be $2.50 per acre, with the fees, which may bring it up 
to ^2.60. In either case, he will do well if he can afford it to 
take a quarter-section (160 acres) in this way. If he needs more 
hereafter he can probably secure it at a less cost. 

But it may happen that there has been such active emigration 
to that neighborhood, that there are no desirable quarter-sections 
to be had, among these alternate sections along the railroad, and 
that the remoter lands are, for some reason, not desirable. Or, 
it may be that there is no railroad In the immediate vicinity, or 
that the lands have not been surveyed, and so put upon the 
market. In the first case, he can probably buy the railroad land, 
paying a little more for It, usually ^5 per acre, but receiving a 
liberal discount for cash payment. In the second case, he may 
be obliged to pre-empt his land, in which case he will have thirty- 
three months to pay for it, and a longer time if it is not surveyed, 
but meantime does not receive a full title ; or he can enter It 
provisionally under the Homestead or the Timber-Culture Act, 
receiving his full title In five or eight years. Or, he may find 
some school lands or other State lands in the vicinity, which he 
may be able to purchase on fair terms ; or, at the very worst, if 
there Is no survey, no railroad near, no State or Territorial lands 
ready for purchase, nothing but a mining settlement just sprung 
into existence, which will afford him a good market for whatever 
he can raise, he can "squat" on the land, taking his chance of 
dispossession, but with pay for his improvements, if the land 
should prove to be mining land, and filing a pre-emption claim 
as soon as possible. 



2e6 (^^'^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The immigrant who has but Httle money will take a somewhat 
different course. He will do better to look out for a quarter- 
section under the Homestead Act, or the Timber-Culture Act, or 
both, if he needs so much land, and he will find it for his 
advantage, if there are lands near a railroad, to secure those, 
taking if he chooses, only half the quantity and thereby saving 
something on entry fees. His entry fees for eighty acres (an 
eighth of a section) will be about $14, and if he takes the same 
quantity under the Timber-Culture Act, it will cost him ^14 
more; but he obtains his full title only at the end of five years of 
cultivation (unless he was a soldier in the late war, when the 
time of service in the war is deducted), and under the Timber- 
Culture Act, not till the end of eight years, though the tree-plant» 
ing is extended over the whole time, a certain quantity being 
planted each year. If there is no opportunity to obtain a 
desirable farm in this way, the next best mode is by pre-emption,j 
which will give him at least thirty-three months, time for two 
crops, before he will have to pay for his land. Or failing this, 
the school lands, which though of slightly higher price are 
usually sold on time, in seven or ten annual instalments, or he 
may purchase on long credit, though at a higher price, railroad 
lands in an eligible location. In order that there may be no 
possibility of misunderstanding the piiovisions under which 
government lands are sold, we give below the acts and inter- 
pretations of them, by the United States Land Office, under which 
the public lands are sold or given to settlers for farming or 
grazing purposes, and also the laws in regard to timber lands 
and mining lands. These have been compiled and compared 
with the reports of the office with great care, and are believed to 
embody every particular necessary for procuring government 
lands under all circumstances. We ought to say, that there is 
very little government land eligible for farming purposes in Iowa, 
Missouri, Eastern Kansas, Eastern Nebraska, or California, and 
none in Texas, though the State has vast quantities for sale at 
merely nominal prices. In some of the other States and 
Territories grazing and timber lands are greatly in excess of 
those adapted to cultivation. In Minnesota, Dakota, Montana, 



HO IV TO SECURE GOVERNMENT LANDS. 257 

Wyoming, Western Nebraska, Western Kansas, Arkansas, 
Colorado, Oregon and Washington, there are still large 
quantities of arable lands, and a considerable amount in Utah, 
Nevada, Idaho, New Mexico, and Arizona, though in all these 
the grazing and mineral lands largely predominate. 

HOW TO OBTAIN GOVERNMENT LANDS. 

I. Arable Lands. — The following is compiled from circulars 
issued by the Commissioner of the General Land Office, and is 
explicit in reference to the manner of acquiring title to public 
lands : 

There are two classes of public lands — the one class at ^1.25 
per acre, which is designated as minimum^ and the other at 
^2.50 per acre, or double minimum. 

Title may be acquired by purchase at public sale, or by 
ordinary " private entry," and in virtue of the pre-emption, 
homestead, and timi ^;r-culture laws. 

BY PURCHASE AT PUBLIC SALE. 

1 . This may be done whe'-e lands are " offered " at public 
auction to the highest bidder. 

BY " PRIVATE ENTRY " OR LOCATION. 

2. The lands liable to disposal in this manner are those which 
were offered at public sale, but were not then sold, and which 
have not since been reserved or otherwise withdrawn from 
market. In this class of offered and unreserved public lands, 
the following steps may be taken to acquire title : 

CASH PURCHASES. 

3. The applicant will present a written application to the 
register for the district in which the land desired is situated. 
Thereupon the register will so certify to the receiver, stating the 
price, and the applicant must then pay the amount of the 
purchase-money. 

The receiver will then issue his receipt for the money paid, 
and when the proceedings are found regular, a patent or com- 
plete title will be issued. 
17 



258 



OUR WESTERN- EMPIRE. 



LOCATIONS WITH WARRANTS. 



4. Application must be made as in cash cases, but must be 
accompanied by a warrant duly assigned as the consideration for 
the land; yet, where the tract is $2.50 per acre, the party, in 
addition to the surrendered warrant, must pay in cash $1.25 per 
acre, as the warrant is in satisfaction of only so many acres, at 
^1.25 per acre, or furnish a warrant of such denomination as 
will, at the legal value of $1.25 per acre, cover the rated price 
of the land. 

The following fees are chargeable by the land officers, and the 
several amounts must he. paid at the time of location: 

For a 40-acre warrant, 50 cents each to the register and receiver — total, ^i.oo 

For a 60-acre warrant, 75 cents " " " *' 1.50 

For an 80-acre warrant, j^i.oo " " " " 2.00 

For a 1 20-acre warrant, $1.50 " " ** " 3.00 

For a 160-acre warrant, ^2.00 " " " ** 4.00 

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE SCRIP. 

5. This scrip may be used — 

First. In the location of lands at ^^ private entry'' but when so 
used is only applicable to lands not mineral, which may be sub- 
ject to private entry at $1.25 per acre, restricted to a '' qiiarter- 
section,'' or it may be located on a part of a " quarter-section," 
where such part is taken as in full for a quarter; but it cannot 
be applied to different subdivisions to make an area equivalent 
to a quarter-section. The manner of proceeding to acquire title 
with this class of paper is the same as in cash and warrant cases, 
the fees to be paid being the same as on warrants. 

Second. In payment of pre-emption claims in the same manner 
and under the same rules and regulations as govern the applica- 
tion to pre-emptions of military land warrants. 

Third. In payment for homesteads commuted under section 
2301 of the Revised Statutes of the United States. 

PRE-EMPTIONS ADMISSIBLE TO THE EXTENT OF ONE QUARTER-SEC- 
TION, OR ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY ACRES. 

6. These are admitted under sections 2257 to 2288 of the Re- 



PRE-EMPTION OF LANDS. 259 

vised Statutes of the United States, upon "offered" and "un- 
offered" lands, and upon any of the unsurveyed lands belonging 
to the United States. The pre-emption privilege is restricted to 
the heads of famihes, widows, or single men over the age of 
twenty-one, who are citizens of the United States, or who have 
declared their intention to become citizens, as required by the 
naturalization laws. 

7. The right of pre-emption for one quarter-section, or i6o 
acres, at the price of $2.50 per acre, to the alternate United States 
or reserved sections along the line of railroads, is continued by 
the Revised Statutes. 

8. Section 2281 thereof protects the rights of settlers along 
the line of railroads, where settlement existed prior to with- 
drawal, and in such cases allows the land to be taken by pre- 
emptors at $1.25 per acre. 

9. Where the tract is ''offered'' land, the party must file his 
declaratory statement, as to the fact of his settlement, within 
thirty days from the date of said settlement, and within one year 
from date of settlement must make proof of his actual residence 
on, and cultivation of, the tract. 

10. Where the tract has been surveyed and not offered at 
public sale, the claimant must file his declaratory statement 
within three months from date of settlement, and make proof 
and payment within thirty months after the expiration of the 
three months allowed for filing his declaratory notice, or in other 
words, within thirty-three months from date of settlement. 

11. Where settlements are made on unsurveyed \2Si.i^?,, settlers 
are required, within three months after the date of the receipt at 
the district land office of the improved plat of the township em- 
bracing their claims, to file their declaratory statement, and 
thereafter to make proof and payment for the tract within thirty 
months from the expiration of said three months. When two or 
more settlers on unsurveyed land are found upon survey to be 
residing upon, or to have valuable improvements upon, the same 
smallest legal subdivision, they may make joint entry of such 
tract, and separate entries of the residue of their claims. 

12. Should the settler, in either of the aforesaid cases, die 



26o ^^^ WESTERN ExMPIRE. 

before establishing his claim within the period limited by law, the 
title may be perfected by the executor, administrator, or one of 
the heirs, by making the requisite proof of settlement and pay- 
ing for the land ; the legal representatives of the deceased pre- 
emptor being entitled to make the entry at any time within the 
period to which the pre-emptor would be entitled if living. 

LAWS EXTENDING THE HOMESTEAD PRIVILEGE. 

13. The laws extending the homestead privilege, embraced in 
sections 2289 to 2317 of the Revised Statutes, give to every 
citizen, and to those who have declared their intention to become 
citizens, the right to a homestead on S7irvcyed lands. 

14. To obtain homesteads, the party must make affidavit 
before the register or receiver that he is over the age of twenty- 
one, or the head of a family ; that he is a citizen of the United 
States, or has declared his intention to become such ; and that 
the entry is made for his exclusive use and benefit, and for 
actual settlement and cultivation. 

15. Where the applicant has made actual settlement on the 
land he desires to enter, but is prevented, by good cause, from 
personal attendance at the district land o'ffice, the affidavit may 
be made before the clerk of the court for the county within 
which the land is situated. 

16. On compliance of the party with the foregoing require- 
ments, the matter will then be entered on the records of the dis- 
trict office, and reported to the General Land Office. 

17. An inceptive right is vested in the settler by such pro- 
ceedings, and upon faithful observance of the law in regard to 
settlement and cultivation the register will issue his certificate, 
and make proper returns to the General Land Office as the 
basis of a patent or complete title for the homestead. In making 
final proof, it is required that the homestead party shall appear 
in person at the district land office. But where, from good 
cause, the witnesses of said party cannot attend in person at the 
district office, their testimony may be taken before any officer 
authorized by law to administer oaths. 

18. Where a homestead settler dies before the consummation 



THE HOMESTEAD LAW. 26 1 

of his claim, the widow, or, in case of her death, the heirs may 
continue the settlement and cultivation, and obtain title upon 
requisite proof at the proper time. If the widow proves up, the 
title passes to her; if she dies before proving up and the heirs 
make the proof, the title will vest in them. Where both parents 
die, leaving infant heirs, the homestead may be sold for cash for 
the benefit of such heirs, and the purchaser will receive title from 
the United States. 

19. The sale of a homestead claim by the settler to another 
party before completion of title, is not recognized by the General 
Land Office, but would \>^ prhna facie evidence of abandonment, 
and might give cause for cancellation of the claim. A party may 
relinquish his claim, but on his doing so, the land reverts to the 
government. Where application is made to contest the validity 
of a homestead entry on the ground of abandonment, the officers 
will set apart a day for a hearing, giving all the parties in interest 
due notice of the time and place of trial. The expenses incident 
to such contest must be defrayed by the contestant, who must 
ascertain when notice of cancellation is received, and theii make 
formal written application for the tract, which, after cancellation, 
is open to xho. Jlrst legal applicant. 

20. As the law allows but one homestead privilege, a settler 
relinquishing or abandoning his claim cannot thereafter make a 
second entry ; but where, a party having made one entr)^ it is 
cancelled as invalid, for some other reason, he is not thereby de- 
barred from enterinof arain. Where an individual has made 
settlement on a tract and filed his pre-emption declaration therefor, 
he may change his filing into a homestead, if he continues in good 
faith to comply with the pre-emption laws until the change is 
effected. 

21. If the homestead settler does not wish to re^nain five years on 
Ills tract, the law permits him to pay for it with cash or warrants, 
or agricultural college scrip, itpon making proof of settleinent and 
adtivation for a period not less thajt six months from the date of 
entiy to the time of payment. This proof of actual settlement and 
cultivation must be the affidavit of the party, made before the 
district officers, corroborated by the testimony of two credible 
witnesses. 



262 (^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

22. There is another class of homesteads deslg-nated as "ad- 
joining farm homesteads." In these cases the law allows an 
applicant, owning and residing ow an origi?ial farm, to enter other 
land lying contiguous thereto, which shall not, with such farm, 
exceed in the aggregate 160 acres. In applying for an entry of 
this class, the party must make affidavit describing the tract which 
he owns and upon which he resides as his original farm. In 
making final proof, it is not required that he should prove actual 
residence on the separate tract entered ; but it must appear that 
he has continued for the period required by law to reside upon 
and cultivate the original farm tract, and has bona fide made use 
of the entered tract as part of the homestead. 

23. Provisions for the be7iefit of soldiers and sailors of the late 
war, their widoivs a?id minor orphan children: Sections 2304, 
2305, 2306, 2307, 2308, and 2309 of the Revised Statutes, for 
the benefit of soldiers and sailors, their widows and minor orphan 
children, provide : 

First. In section 2304, that every soldier and officer of the 
army, and every seaman, marine, and officer of the navy, who 
served for not less than ninety days in the army or navy of the 
United States "during the recent rebellion," and who was honorably 
discharged, and has remained loyal to the government, may enter, 
under the provisions of the homestead law, 1 60 acres of the public 
lands. 

Second. In section 2305, that the time of his service, or the 
whole term of his enlistment, if the party was discharged on 
account of wounds or disability incurred in the line of duty, shall 
be deducted from the period of five years during which the 
claimant must reside upon and cultivate the entered tract, but 
the party shall, in every case, reside upon, improve, and cultivate 
his homestead for a period of at least one year. 

Third. That any person entitled to the benefits of section 2304, 
who had, prior to the 22d of June, 1874, made a homestead entry 
of less than 160 acres, may enter an additional quantity of land 
sufficient to make, with the previous entry, 160 acres. 

Fourth. That the widow, if unmarried, or in case of her death 
or marriage, then the minor orphan children, of a person who 



HOMESTEAD LANDS JO SOLDIERS, ETC. 263 

would be entitled to the benefits of section 2304, may enter lands 
under its provisions, with the additional privilege accorded, that 
if the person died during his term of enlistment, the widow or 
minor children shall have the benefit of the whole term of enlist- 
ment. 

Fifth. That any person entitled to the benefit of section 2304 
may file his claim for a tract of land through an agent, and shall 
have six months thereafter within which to make his entry and 
commence his settlement and improvement upon the land. 

24. The following is the course of proceedings for parties to 
avail themselves of the benefit of these sections of the Revised 
Statutes in making homestead entries : 

First. On the party producing proper proof of his right to do 
so, immediate entry of the tract desired may be made ; but if the 
party so elect, he may file a declaration to the effect that he claims a 
specified tract of land as his homestead, and that he takes it for 
actual settlement and cultivation. Thereafter, at any time within 
six months, the party may come forward, either in person or by 
agent having his power of attorney, make his entry of the land, 
and commence his settlement and improvement. 

Second. The claims of widows and minor orphan children may 
be initiated by declaration as above. Minor orphan children can 
act only by their duly appointed guardians, who must file certified 
copies of the powers of guardianship. 

Third. Applications for additional entries must be for a quantity 
which, with the original entry, will not exceed 1 60 acres. Where 
the party's first entry has been consummated, the register and 
receiver will require him to make application and affidavit in the 
forms prescribed, and to pay the same fee and commissions as in 
cases of original entry. Then, to complete the transacUon, the 
party will make payment of the usual final commissions on the 
entered tract, for which the receiver will issue his receipt. In case 
the party has not made proof on his original homestead entry 
when he applies for additional land, he will be allowed to make 
the additional entry on proper application and affidavit as above 
stated, and paying the usual fee and commissions. Thereafter, 
when the party shall make final proof on the original entry, he 



2^4 ^^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

will be required to pay the final commissions on both entries, 
when a final receipt will be issued for the money, and thereupon 
a final certificate issued to call both for the tract in the original 
entry and the additional tract. 

25. The following proof will be required of parties applying 
for the benefits of these sections, in addition to the prescribed 
affidavit of the applicant : 

First. Certified copy of certificate of discharge, showing when 
the party enlisted and when he was discharged ; or, if this can- 
not be procured, then the affidavits of two respectable, dis- 
interested witnesses, corroborative of the allegations contained 
in the prescribed affidavit on these points. 

Second, In case of widows, the prescribed evidence of military 
service of the husband, as above, with affidavit of widowhood. 

Third. In case of minor orphan children, in addition to the 
prescribed evidence of military service of the father, proof of 
death or marriage of the mother. Evidence of death may be 
the testimony of two witnesses or certificate of a physician duly 
attested. Evidence of marriage may be a certified copy of 
marriage certificate, or of the record of same, or testimony of 
two witnesses to the marriage ceremony. 



28. All lands obtained U7ider the homestead laws are exempt 
from liability for debts contracted piHor to the issuing of patent 
therefor. 

29. For homestead entries on lands in Kansas, fees are to be 
paid according to the following table : 



Acres. 



One hundred and sixty 

Eighty 

Forty 

Eighty 

Forty 



Price per 
acre. 



M 25 
I 25 

1 25 

2 50 
2 50 



Commission 




Payable when 
entry is made. 


Payable when 

certificate 

issues. 


$\ 00 




^4 00 


2 GO 




2 GO 


I GO 




I GO 


4 00 




4 GO 


2 GO 




2 GO 



Fees. 



Payable when 
entry is made. 



;io 00 

5 00 

5 00 

10 00 

5 00 



Total fees 
and com- 
missions. 



^18 00 

9 00 

7 00 

18 00 

9 00 





Note. — Where entries arc made on 1^2.50 land by officers, soldiers and sailors, under section 2304 of the Re- 
vised Statutes, double the amount of the above commissions must of course be paid — that is, for 160 acres of ^.50 
^ at the date of entry, and %% upon proving up. 



TIMBER-CULTURE ACTS. 



265 



LAWS TO PROMOTE TIMBER CULTURE. 

31. The Timber-Culture Act of June 14th, 1878, amendatory 
of the act of March 13th, 1874 (sections 2464 to 2468 of the 
Revised Statutes), is to the following effect: 

First. The privilege of entry under this act is confined to per- 
sons who are heads of families, or over twenty-one years of 
age, and who are citizens of the United States, or have declared 
their intention to become such. 

Second. The affidavit required for initiating an entry under 
this act may be made before the register or receiver of the dis- 
trict office for the land district embracing the desired tract, or 
before some officer authorized to administer oaths in that 
district, who is required by law to use an official seal. 

Tkh'd. Not more than 1 60 acres in any one section can be 
entered under this act, and no person can make more than one 
entry thereunder. 

Fourth. The ratio of area required to be broken, planted, etc., 
in all entries under the act of June 14, 1878, is one-sixteenth of 
the land embraced in the entry, except where the entered tract 
is less than forty acres, in which case it is one-sixteenth of that 
quantity. The party making an entry of a quarter-section, or 
160 acres, is required to break or plow five acres covered 
thereby during the first year, and five acres in addition during 
the second year. The five acres broken or plowed during the 
first year, he is required to cultivate by raising a crop, or other- 
wise, during the second year, and to plant in timber, seeds, or cut- 
tings, during the third year. Thefive acres broken orplowed during 
the second year, he is required to cultivate, by raising a crop or 
otherwise, during the third year, and to plant in timber, seeds, 
or cuttings, during the fourth year. The tracts embraced in 
entries of a less quantity than one-quarter section are required 
to be broken or plowed, cultivated, and planted in trees, tree 
seeds or cuttings, during the same periods, and to the same 
extent, in proportion to their total areas, as are provided for in 
entries of a quarter-section. Provision is made in the act fof 
an extension of time in case the trees, seeds or cuttings planted 



266 (^^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

should be destroyed by grasshoppers, or by extreme and unusual 
drought. 

Fifth. If, at the expiration of eight years, or at any time within 
five years thereafter, the person making the entry, or, if he or 
she be dead, his or her heirs or legal representatives, shall prove 
by two credible witnesses the fact of such planting, culdvation, 
etc., of the said timber for not less than the said period of eight 
years, he, she or they shall receive a patent for the land em- 
braced in said entry. 

Sixth. If at any time after one year from the date of entry, 
and prior to the issue of a patent therefor, the claimant shall 
fail to comply with the requirements of this act, or any part 
thereof, then such land shall become liable to a contest in the 
manner provided in homestead cases ; and upon due proof of 
such failure the entry shall be cancelled, and the land become 
again subject to entry under the homestead laws, or by some 
other person under the provisions of this act. 

Seventh. No land acquired under the provisions of this act 
shall in any event become liable to the satisfaction of any debt 
or debts contracted prior to the issuing of final certificate 
therefor. 

Eighth. The fees for entries under the act of June 14, 1878, are 
ten dollars, if the tract applied for is more than eighty acres, and 
five dollars, if it is eighty acres or less; and the commission of reg- 
isters and receivers on all entries (irrespective of area) are four 
dollars (two dollars to each) at the date of entry, and a like sum 
at the date of final proof. 

Ninth. No distinction is made, as to area or the amount of 
fee and commissions, between minimum and double-minimum 
lands ; a party may enter 1 60 acres of either on payment of the 
prescribed fee and commissions. 

Tenth. The fifth section of the act entitled "An act in addi- 
tion to an act to punish crimes against the United States and 
for other purposes," approved March 3, 1857, shall extend to 
all oaths, affirmations and affidavits required or authorized by 
this act. 

Eleventh. The parties who have already made entries under 



APPEALS UNDER TIMBER-CULTURE ACTS. 267 

the Timber- Culture Acts of March 3, 1873, and March 13, 1874, 
of which the act of June 14, 1878, is amendatory, may complete 
the same by compliance with the requirements of the latter act ; 
that is, they may do so by showing, at the time of making their 
final proof, that they have had under cultivation, as required by 
the act of June 14, 1878, an amount of timber sufficient to make 
the number of acres required thereby, being one-fourth the num- 
ber required by the former acts. 

32. The following regulations are prescribed pursuant to the 
fifth section of the act of June 14, 1878, viz.: 

First. The register and receiver will not restrict entries under 
this act to one quarter-section only in each section, as was for- 
merly done under the acts to which this is amendatory, but may 
allow entries to be made of subdivisions of different quarter- 
sections ; provided that each entry shall form a compact body, 
not exceeding 1 60 acres, and that not more than that quantity 
shall be entered in any one section. 

Second. When they shall have satisfied themselves that the 
land applied for is properly subject to an entry, they will require 
the party to make the prescribed affidavit, and to pay the fee 
and that part of the commission payable at the date of entry. 

Third. When a contest is instituted, as contemplated in third 
section of the act of June 14, 1878, the contestant will be allowed 
to make application to enter the land. Should the contest result 
in the cancellation of the contested entry, the contestant may 
then perfect his own, but no preference right will be allowed 
unless application is made by him at date of instituting contest. 

Fo2irth. In all cases under this act it will be required that trees 
shall be cultivated which shall be of the class included in the 
term " timber," the cultivation of shrubbery and fruit trees not 
being sufficient. 

PRESENTATION OF APPEALS. 

33. Any party aggrieved by the rejection of his claim has a 
right to appeal from the decision of the register and receiver to 
the Commissioner of the General Land Office, and from him 
may still further appeal to the Secretary of the Interior. All 



268 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

appeals to th'^ Commissioner must be within thirty days from 
the date of land officer's decision, and all appeals to the Secre- 
tary within sixty days after service of notice. If not appealed, 
the decision is by law made final. 

II. Timber and Stone Lands. — The laws of the United States 
permit the sale of lands unfit for cultivation, but valuable only 
or chiefly for the timber and stone they contain, and not with- 
drawn from ordinary sale as mineral lands ; but die purchaser 
must be a citizen of the United States, or have legally declared 
his intention to become a citizen. The minimum price of such 
lands is to be two dollars and fifty cents per acre, with the usual 
fees, and the purchaser from the government is restricted to i6o 
acres or less. 

III. Desert Lands. — By the following act of Congress passed 
March 3, 1877, entitled, "An act for the sale of desert lands, in 
certain States and Territories," provision was made for the sale 
of such lands as could only be made valuable by irrigation : 

Be it enacted by the Sejiate and House of Representatives of the 
United States of America in Congress assembled, That it shall be 
lawful for any citizen of the United States, or any person of 
requisite age " who may be entitled to become a citizen, and v/ho 
has filed his declaration to become such," and upon payment 
of twenty-five cents per acre, to file a declaration, under oath, 
with the register and the receiver of the land district in which any 
desert land is situated, that he intends to reclaim a tract of 
desert land, not exceeding one section, by conducting water 
upon the same within the period of three years thereafter: 
Provided, hoivcver. That the right to the use of water by the per- 
son so conducting the same on or to any tract of desert land of 
640 acres shall depend upon bona fide prior appropriation ; and 
such right shall not exceed the amount of water actually 
appropriated and necessarily used for the purpose of irrigation 
and reclamation; and all surplus water over and above such actual 
appropriation and use, together with the water of all lakes, rivers, 
and other sources of water supply upon the public lands and not 
navigable, shall remain and be held free for the appropriation 
and use of the public for irrigation, mining, and manufacturing 



DESERT LANDS ACT. 26q 

purposes subject to existing rights. Said declaration shall 
describe particularly said section of land if surveyed, and If 
unsurveyed shall describe the same as nearly as possible without 
a survey. At any time within the period of three years after 
filing said declaration, upon making satisfactory proof to the 
register and receiver of the reclamation of said tract of land in 
the manner aforesaid, and upon the payment to the receiver 
of the additional sum of one dollar per acre for a tract of land 
not exceeding 640 acres to any one person, a patent for the 
same shall be issued to him : Provided, That no person shall be 
permitted to enter more than one tract of land and not to exceed 
640 acres, which shall be in compact form. 

Sec. 2. That all lands, exclusive of timber lands and 
mineral lands, which will not, without irrigation, produce some 
agricultural crop, shall be deemed desert lands within the 
meaning of this act, which fact shall be ascertained by proof of 
two or more credible witnesses under oath, whose affidavits shall 
be filed in the land office in which said tract of land may be 
situated. 

Sec. 3. That this act shall only apply to and take effect in 
the States of California, Oregon, and Nevada, and the Territories 
of Washington, Idaho, Montana, Utah, Wyoming, Arizona, New 
Mexico, and Dakota, and the determination of what may be con- 
sidered desert land shall be subject to the decision and 
regulation of the Commissioner of the General Land Office. 

More than 1,000,000 acres of these lands were sold before 
June 30, 1S78, a period of fifteen months after the law took effect. 

Provision will probably be made for the entry of these desert 
lands as homestead lands under the same provisions, as they 
will in most cases prove valuable as wheat lands or for root 
crops. 

IV. Grazing Lands. — Up to 1880 grazing lands could only be 
purchased, except in Texas, or from the great land-grant rail- 
ways, on the same terms as other agricultural lands; and, as a 
consequence, in the thinly settled States and Territories, the 
greater part of the herds were pastured on the unsold and 
-generally unsurveyed government lands. As these were 



2^0 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

gradually encroached upon by the farmers, die stock-raisers had 
begun to be desirous of purchasing their pasturage lands, which 
being usually on the mountain slopes were not generally con- 
sidered arable. The laws in regard to agricultural lands made 
this almost impossible ; but a bill was introduced into Congress at 
its recent session (i 879-1 880) which will probably obviate the 
existing difficulty. It provides for the sale of grazing lands 
(which are carefully defined) in quantities of eight square miles 
or less, at nominal rates, with the usual fees. 



CHAPTER IV. 



Mining and Mineral Lands — The United States Laws and Regulations 
OF THE Land Office in regard to t: a — State, Territorial and Local 
Rules or Laws. 

V. Mining and Mineral Lands. — The United States laws 
regulating mining lands and mineral resources have been very 
often modified, but are now reduced to a practical basis ; these 
laws, however, are to some extent modified in their operations 
by the State mining laws, and the local regulations in the mining 
districts. They are at this time as follows : 

LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES, 

RELATIVE TO MINING LANDS AND MINERAL RESOURCES, RESERVED 
FROM SALE UNDER THE PRE-EMPTION ACTS. 

[From Revised Statutes of the United States, being a full text of all laws now in force concern- 
ing mining rights.] 

Chapter 6. — Sec. 2318. In all cases land valuable for minerals 
shall be reserved from sale except as otherwise expressly directed 
by law. — Sec. 5, July d^, 1866. 

Sec. 2319. All valuable mineral deposits in lands belonging t > 
the United States, both surveyed and unsurveyed, are hereby 
declared to be free and open to exploration and purchase, and 
the lands in which they are found to occupation and purchase, by 
citizens of the United States, and those who have declared their 



MINING AND MINERAL LANDS. 271 

intention to become such, under regulations prescribed by law, 
and according to the local customs or rules of miners in the 
several mining districts, so far as the same are applicable and not 
inconsistent with the laws of the United States. — Sec. i, May 
lo, 1872. 

EXTENT OF CLAIM. 

Sec. 2320. Mining claims upon veins or lodes of quartz or 
other rock in place, bearing gold, silver, cinnabar, lead, tin, copper, 
or other valuable deposits heretofore located, shall be governed 
as to length along the vein or lode by the customs, regulations, 
and laws in force at the date of their location. A mining claim 
located after the loth day of May, 1872, whether located by one 
or more persons, may equal, but shall not exceed 1,500 feet in 
length along the vein or lode, but no location of a mining claim shall 
be made until the discovery of the vein or lode within the limits of 
the claim located. No claim shall extend more than 300 feet on each 
side of the middle of the vein at the surface, nor shall any claim 
be limited by any mining regulation, to less than twenty-five feet 
on each side of the middle of the vein at the surface, except 
where adverse rights existing on the loth day of May, 1872, 
render such limitation necessary. The end lines of each claim 
shall be parallel to each her. — Sec. 2, May 10, 1872. 

RIGHTS OF CLAIMANTS. 

Sec. 2321. Proof of citizenship under this chapter may consist, 
in the case of an individual, of his own affidavit ; in the case of 
an association of persons unincorporated, of the affidavit of their 
authorized agent, made on his own knowledge or upon informa- 
tion and belief; and in the case of a corporation organized under 
the laws of the United States, or of any State or Territory thereof, 
by the filing of a certified copy of their charter or certificate of 
incorporation. — Sec. 7, May 10, 1872. 

VEINS — HOW CONTROLLED. 

Sec. 2322. The locators of all mining locations heretofore made, 
or which shall hereafter be made, or any mineral vein, lode, or 
ledge, situated on the public domain, their heirs, and assigns, 



2^2 ^"^'^ WESTERN- EMPIRE. 

where no adverse claim exists, on the loth day of May, 1872, so 
long as they comply with the laws of the United States, and with 
State, Territorial, and local regulations not in conflict with the 
laws of the United States governing their possessory title, shall 
have the exclusive right of possession and enjoyment of all the 
surface included within the lines of their locations, and of all veins, 
lodes, and ledges throughout their entire depth, the top or apex of 
which lies inside of such surface lines extended downward verti- 
cally, although such veins, lodes, or ledges may so far depart from 
a perpendicular in their course downward as to extend outside 
the vertical lines of such surface locations ; but their right of 
possession to such outside parts of such veins or ledges shall be 
confined to such portions thereof as lie between vertical planes 
drawn downward, as above described, through the end lines of 
their locations, so continued in their own directions that such 
planes will intersect such exterior parts of such veins or ledges ; 
and nothing in this section shall authorize the locator or possessor 
of a vein or lode which extends in its downward course beyond 
the vertical lines of his claim to enter upon the surface of a claim 
owned or possessed by another. — Sec. 3, May 10, 1872. 

TUNNELLING. 

Sec, 2323. Where a tunnel is run for the development of a vein 
or lode, or for the discovery of mines, the owners of such tunnel 
shall have the right of possession of ail veins or lodes within 3,000 
feet from the face of such tunnel on the line thereof not previously 
known to exist, discovered in such tunnel, to the same extent as 
if discovered from the surface ; and locations on the line of such 
tunnel of veins or lodes not appearing on the surface, made by 
other parties after the commencement of the tunnel, and while 
the same is being prosecuted with reasonable diligence, shall be 
invalid ; but failure to prosecute the work on the tunnel for six 
months shall be considered as an abandonment of the right to 
all undiscovered veins on the line of such tunnel. — Sec. 4, May 
10, 1872. 

REQUIREMENTS OF LOCATION AND LABOR. 

Sec. 2324. The miners of each mining district may make regu- 



REQUIREMENTS OF LOCATION AND LABOR. 373 

latibns not in conflict with the laws of the United States, or with 
the laws of the State or Territory in which the district is situated, 
governing the location, manner of recording, amount of work 
necessary to hold possession of a mining claim, subject to the 
following requirements : The location must be distinctly marked 
on the ground, so that its boundaries can be readily traced. All 
records of mining claims hereafter made shall contain the name 
or names of the locators, the date of the location, and such a 
description of the claim or claims located by reference to some 
natural object or permanent monument as will identify the claim. 
On each claim located after the loth day of May, 1872, and until 
a patent has been issued therefor, not less than ^100 worth 
of labor shall be performed or improvements made during 
each year. On all claims located prior to the loth day of May, 
1872, ^10 worth of labor shall be performed or improvements 
made by the loth day of June, 1874, and each year there- 
after, for each 100 feet in length along the vein until a patent has 
been issued therefor ; but where such claims are held in common, 
such expenditure may be made on any one claim, and upon a 
failure to comply with these conditions, the claim or mine upon 
which such failure occurred shall be open to relocation, in the 
same manner as if no location of the same had ever been made : 
Provided, That the original locators, their heirs, assigns, or legal 
representatives, have not resumed work upon the claim after 
failure and before such location. Upon the failure of any one of 
several co-owners to contribute his proportion of the expenditures 
required hereby, the co-owners who have performed the labor or 
made the improvements may, at the expiration of the year, give 
such delinquent co-owner personal nodce in writing or notice by 
publication in the newspaper published nearest the claim, for at 
least once a week for ninety days, and if, at the expiration of 
ninety days after such notice in writing or by publication, such 
delinquent shall fail or refuse to contribute his proportion of the 
expenditure required by this secdon, his interest in the claim 
shall become the property of his co-owners who have made the 

required expenditures. — Sec. 5, May 10, 1872. 
18 



2^4 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

HOW TO SECURE PATENT. 

Sec. 2325. A patent for any land claimed and located for 
valuable deposits may be obtained in the following manner : Any 
person, association, or corporation authorized to locate a claim 
under this chapter, having claimed and located a piece of land for 
such purposes, who has or have complied with the terms of this 
chapter, may file, In the proper land office, an application for a 
patent, under oath, showing such compliance, together with a plat 
and field notes of the claim or claims In common, made by or 
under the direction of the United States Surveyor-General, show- 
ing accurately the boundaries of the claim or claims, which shall 
be distinctly marked by monuments on the ground, and shall post 
a copy of such plat, together with a notice of such application for 
a patent, in a conspicuous place on the land embraced in such 
plat previous to the filing of the application for a patent, and shall 
file an affidavit of at least two persons, that such notice has been 
duly posted, and shall file a copy of the notice in such land 
office, and shall thereupon be entitled to a patent for the land in 
the manner following : The Register of the land office, upon the 
filing of such application, plat, field notes, notices, and affidavits, 
shall publish a notice that such application has been made, for 
the period of sixty days, in a newspaper to be by him designated 
as published nearest to such claim ; and he shall also post such 
notice in his office for the same period. The claimant, at the 
time of filing this application, or at any time thereafter, within 
the sixty days of publication, shall file with the Register a certifi- 
cate of the United States Surveyor-General that $500 worth of 
labor has been expended on improvements made upon the claim 
by himself or grantors ; that the plat is correct, with such further 
description by such reference to natural objects or permanent 
monuments as shall identify the claim, and furnish an accurate 
description, to be Incorporated In the patent. At the expiration 
of sixty days of publication, the claimant shall file his affidavit, 
showing that the plat and notice have been posted in a con- 
spicuous place on the claim during such period of publication. 
If no adverse claim shall have been filed with the Register and 
the Receiver of the proper land office at the expiration of the 



PLACER CLAIMS. 275 

sixty days of publication, it shall be assumed that the applicant is 
entitled to a patent, upon the payment to the proper officer of 
5^5 per acre, and that no adverse claim exists ; and thereafter no 
objection from third parties to the issuance of a patent shall be 
heard, except it be shown that the applicant has failed to comply 
with the terms of this chapter. — Sec. 6, May lo, 1872. 

PROVISIONS FOR PLACER CLAIMS. 

Sec. 2329. Claims usually called "placers," including- all forms 
of deposits, excepting veins of quartz or other rock in place, 
shall be subject to entry and patent under like circumstances 
and conditions, and upon similar proceedings as are provided 
for vein or lode claims ; but where the lands have been previ- 
ously surveyed by the United States, the entry in its exterior 
limits shall conform to the legal subdivisions of public lands. — 
Sec. 12, July 9, 1870. 

Sec. 2330. Legal subdivisions of forty acres may be subdivided 
into ten-acre tracts, and two or more persons or associations of 
persons, having contiguous claims of any size, although such 
claims may be less than ten acres each, may make joint entry 
thereof, but no location of a placer claim made after the 9th 
day of July, 1870, shall exceed 160 acres for any one person or 
association of persons, which location shall conform to the 
United States surveys ; and nothing in this section contained 
shall defeat or impair any bona fide pre-emption or homestead 
claim upon agricultural lands, or authorize the sale of the im- 
provements of any bona fide settler to any purchaser. — Sec. 1 2, 
July 9, 1870. 

Sec. 2331. Where placer claims are upon surveyed lands, and 
conform to legal subdivisions, no further survey or plat shall be 
required, and all placer mining claims located after the loth day 
of May, 1872, shall conform as near as practicable with the 
United States system of public land surveys and the rectangular 
subdivisions of such surveys, and no such location shall include 
more than twenty acres for each individual claimant, but where 
placer claims cannot be conformed to legal subdivisions, survey 
and plat shall be made as on unsurveyed lands ; and where by 



2y6 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



the segregation of mineral land in any legal subdivision a quan- 
tity of agricultural land less than forty acres remains, such frac- 
tional portion of agricultural land may be entered by any party 
qualified by law, for homestead or pre-emption purposes. — Sec. 
lo, May lo, 1872. 



LIMITATIONS AND LIENS. 



Sec. 2332. Where such person or association, they and their 
grantors, have held and worked their claims for a period equal 
to the time prescribed by the statute of limitations for mining 
claims of the State or Territory where the same may be situated, 
evidence of such possession and working of the claim for such 
period shall be sufficient to establish a right to a patent thereto 
under this chapter, in the absence of any adverse claim ; but 
nothing in this chapter shall be deemed to impair any lien which 
may have attached in any way whatever to any minin^^ claim or 
property thereto attached prior to the issuance of a patent. — 
Sec. 13, July 9, 1870. 

PLACER AND LODE CLAIMS JOINTLY. 

Sec. 2333. Where the same person, association or corpora- 
tion, is in possession of a placer claim, and also a vein or lode 
included within the boundaries thereof, application shall be made 
for a patent for the placer claim, with the statement that it in- 
cludes such vein or lode ; and in such case a patent shall issue 
for the placer claim, subject to the provisions of this chapter, in- 
cluding such vein or lode, upon the payment of ^5 per acre for 
such vein or lode claim, and twenty-five feet of surface on each 
side thereof The remainder of the placer claim, or any placer 
claim not embracing any vein or lode claim, shall be paid for at 
the rate of ^2.50 per acre, together with all costs of proceedings; 
and where a vein or lode, such as is described in section 2320 of 
this act, is known to exist within the boundaries of a placer 
claim, an application for a patent for such a placer claim which 
does not include an application for the vein or lode claim, shall 
be construed as a conclusive declaration that the claimant of the 
placer claim has no right of possession of the vein or lode claim ; 



FEES TO SURVEYORS. 279 

but where the existence of a vein or lode in a placer claim is not 
known, a patent for the placer claim shall convey all valuable 
and other mineral deposits within the boundaries thereof. — Sec. 
II, May lo, 1872. 

FEES TO SURVEYORS. 

Sec. 2334. The Surveyor-General of the United States may 
appoint in each land district containing mineral lands as many 
competent surveyors as shall apply for appointment to survey 
mining claims. The expenses of the survey of vein or lode 
claims, and the survey and subdivision of placer claims into 
smaller quantities than i6o acres, together with the cost of pub- 
lication of notices, shall be paid by the applicants, and they shall 
be at liberty to obtain the same at the most reasonable rates, 
and they shall also be at liberty to employ any United States 
Deputy Surveyor to make the survey. The Commissioner of 
the General Land Office shall also have power to establish the 
maximum charges for surveys and publication of notices under 
this chapter, and in case of excessive charges for publication, he 
may designate any newspaper published in a land district where 
mines are situated, for the publication of mining notices in such 
district, and fix the rates to be charged by such paper ; and to 
the end that the Commissioner may be fully informed on the 
subject, each applicant shall file with the Register a sworn state- 
ment of all charges and fees paid by such applicant for publica- 
tion and surveys, together with all fees and money paid the 
Register and Receiver of the land office, which statement shall 
be transmitted, with the other papers in the case, to the Com- 
missioner of the General Land Office. — Sec. 12, May 10, 1872. 

PROOF OF CLAIMS. 

Sec. 2335. All affidavits required to be made under this chap-^ 
ter may be verified before any officer authorized to administer 
oaths within the land district where the claim may be situated, 
and all testimony and proofs may be taken before any such 
officer, and, when duly certified by the officer taking the same, 
shall have the same force and effect as if taken before the Res^is- 



2^3 ^^^ IVESTERN EMPIRE. 

ter and Receiver of the land office. In cases of contest as to 
the mineral or agricultural character of land, the testimony and 
proofs may be taken as herein provided, on personal notice of 
at least ten days to the opposing party ; or if such party cannot 
be found, then by publication of at least once a week for thirty 
days in a newspaper, to be designated by the Register of the 
land office as published nearest to the location of such land ; and 
the Reo-ister shall require proof that such notice has been given. 
— Sec. 13, May 10, 1872. 

VEINS CROSSING. 

Sec. 2336. When two or more veins intersect or cross each 
other, priority of title shall govern, and such prior location shall 
be entitled to all ore or mineral contained within the space of 
intersection ; but the subsequent location shall have the right of 
way through the space of intersection, for the purposes of con- 
venient working of the mine ; and, where two or more veins 
unite, the oldest or prior location shall take the vein below the 
point of union, including all the space of intersection. — Sec. 14, 
May 10, 1872. 

SITES FOR MILLS. 

Sec. 2337. Where non-mineral land not contiguous to the 
vein or lode is used or occupied by the proprietor of such vein 
or lode for mining or milling purposes, such non-adjacent sur- 
face-ground may be embraced and included in an application for 
a patent for such vein or lode, and the same may be patented 
therewith, subject to the same preliminary requirements as to 
the survey and notice as are applicable to veins or lodes ; but no 
location hereafter made of such non-adjacent land shall exceed 
five acres, and payment for the same must be made at the rate 
as fixed by this chapter for the superfices of the lode. The 
owner of a quartz-mill or reduction works not owning a mine in 
connection therewith, may also receive a patent for his mill-site 
as provided in this section. — Sec. 15, May 10, 1872. 

DRAINAGE, EASEMENTS, ETC. 

Sec. 2338. As a condition of sale in the absence of necessary 



HOMESTEADS ON MINERAL LANDS. 



279 



legislation by Congress, the local Legislature of any State or 
Territory may provide rules for working mines involving ease- 
ments, drainage, and other necessary means to their complete 
development, and those conditions shall be fully expressed in 
the patent. — Sec. 5, July 26, 1866. 

VESTED WATER RIGHTS. 

Sec. 2339, Whenever, by priority of possession, rights to the 
use of water for mining, agricultural, manufacturing or other 
purposes, have vested and accrued, and the same are recognized 
and acknowledged by the local customs, laws and decisions of 
courts, the possessors and owners of such vested rights shall be 
maintained and protected in the same ; and the right of way for 
the construction of ditches and canals for the purposes herein 
specified, is acknowledged and confirmed ; but whenever any 
person in the construction of any ditch or canal, injures or dam- 
ages the possession of any settler on the public domain, the 
party committing such Injury or damage shall be liable to the 
party injured for such Injury or damage. — Sec. 9, July 26, 1866. 

Sec. 2340. All patents granted, or pre-emption or homesteads 
allowed, shall be subject to any vested and accrued water rights, 
or rights to ditches and reservoirs used In connection with such 
water rights, as may have been acquired under or recognized by 
the preceding section. — Sec. 17, July 9, 1870. 

HOMESTEADS. 

Sec. 2341. Wherever, upon the lands heretofore designated 
as mineral lands, which have been excluded from survey and 
sale, there have been homesteads made by citizens of the United 
States, or persons who have declared their intention to become 
citizens, which homesteads have been made, improved, and used 
for agricultural purposes, and upon which there have been no 
valuable mines of gold, silver, cinnabar or copper discovered, 
and which are properly agricultural lands, the settlers or owners 
of such homesteads shall have a right of pre-emption thereto, 
and shall be entided to purchase the same at the price of $1.25 
per acre, and in quantity not to exceed 160 acres, or they may 



23o OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

avail themselves of the provisions of chapter five of this title, re- 
lating to homesteads. — Sec. lo, July 26, 1866. 

AGRICULTURAL LANDS. 

Sec. 2342. Upon the survey of the lands described in the pre- 
ceding section, the Secretary of the Interior may designate and 
set apart such portions of the same as are clearly agricultural 
lands, which lands shall thereafter be subject to pre-emption and 
sale as other public lands, and be subject to all the laws and 
regulations applicable to the same. — Sec. 11, July 26, 1866. 

IN GENERAL. 

Sec. 2343. The President is authorized to establish additional 
land districts, and to appoint the necessary officers under exist- 
ing laws wherever he may deem the same necessary for the 
public convenience in executing the provisions of this chapter. — 
Sec. 7, July 26, 1866. 

Sec. 2344. Nothing contained in this chapter shall be con- 
strued to impair in any way rights or interests in mining property 
acquired under existing laws. — Sec. \'],July 9, 1870; Sec. 16, 
May 10, 1872. 

Sec. 2346. No act passed at the first session of the Thirty- 
eighth Congress granting lands to States or corporations, to aid 
in the construction of roads or for other purposes, or to extend 
the time of grants made prior to the 30th day of January, 1865, 
shall be so construed as to embrace mineral lands, which in all 
cases are reserved exclusively to the United States, unless other- 
wise specially provided in the act or acts making the grant. — 
Sec. 10, Januaiy 30, 1865. 

COAL LANDS. 

Sec. 2347. Every person above the age of twenty-one years, 
who is a citizen of the United States, or who has declared his 
intention to become such, or any association of persons severally 
qualified as above, shall, upon application to the Register of the 
proper land office, have the right to enter, by legal subdivisions, 
any quantity of vacant coal lands of the United States not other- 
wise appropriated or reserved by competent authority, not ex- 



IVHO CAN CLAIM COAL LANDS. 28 1 

ceeding i6o acres to each individual person, or 320 acres to such 
association, upon payment to the Receiver of not less than ten 
dollars per acre for such lands, where the same shall be situated 
more than fifteen miles from any completed railroad, and not 
less than twenty dollars per acre for such lands as shall be within 
fifteen miles of such road. — Sec. i, March 3, 1873. 

WHO CAN CLAIM. 

Sec. 2348. Any person or association of persons severally 
qualified as above provided, who have opened and improved, or 
shall hereafter open and improve, any coal mine or mines upon 
the public lands, and shall be in actual possession of the same, 
shall be entitled to a preference right of entry, under the pre- 
ceding section, of the mines so opened and improved : Provided, 
That when an association of not less than four persons, severally 
qualified as above provided, shall have expended not less than 
^5,000 in working and improving any such mine or mines, such 
association may enter not exceeding 640 acres, including such 
mining improvements. — Sec. 2, ibid. 

REGISTERING CLAIMS. 

Sec. 2349. All claims under the preceding section must be 
presented to the Register of the proper land district within sixty 
days after date of actual possession, and the commencement of 
improvements on the land, by the filing of a declaratory state- 
ment therefor; but when the township plat is not on file at the 
date of such improvements, filing must be made within sixty 
days from the receipt of such plat at the district office ; and where 
the improvements shall have been made prior to the expiration 
of three months from the 3d day of March, 1873, sixty days from 
the expiration of such three months shall be allowed for the 
filing of a declaratory statement, and no sale under the provisions 
of this section shall be allowed until the expiration of six months 
from the 3d day of March, 1873. — Sec. 3, ibid. 

ENTRIES AUTHORIZED. 

Sec. 2350. The three preceding sections shall be held to 



232 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

authorize only one entry by the same person or association of 
persons ; and no association of persons, any member of which 
shall have taken the benefit of such sections, either as an indi- 
vidual or as a member of any other association, shall enter or 
hold any other lands under die provisions ; and all persons 
claiming under secUon 2348, shall be required to prove their re- 
spective rights and pay for the lands filed upon within one year 
from the time prescribed for filing their respective claims ; and 
upon failure to file the proper notice, or to pay for the land 
within the required period, the same shall be subject to entry by 
any other qualified applicant. — Sec. 4, ibid. 

CONFLICTING CLAIMS. 

Sec. 2351. In case of conflicting claims upon coal lands where 
the improvement shall be commenced after the 3d day of March^ 
1873, priority of possession and improvement followed by propei 
filing and continued good faith, shall determine the preference 
right to purchase. And also when improvements have already 
been made prior to the 3d day of March, 1873, division of the land 
claimed may be made by legal subdivisions, to include as near as 
may be the valuable improvements of the respective parties. 
The Commissioner of the General Land Office is authorized to 
issue all needful rules and regulations for carrying into effect the 
provisions of this and the four preceding sections. — Sec. 5, ibid. 

Sec. 2352. Nothing in the five preceding sections shall be 
construed to destroy or impair any rights which may have 
attached prior to the 3d day of March, 1873, or to authorize the sale 
of lands valuable for mines of gold, silver or copper. — Sec. 6, ibid, 

THE ACT OF 1874. 

An act to amend the act entitled "An act to promote the development of the mining resources 
of the United States," passed May lo, 1874. 

Be it enacted by the Sejiate and House of Representatives of the 
United States of America in Congress assembled. That the provi- 
sions of the fifth section of the act entitled 'An act to promote 
the development of the mining resources of the United States," 
passed May lo, 1874, which requires expenditures of labor and 



UNITED STATES LAND OFFICE RULES. 283 

improvements on claims located prior to the passage of said 
act, are hereby so amended that the time for the first annual 
expenditure on claims located prior to the passage of said act, 
shall be extended to the ist day of January, 1875. — Approved 
June 6, 1874. 

THE ACT OF 1875. 

An act to amend section two thousand three hundred and twenty- four of the Revised Statutes, 
relating to the development of the mining resources of the United States. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
United States of America in Congi'ess assembled, That section 
2324 of the Revised Statutes be and the same Is hereby amended 
so that where a person or company has or may run a tunnel for 
the purpose of developing a lode or lodes, owned by said person 
or company, the money so expended in said tunnel shall be 
taken and considered as expended on said lode or lodes, whether 
located prior to or since the passage of said act ; and such per- 
son or company shall not be required to perform work on the 
surface of said lode or lodes in order to hold the same as re- 
quired by said act. — Approved February 11, 1875. 

To these mining laws should be appended the 

RULES OF THE UNITED STATES LAND OFFICE. 
(Under the Act of Congress of May lo, 1872, and novp in force.) 

1. It will be perceived that the first section of said act leaves 
the mineral lands in the public domain, surveyed and unsurveyed, 
open to exploration, occupation, and purchase by all citizens of 
the United States, and all those who have declared their intention 
to become such. 

LODE CLAIMS PREVIOUSLY LOCATED. 

2. By an examination of the several sections of the foregoing 
act it will be seen that the status of lode claims, Xoz-dX^d. previous 
to the date thereof, is not changed with regard to their extent 
along the lode or width of surface, such claims being restricted and 
governed both as to their latei'al and linear extent by the State, 
Territorial, or local laws, customs or regulations which were in 



2g4 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

force in their respective districts at the date of such locations, in 
so far as the same did not conflict with the Umitation fixed by 
the mining statute of July 26, 1866. 

ENLARGEMENT OF RIGHTS. 

3. Mining rights acquired under such previous locations are, 
however, enlarged by said act of May 10, 1872, in the following 
respect, viz. : The locators of all such previously taken veins or 
lodes, their heirs and assigns, so long as they comply with the 
laws of Congress, and with State, Territorial, or local regulations 
not in conflict therewith, governing mining claims, are invested 
by said act with the exclusive possessory right of all the surface 
included within the lines of their locations, and of all veins, lodes, 
or ledges throughout their entire depth, the top or apex of which 
lies inside of such surface lines extending downward vertically, 
although such veins, lodes, or ledges may so far depart from a 
perpendicular, in their course downward, as to extend outside 
the vertical lines of such locations at the surface ; it being ex- 
pressly provided, however, that the right of possession to such 
outside parts of said veins or ledges shall be confined to such 
portions thereof as lie between vertical planes drawn downward 
as aforesaid, through the end lines of their locations, so continued 
in their own direction, that such planes will intersect such 
exterior parts of such veins, lodes, or ledges ; no right being 
granted, however, to the claimant of such outside portion of a 
vein or ledge to enter upon the surface location of another 
claimant. 

LIMITS OF THE LAW. 

4. It is to be distinctly understood, however, that the law limits 
the possessory rights to veins, lodes, or ledges other than the one 
named In the original location, to such as were not adversely 
claimed, at the date of said act of May 10, 1872, and that where 
such other vein or ledge was so adversely claimed at that date, 
the right of the party so adversely claiming is in no way impaired 
by said act. 

ANNUAL LABOR. 

5. From and after the date of said act of Congress, in order to 



NON-COMPLIANCE WITH THE LAW. 285 

hold the possessory title to a mining claim previously located, 
and for which a patent has not been issued, the law requires that 
ten dollai^s shall be expended annually in labor or improvements 
on each claim of one hundred feet on the course of the vein or 
lode until a patent shall have been issued therefor ; but Vv'here a 
number of such claims are held in common, upon the same vein 
or lode, the aggregate expenditure that would be necessary to 
hold all the claims, at the rate of ^lo per loo feet, may be made 
upon any one claim, a failure to comply with this requirement in 
any one year subjecting the claim upon which such failure 
occurred to relocation by other parties, the same as if no pre- 
vious location thereof had ever been made, unless the claimants 
under the original location shall have resumed work thereon 
after such failure, and before such relocation, 

FAILURE TO COMPLY WITH THE LAW. 

6. Upon the failure of any one of several co-owners of a vein, 
lode, or ledge which has not been patented, to contribute his pro- 
portion of the expenditures necessary to hold the claim, or claims 
so held in ownership in common, the co-owners who have per- 
formed the labor, or made the improvements as required by said 
act, may, at the expiration of the year, give such delinquent co- 
owner personal notice in writing, or notice by publication in the 
newspaper published nearest the claim for at least once a week 
for ninety days ; and if upon the expiration of ninety days after 
such notice in writing, or upon the expiration of one hundred 
and eighty days after the first newspaper publication of notice, 
the delinquent co-owner shall have failed to contribute his pro- 
portion to meet such expenditure or improvements, his interest 
in the claim, by law, passes to his co-owners who have made the 
expenditures or improvements as aforesaid. 

RIGHTS UNDER OLD PATENTS. 

7. Rights under patents for veins or lodes heretofore granted 
under previous legislation of Congress, are enlarged by this 
act, so as to invest the patentee, his heirs or assigns, with title 
to all veins, lodes or ledges throughout their entire depth, the 



286 '^^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

top or apex of which hes within the end and side boundary hnes 
of his claim on the surface as patented, extended downward 
vertically, although such veins, lodes or ledges may so far de- 
part from a perpendicular in their course downward as to 
extend outside the vertical side lines of the claim at the surface. 
The right to possession to such outside parts of such veins or 
ledges to be confined to such portions thereof as lie between 
vertical planes drawn downward through the end lines of the 
claim at the surface, so continued in their own direction that 
such planes will intersect such exterior parts of such veins or 
ledges ; it being expressly provided, however, that all veins, 
lodes or ledges, the top or apex of which lies inside such sur- 
face locations, other than the one named in the patent, which 
were adversely claimed at the date of said act, are excluded from 
such conveyance by patent. 

FINAL DECISION. 

8. Applications for patents for mining claims pending the date 
of the act of May loth, 1872, may be prosecuted to final decis- 
ion in the General Land Office ; and where no adverse rights 
are affected thereby, patents will be issued in pursuance of the 
provisions of said act. 

EFFECT OF ACT OF 1 872. 

9. From and after the date of said act, any person who is a 
citizen of the United States, or who has declared his intention 
to become a citizen, may locate, record and hold a mining claim 
of fifteen hundred linear feet along the course of any mineral 
vein or lode subject to location ; or an association of persons, 
severally qualified as above, may make joint location of such 
claim of fifteen hundred feet, but in no event can a location of a 
vein or lode made subsequent to the act exceed fifteen hundred 
feet along the course thereof, whatever may be the number of 
persons composing the association. 

EXTENT OF SURFACE GROUND. 

10. With regard to the extent of surface ground adjoining a 



EXTENT OF SURFACE GROUND. 287 

vein or lode, and claimed for the convenient working thereof, the 
act provides that the lateral extent of locations of veins or lodes 
made after its passage shall in no case exceed three Jmndred feet 
OJi each side of the middle of the vein at the siuface, and that no 
such surface rights shall be limited by any mining regulations to 
less than twenty-five feet on each side of the middle of the vein 
at the surface, except where adverse rights existing at the date 
of said act may render such limitations necessary, the end lines 
of such claims to be in all cases parallel to each other. 

SURFACE RIGHTS. 

11. By the foregomg it will be perceived that no lode claim 
located after the date of said act can exceed a parallelogram 
fifteen hundred feet in length by six hundred feet in width, but 
whether surface ground of the width can be taken depends 
upon the local regulations or State or Territorial laws in force 
in the several mininof districts ; and that no such local reo^ula- 
tions or State or Territorial laws shall limit a vein or lode claim 
to less than fifteen hundred feet along the course thereof, whether 
the location is made by one or more persons, nor can the sur- 
face rights be limited to less than fifty feet in width, unless ad- 
verse claims existing on the loth day of May, 1872, render such 
lateral limitations necessary. 

THEIR OWN LAWS. 

12. It is provided in said act that the miners of each district 
may make rules and regulations not in conflict with the laws of 
the United States, or of the State or Territory in which such dis- 
tricts are respectively situated, governing the location, manner 
of recording, and amount of work necessary to hold possession 
of the claim. It likewise requires that the location must be so 
distinctly marked on the ground that its boundaries may be 
readily traced. This is a very important matter, and locators 
cannot exercise too much care in defining their locations at the 
outset, inasmuch as the law requires that all records of mining 
locations made subsequent to its passage shall contain the name 
or names of locators, the date of the location, and such a de- 



288 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



scriplion of the claim or claims located, by reference to some 
natural object or permanent monument, as will identify the claim. 

RECORDING CLAIMS. 

13. The said act declares that no lode claim can be recorded 
until after the discovery of a vein or lode within the limits of the 
ground claimed ; the object of which provision is evidently to 
prevent the encumbering of the district mining record with use- 
less locations before sufficient work has been done thereon to 
determine whether a vein or lode has been really discovered 
or not. 

WHAT CLAIMANT SHOULD DO. 

14. The claimant should, therefore, prior to recording his claim, 
unless the vein can be traced upon the surface, sink a shaft, or 
run a tunnel or drift to a sufficient depth therein to discover and 
develop a mineral-bearing vein, lode or crevice ; should deter- 
mine, if possible, the general course of such vein in either direc- 
tion from the point of discovery, by which direction he will be 
governed in marking the boundaries of his claim on the surface ; 
and should give the course and distance as nearly as practicable 
from the discovery shaft on the claim to some permanent, well- 
known points or objects, such for instance, as stone monuments, 
blazed trees, the confluence of streams, point of intersection of 
well-known gulches, ravines or roads, prominent buttes, hills, 
etc., which may be in the immediate vicinity, and which will serve 
to perpetuate and fix the locii-s of the claim and render it sus- 
ceptible of identification from the description thereof given in 
the record of locations in the district. 

NAMES OF ADJOINING CLAIMS. 

15. In addition to the foregoing data, the claimant should state 
the names of adjoining claims, or, if none adjoin, the relative 
positions of the nearest claims ; should drive a post, or erect a 
monument of stones at each corner of his surface ground, and 
at the point of discovery, or discovery shaft, should fix a post, 
stake or board, upon which should be designated the name 0/ 



DETAILS— TUNNEL RIGHTS. 28q 

the lode, the name or names of the locators, the number of feet 
claimed, and in which direction from the point of discovery, it 
being essential that the location notice filed for record, in addi- 
tion to the foregoing description, should state whedier the entire 
claim of fifteen hundred feet is taken on one side of the point 
of discovery, or whether it is partly upon one and partly upon 
the other side thereof, and in the latter case, how many feet are 
claimed upon each side of such discovery point. 

FILING NOTICE. 

1 6. Within a reasonable time, say twenty days after the loca- 
tion shall have been marked on the ground, notice thereof, accu- 
rately describing the claim, in the manner aforesaid, should be 
filed for record with the proper recorder of the district, who will 
thereupon issue the usual certificate of location. 

HOLDING POSSESSORY RIGHT. 

1 7. In order to hold the possessory right to a claim of fifteen 
hundred feet of a vein or lode located as aforesaid, the act re- 
quires that until a patent shall have been issued therefor, not 
less than one hundred dollars' worth of labor shall be performed 
or improvements made thereon during each year, in default of 
which the claim shall be subject to relocation by any other party 
having the necessary qualifications, unless the original locator, 
his heirs, assigns, or legal representatives, have resumed work 
thereon, after such, failure and before such relocation. 

IMPORTANCE OF DETAILS. 

18. The importance of attending to these details in the man- 
ner of location, labor and expenditure, will be more readily per- 
ceived when it is understood that a failure to give the subject 
proper attention may invalidate the claim. 

TUNNEL RIGHTS. 

19. The fourteenth section of the act provides that where a 
tunnel is run for the development of a vein or lode, or for the 

»9 



290 OUR WESrERN EMPIRE. 

discovery of mines, the owners of such tunnel shall have the 
right of possession of all veins or lodes within three thousand 
feet from the face of such tunnel on the line thereof, not previ- 
ously known to exist, discovered in such tunnel, to the same 
extent as if discovered from the surface ; and locations on the 
line of such tunnel of veins or lodes not appearing on the sur- 
face, made by other parties after the commencement of the tun-^ 
nel. and while the same is being prosecuted with reasonable 
diligence, shall be invalid, but failure to prosecute the work on 
the tunnel for six months shall be considered as an abandonment 
of the right to all undiscovered veins or lodes on the line of 
said tunnel. 

EFFECT OF FOURTEENTH SECTION. 

20. The effect of this section is simply to give the proprietors 
of a mining tunnel, run in good faith, the possessory right to 
1,500 feet of any blind lodes cut, discovered or intersected by such 
tunnel, which were not previously known to exist, within 3,000 feet 
from the face or point of commencement of such tunnel, and to 
prohibit other parties, after the commencement of the tunnel, 
from prospecting for and making locations of lodes on the line 
thereof and within said distance of 3,000 feet, unless such lodes 
appear upon the surface, or were previously known to exist. 

CONSTRUCTION OF TERMS. 

2 1. The term "face," as used in said section, is construed and 
held to mean the first working face formed in the tunnel, and to 
signify the point at which the tunnel actually enters cover, it 
being from this point that the 3,000 feet are to be counted, upon 
which the prospecting is prohibited as aforesaid. 

PROPER NOTICE. 

2 2. To avail themselves of the benefit of this provision of law, 
the proprietors of a mining tunnel will be required, at the time 
they enter cover, as aforesaid, to give proper notice of their 
tunnel location, by erecting a substantial post, board or monu- 
ment, at the face or point of commencement thereof, upon which 
should be posted a good and sufficient notice, giving the names 



PROPER NOTICE— S IVOR, \ STATEaMENTS. 2QI 

of the parties or company claiming the tunnel right, the actual 
or proposed course or direction of the tunnel, the height and 
width thereof, and the course and distance from such face or 
point of commencement to some permanent, well-known objects 
in the vicinity by which to fix and determine the locus in manner 
heretofore set forth appHcable to locations of veins or lodes; 
and at the time of posting such notice they shall, in order 
that miners or prospectors may be enabled to determine whether 
or not they are within the lines of the tunnel, establish the 
boundary lines thereof by stakes or monuments placed along 
such lines at proper intervals, to the terminus of 3,000 feet from 
the face or point of commencement of the tunnel, and the lines so 
marked will define and govern as to the specific boundaries 
within which prospecting for lodes not previously known to exist 
is prohibited, while work on the tunnel is being prosecuted with 
reasonable diligence. 

SWORN STATEMENTS. 

23. At the time of posting notice and marking the lines of the 
tunnel, as aforesaid, a full and correct copy of such notice of 
location, defining the tunnel claim, must be filed for record with 
the mining recorder of the district, to which notice must be 
attached the sworn statement or declaration of the owners, 
claimants or projectors of such tunnel, setting forth the facts in 
the case, stating the amount expended by themselves and their 
predecessors in interest in prosecuting work thereon, the extent 
of the work performed, and that it is bona fide their intention to 
prosecute work on the tunnel so located and described with 
reasonable diligence for the development of a vein or lode, or 
for the discovery of mines, or both, as the case may be. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

24. This notice of location must be duly recorded, and with 
the said sworn statement attached, kept on the recorder's files 
for future reference. 

25. By a compliance with the foregoing, much needless 
difficulty will be avoided, and the way for the adjustment of 



2Q2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

legal rights acquired in virtue of said fourth section of the act 
will be made-much more easy and certain. 

26. This office will take particular care that no improper 
advantage is taken of this provision of law by parties making or 
professing to make tunnel locations ostensibly for the purpose 
named in the statute, but really for the purpose of monopo- 
lizing the land lying in front of tlieir tunnels to the detriment of 
the mining interests and to the exclusion of (^^//^//rt'i? prospectors 
or miners; but will hold such tunnel claimants to a strict com- 
pliance with the terms of the act ; and as reasonable diligence on 
their part in prosecuting the work is one of the essential con- 
ditions of their implied contract, negligence or want of due 
diliofence will be construed as workingr a forfeiture of their rigfht 
to all undiscovered veins on the line of such tunnel. 

GOVERNMENT TITLE TO VEIN OR LODE CLAIMS. 

27. By the sixth section of said act, authority is given for 
granting title for mines by patent from the government, to any 
person, association or corporation having the necessary qualifi- 
cations as to citizenship, and holding the right of possession to a 
claim in compliance with law. 

CORRECT SURVEYS. 

28. The claimant is required in the first place to have a correct 
survey of his claim made under authority of the Surveyor- 
General of the State or Territory in which tlie claim lies ; such 
survey to show with accuracy the exterior surface boundaries of 
the claim, which boundaries are required to be distinctly marked 
by monuments on the ground. 

POSTING COPY OF PLAT. 

29. The claimant is then required to post a copy of the plat 
of such sur\^ey in a conspicuous place upon the claim, together 
with the notice of his intention to apply for a patent therefor, 
which notice will give the date of posting, the name of the 
claimant, the name of the claim, mine or lode, the mining district 
or county ; whether the location is of record, and if so, where 



FIELD NOTES— RIGHTS TO THE PREMISES. 203 

the record may be found; the number of feet claimed along 
the vein, and the presumed direction thereof; the number of 
feet claimed on the lode in each direction from the point of 
discovery, or other well-defined place on the claim ; the name or 
names of adjoining claimants on the same or other lodes, or if 
none adjoin, the names of the nearest claims, etc. 

FIELD NOTES. 

30. After posting the said plat and notice upon the premises, 
the claimant will file with the proper register and receiver a copy 
of such plat, and the field notes of survey of the claim, 
accompanied by the affidavit of at least two credible witnesses 
that such plat and notice are posted conspicuously upon the 
claim, giving the date and place of such posting ; a copy of the 
notice so posted to be attached to and form a part of said 
affidavit. 

RIGHTS TO THE PREMISES. 

31. Attached to the field notes so filed, must be the sworn 
statement of the claimant that he has the possessory right to the 
premises therein described, in virtue of a compliance by himself 
(and by his grantors, if he claims by purchase) with the mining 
rules, regulations and customs of the mining district, State or 
Territory In which the claim lies, and with the mining laws of 
Congress ; such sworn statement to narrate briefly, but as clearly 
as possible, the facts constituting such compliance, the origin of 
his possession, and the basis of his claim to a patent. 

SUPPORT OF AFFIDAVIT. 

32. This affidavit should be supported by appropriate evidence 
from the mining recorder's office, as to his possessory right as 
follows, viz. : Where he claims to be a locator, a full, true and 
correct copy of such location should be furnished, as the same 
appears upon the mining records ; such copy to be attested 
by the seal of the recorder, or, If he has no seal, then he should 
make oath to the same being correct, as shown by his records. 
Where the applicant claims as a locator. In company with others, 
who have since conveyed their interests In the lode to him, a copy 



2Q4 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of the oricjinal record of location should be filed, tog-ether with 
an abstract of title from the proper recorder, under seal or oath 
as aforesaid, tracing the co-locator's possessory rights in the 
claim, to such applicant for patent. Where the applicant claims 
only as a purchaser for valuable consideration, a copy of the 
location record must be filed, under seal or upon oath as afore- 
said, with an abstract of title certified as above, by the proper 
recorder, tracing the right of possession by a continuous chain 
of conveyances, from the original locators to the applicant. 

DESTRUCTION OF RECORDS. 

'^2,' In the event of the mining records in any case having 
been destroyed by fire or otherwise lost, affidavit of the fact 
should be made, and secondary evidence of possessory title w^ill 
be received, which may consist of the affidavit of the claimant, 
supported by those of any other parties cognizant of the facts 
relative to his location, occupancy, possession. Improvements, 
etc.; and in such case of lost records, any deeds, certificates of 
location or purchase, or other evidence which may be in the 
claimant's possession, and tend to establish his claim, should be 
filed. 

PUBLISHING NOTICE. 

34. Upon the receipt of these papers the register will, at the 
expense of the claimant, publish a notice of such application for 
the period of sixty days. In a newspaper published nearest to 
the claim, and will post a copy of such notice In his office for the 
same period. 

WHAT NOTICE MUST EMBRACE. 

35. The notice so published and posted must be as full and 
complete as possible, and embrace all the data given in the 
notice posted upon the claim. 

36. Too much care cannot be exercised in the preparation of 
these notices, Inasmuch as upon their accuracy and completeness 
will depend, in a great measure, the regularity and validity of the 
whole proceeding. 

FII.IXC; CERTIFICATE. 

37. The claimant, cither at the time of filing these papers with 



SURVEYOR-GENERAL'S INSTRUCTIONS. 295 

the Register or at any time during the sixty days' publication, is 
required to file a certificate of the Surveyor-General that not less 
than $500 worth of labor has been expended or improvements 
made upon the claim by the applicant or his grantors; that the 
plat filed by the applicant is correct ; that the field notes of the 
survey, as filed, furnish such an accurate description of the claim 
as will, if Incorporated into a patent, serve to fully identify the 
premises ; and that such reference is made therein to natural 
objects or permanent monuments as will perpetuate and fix the 
locus thereof. 

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FROM SURVEYOR-GENERAL. 

38. It will be the more convenient way to have this certificate 
Indorsed by the Surveyor-General, both upon the plat and field 
notes of the survey filed by the claimant as aforesaid, 

39. After the period of sixty days of newspaper publication 
has expired, the claimant will file his affidavit, showing that the 
plat and notice aforesaid remained conspicuously posted upon 
the claim sought to be patented, during said sixty days' publi- 
cation. 

40. Upon the filing of this affidavit the Register will. If no ad- 
verse claim was filed in his office during the period of publication, 
permit the claimant to pay for the land according to the area 
given In the plat and field notes of survey aforesaid, at the rate 
of ^5 for each acre and ^5 for each fractional part of an acre, the 
Receiver issuing the usual duplicate receipt therefor; after which 
the whole matter will be forwarded to the Commissioner of the 
General Land Ofifice, and a patent issued thereon If found 
reofular. 

41. In sending up the papers in the case, the Register must 
not omit certifying to the fact that the notice was posted In his 
office for the full period of sixty days, such certificate to state dis- 
tinctly when such posting was done, and how long continued. 

42. The consecutive series of numbers of mineral entries must 
be condnued, whether the same are of lode or placer claim.s. 

43. The Surveyor-General must continue to designate all sur- 
veyed mineral claims, as heretofore, by a progressive series of 
numbers, beginning with lot No. ^il i" each township; the claim 



2c)6 ^UR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

to be SO designated at date of filing the plat, field notes, etc., in 
addition to the local designation of the claim ; it being required 
in all cases that the plat and field notes of the survey of a claim 
must, in addition to the reference to permanent objects in the 
neighborhood, describe the locus of the claim with reference to 
the lines of public surveys, by a line connecting a corner of a 
claim with the nearest public corner of the United States surveys, 
unless said claim be on unsurveyed lands at a remote distance 
from such public corner; in which latter case the reference by 
course and distance to permanent objects in* the neighborhood 
will be a sufficient designation by which to fix the locus until the 
public survey shall have been closed upon its boundaries. 

ADVERSE CLAIMS. 

44. The seventh section of the act provides for adverse claims i 
fixes the time within which they shall be filed to have legal effect, 
and prescribes the manner of their adjustment, 

45. Said section requires that the adverse claim shall be filed 
during the period of publication of notice ; that it must be on the 
oath of the adverse claimant ; and that it must show the nature, 
the boundaries, and the extent of the adverse claim. 

46. In order that this section of law may be properly carried 
into effect, the following is communicated for the information of 
all concerned : 

47. An adverse mining claim must be filed with the Register 
of the same land office with whom the application for patent was 
filed, or, in his absence, with the Receiver, and within the sixty 
days' period of newspaper publication of notice. 

48. The adverse notice must be duly sworn to before an officer 
authorized to administer oaths within the land district, or before 
the Register or Receiver; it will fully set forth the nature and 
extent of the interference or conflict ; whether the adverse party 
claims as a purchaser for a valuable consideration or as a locator ; 
if the former, the original conveyance, or a duly certified copy 
thereof, should be furnished ; or if the transaction was a mere 
verbal one, he will narrate the circumstances attending the pur- 
chase, the date thereof, and the amount paid, which facts should 



BOUNDARIES AND EXTENT OF CLAIMS. 2Q7 

be supported by the affidavit of one or more witnesses, if any 
were present at the time ; and if he claims as a locator, he must 
file a duly certified copy of the location from the office of the 
proper recorder. 

BOUNDARIES AND EXTENT OF CLAIMS. 

49. In order that the '' botmdaries"' and '' exterit''' of the claini 
may be shown, it will be incumbent upon the adverse claimant to 
file a plat showing his claim and his relative situation and position 
with the one against which he claims, so that the extent of the 
conflict may be the better understood. This plat must be made 
from an actual survey by a United States deputy surveyor, who 
will officially certify thereon to its correctness ; and in addition, 
there must be attached to such plat of survey a certificate or 
sworn statement by the surveyor as to the approximate value of 
the labor performed or improvements made upon the claim of 
the adverse party, and the plat must indicate the position of any 
shafts, tunnels, or other improvements, if any such exist, upon the 
claim of the party opposing the application. 

50. Upon the foregoing being filed within the sixty days as 
aforesaid, the Register, or in his absence the Receiver, will give 
notice in writing to both parties to the contest that such adverse 
claim has been filed, informing them that the party who filed the 
adverse claim wdll be required within thirty days from the date 
of such filing to commence proceedings in a court of competent 
jurisdiction, to determine the question of right of possession, and 
to prosecute the same with reasonable diligence to final judgment, 
and that should such adverse claimant fail to do so, his adverse 
claim will be considered waived, and the application for the patent 
be allowed to proceed upon its merits. 

51. When an adverse claim is filed as aforesaid, the Register or 
Receiver will Indorse upon the same the precise date of filing, 
and preserve a record of the date of notifications issued thereon ;- 
and thereafter all proceedings on the application for patent will 
be suspended, with the exception of the completion of the publi- 
cation and posting of notices and plat, and the filing of the neces- 
sary proof thereof, until the controversy shall have been adjudi- 
cated in court, or the adverse claim waived or withdrawn. 



2p8 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

52. The proceedings after rendition of judgment by the court 
in such case, are so clearly defined by the act Itself as to render 
it unnecessary to enlarge thereon in this place. 



PLACER CLAIMS. 



53. The tenth section of the act under consideration provides: 
" That the act entitled 'An act to amend an act granting the right 
of way to ditch and canal owners over the public lands, and for 
other purposes,' approved July 9, 1870, shall be and remain In 
full force, except as to the proceedings to obtain a patent, which 
shall be similar to the proceeding prescribed by section six and 
seven of this act for obtaining patents for vein or lode claims ; 
but where said placer claims shall be upon surveyed lands and 
conform to legal sub-divisions, no further survey or plat shall be 
required, and all placer mining claims hereafter located shall coov 
form, as nearly as practicable, with the United States system of 
public land surveys and the rectangular sub-divisions of such 
surveys, and no such locations shall Include more than twenty 
acres for each Individual claimant ; but where placer claims can- 
not be conformed to legal sub-divisions, survey and plat shall be 
made as on unsurveyed lands," etc, 

54, The proceedings for obtaining patents for veins or lodes 
having already been fully given, It will not be necessary to repeat 
them here ; it being thought that careful attention thereto by 
applicants and the local officers will enable them to act under- 
standingly in the matter, and make such slight modifications In the 
notice, or otherwise, as may be necessary In view of the different 
nature of the two classes of claims ; placer claims being fixed, 
however, at ^2.50 per acre, or fractional part of an acre. 

55, The twelfth and thirteenth sections of said act of July 9^ 
1870, read as follows : 

56. It will be observed that that portion of the first proviso to 
the said twelfth section, which requires placer claims upon sur- 
veyed lands to conform to legal sub-divisions, Is related by the 
present statute with regard to claims heretofore located, but that 
where such claims are located previous to the survey and do not 



PLACER CLAIMS. 299 

conform to legal sub-divisions, survey, plat, and entry thereof 
may be made according- to the boundaries fixed by local rules, 
but w^here such claims do conform to legal sub-divisions, the entry 
may be effected according to such legal sub-divisions without the 
necessity of further survey or plat. 

57. In the second proviso to said twelfth section, authority is 
given for the sub-division of forty-acre legal sub-divisions into 
ten-acre lots, which is intended for the greater convenience of 
miners in sco^reeatino- their claims both from one another and 
from intervening agricultural lands. 

58. It is held, therefore, that under a proper construction of 
the law, these ten-acre lots in mining districts should be con- 
sidered and dealt with, to all intents and purposes, as legal sub- 
divisions, and that an applicant having a legal claim which con- 
forms to one or more of these ten-acre lots, either adjoining or 
cornering, may make entry thereof, after the usual proceedings, 
without further survey or plat. 

59. In cases of this kind, however, the notice given of the 
application must be very specific and accurate in description, and 
as the forty-acre tracts may be subdivided into ten-acre lots, 
either in the form of ten by ten chains or of parallelograms, five 
by twenty chains, so long as the lines are parallel and at right 
angles with the lines of public surveys, it will be necessary that 
the notice and application state specifically what ten-acre lots are 
sought to be patented, in addition to other data required in the 
notice. 

60. Where the ten-acre subdivision is in the form of a square, 
it may be described, for instance, as the " S. E. y^ of the S. W. 
y^ of the N. W. ^," or if in the form of a parallelogram, as 
aforesaid, it may be described as the " W. y^ of the W. y^ of the 
S. W. y^ of the N. W. y^^ (or, the N. y of the S. y of the N. 

E. y^ of the S. E. ^) of section , township , range 

," and as the case may be ; but, in addition to this de- 
scription of the land, the notice must give all the other data that 
is required in a mineral application by which parties may be put 
on inquiry as to the premises sought to be patented. 

61. The proceedings necessary for the adjustment of rights 



200 OUK WESTERN EMPIRE. 

where a known vein or lode is embraced by a placer claim, are 
so clearly defined in the eleventh section of the act as to render 
any particular instructions upon that point at this time un- 
necessary. 

62. When an adverse claim is filed to a placer application, 
the proceedings are the same as in the case of vein or lode 
claims already described. 

QUANTITY OF PLACER GROUND SUBJECT TO LOCATION. 

63. By the twelfth section of the said amendatory act of July 
9, 1870, (third proviso,) it is declared "that no location of a 
placer claim hereafter made shall exceed i 60 acres for any one 
person or association of persons, which location shall conform to 
the United States surveys," etc. 

64. The tenth section of the act of May 10, 1872, provides 
that "all placer mining claims hereafter located shall conform, as 
near as practicable, with the United States system of public land 
surveys, and the rectangular subdivisions of such surveys; and 
no such locations shall include more than twenty acres for each 
individual claimant." 

65. The foregoing provisions of law are construed to mean 
that after the 9th day of July, 1870, no location of a placer claim 
can be made to exceed 1 60 acres, whatever may be the number 
of locators associated together, or whatever the local regulations 
of the district may allow ; and that from and after the passage 
of said act of May 10, 1872, no location made by an individual 
can exceed twenty acres, and no location made by an associa- 
tion of individuals can exceed 160 acres, which location of 160 
acres cannot be made by a less number than eight bona fide 
locators, but that whether as vmch as twenty acres can be located 
by an individual, or i 60 acres by an association, depends entirely 
upon the mining regulations in force in the respective districts 
at the date of the location ; it being held that such mining regu- 
lations are in no way enlarged by said acts of Congress, but 
remain intact and in full force with reo^ard to the size of loca- 
tions, in so far as they do not permit locations in excess of the 
limits fixed by Congress, but that where such regulations permit 



MAKING PROOF OF PLACER CLAIMS. ^qi 

locations in excess of the maximums fixed by Congress as afore- 
said, they are restricted accordingly. 

66. The regulations hereinbefore given as to the manner of 
making locations on the ground, and placing the same on record, 
must be observed in the case of placer locations, so far as the 
same are applicable ; the law requiring, however, that where 
placer claims are upon surveyed public lands, the locations must 
hereafter be made to conform to legal subdivisions thereof 

67. With regard to the proofs necessary to establish the pos- 
sessory right to a placer claim, the said thirteenth section of the 
act of July 9. 1870, provides that " where said person or associa- 
tion, they and their grantors, shall have held and worked their 
said claims for a period equal to the time prescribed by the 
statute of limitations for mining claims for the State or Territory 
where the same may be situated, evidence of such possession 
and working of the claims for such period shall be sufficient to 
establish a right to a patent thereto under this act, in the absence 
of any adverse claim." 

68. This provision of law will greatly lessen the burden of 
proof, more especially in the case of old claims located many 
years since, the records of which in many cases have been de- 
stroyed by fire, or lost in other ways during the lapse of time, 
but concerning the possessory right to which all controversy or 
litigation has long been settled. 

69. When an applicant desires to make proof of possessory 
right in accordance with this provision of law, you will not re- 
quire him to produce evidence of location, copies of conveyance, 
or abstracts of title, as in other cases, but will require him to fur- 
nish a duly certified copy of the statute of limitations for mining 
claims for the State or Territory, together with his sworn state- 
ment, giving a clear and succinct narration of the facts as to the 
origin of his title, and likewise as to the continuation of his pos- 
session of the mining ground covered by this application ; the 
area thereof; the nature and extent of the mining that has been 
done thereon ; whether there has been any opposition to his pos- 
session or litigation with regard to his claim, and if so, when the 
same ceased; whether such cessation was caused by compromise 



^p.-y OCA- ll'ESTER.y EMPIRE. 

or by judicial decree ; and any additional facts, within the claim- 
ant's knowledge, having a direct bearing upon his possession 
and bo7ia fides which he may desire to submit in sL^tport of 
his claim. 

70. There should likewise be filed a certificate under seal of 
the court having jurisdiction of mining cases within the judicial 
district embracing the claim, that no suit or action of aiv char- 
acter whatever, involving the right of possession to any portion 
of the claim applied for is pending, and that there has been no 
1; ligation before said court affecting the title to said claim or any 
part thereof, for a period equal to the time fixed by the statute 
of limitations for mining claims in the State or Territory as afore- 
said, other than tl at which has been finally decided in favor of 
the claimant. 

71. The claimant should support his narrative of facts relative 
to his possession, occupancy, and improvements, by corrobora- 
tive testimony of any disinterested person or persons of credi- 
bility, who may be cognizant of the facts in the case, and are 
capable of testifying understandingly in the premises. 

72. It will be to the advantage of claimants to make their 
proofs as full and complete as practicable. , 

DEPUTY SURVEYORS — CHARGES — FEES OF REGISTERS AND RECEIVERS, ETC. 

'J 2,. The twelfth sectiori of the said act of May 10, 1872, pro- 
vides for the appointment of surveyors of mineral claims, author- 
izes the Commissioner of the General Land Office to establish 
the rates to be charged for surveys and for newspaper publica- 
tions, prescribes the fees allowed to the local officers for receiv- 
ing and acting upon applications for mining patents and for 
adverse claims thereto, etc. 

74. The Surveyor-General of the several districts will, in pur- 
suance of said law, appoint in each land district as many compe- 
tent deputies for the survey of mining claims as may seek such 
appointment; it being distinctly understood that all expenses of 
these notices and surveys are to be borne by the mining claim- 
ants, and not by the United States ; the system of making de- 
posits for mineral surveys, as required by previous instructions. 



DEPUTY SURVEYORS AND THEIR DUTIES. ^q^ 

being hereby revoked as regards field work, the claimant having 
the option of employing any deputy surveyor within such district 
to do his work in the field. 

75. Without regard to the platting of the claim and other 
office zuoi'lz in the Surveyor-General's office, that officer will make 
an estimate of the cost thereof, which amount the claimant will 
deposit with any Assistant United States Treasurer, or desig- 
nated depositary, in favor of the United States Treasurer, to be 
passed to the credit of the fund created by " individual deposi- 
tors for surveys of the public lands," and file with the Surveyor- 
General duplicate certificates of such deposit, in the usual 
manner. 

76. The Surveyor-General will endeavor to appoint mineral 
deputy surveyors as rapidly as possible, so that one or more 
may be located in each mining district, for the greater conven- 
ience of miners. 

']']. The usual oath will be required of these deputies and 
their assistants as to the correctness of each survey executed 
by them. 

78. The law requires that each applicant shall file with the 
Reeisiter and Receiver a sworn statement of all charges and fees 
paid by him for publication of notice and for survey, together 
with all fees and moneys paid the Register and Receiver, which 
sworn statement is required to be transmitted to this ofiice, for 
the information of the Commissioner. 

79. Should it appear that excessive or exorbitant charges have 
been made by any surveyor or any publisher, prompt action will 
be taken with the view of correcting the abuse. 

80. The fees payable to the Register and Receiver, for filing 
and acting upon applications for mineral land patents, made 
under said act of May 10, 1S72, are five dollars to each officer, 
to be paid by the applicant for patent at the time of filing, and 
the like sum of five dollars is payable to each ofiicer by an 
adverse claimant at the time of filing his adverse claim, 

81. All fees or charges under this act, or the acts of which it 
is amendatory, may be paid in United States currency. 

82. The Register and Receiver will, at the close of each 



204 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

month, forward to this office an abstract of mining applications 
filed, and a register of receipts, accompanied with an abstract of 
mineral lands sold. 

'^'^. The fees and purchase-money received by Registers and 
Receivers must be placed to the credit of the United States in 
the Receiver's monthly and quarterly account, charging up in 
the disbursinof account the sums to which the Regflster and 
Receiver may be respectively entitled as fees and commissions, 
with limitations in regard to the legal maximum. 

84. The thirteenth section of the said act of May 10, 1S72, 
provides that all affidavits required under said act, or the act of 
which it is amendatory, may be verified before any officer 
authorized to administer oaths within the land district where the 
claims may be situated, in which case they will have the same 
force and effect as if taken before the Reg-ister or Receiver, and 
that in cases of contest as to the mineral or agricultural character 
of land, the testimony and proofs may be taken before any such 
officer on personal notice of at least ten days to the opposing 
party, or, if said party cannot be found, then, after publication of 
notice for at least once a week for thirty days, in a newspaper to 
be designated by the Register as published nearest to the location 
of such land, proof of such notice must be made to the Register. 

85. The instructions heretofore issued with regard to disprov- 
ing the mineral character of lands, are accordingly modified so 
as to allow proof upon that point to be taken before any officer 
authorized to administer oaths within the land district, and that 
where the residence of the parties who claim the land to be 
mineral is known, such evidence may be taken without publica- 
tion, ten days after the mineral claimants or affiants shall have 
been personally notified of the time and place of such hearing; 
but in cases where such affiants or claimants cannot be served 
with personal notice, or where the land applied for is returned 
as mineral upon the township plat, or where the same is now or 
may hereafter be suspended for non-mineral proof, by order of 
this office, then the party who claims the right to enter the land 
as agricultural will be required, at his own expense, to publish a 
notice once each week for five consecutive weeks in the news- 



MILL-SITES. 205 



paper of largest circulation published in the county in which said 
land is situated ; or, if no newspaper is published within such 
county, then in a newspaper published in an adjoining- county, 
the newspaper in either case to be designated by the Register, 
which notice must be clear and specific, embracing the points 
required In notices under instructions from this office, of March 
20, 1872, and must name a day after the last day of publication 
of said notice, when testimony as to the character of the land 
will be taken, stating before what magistrate or other officer 
such hearing will be had, and the place of such hearing. 



MILL-SITES. 



86. The fifteenth section of said act provides, "That where 
non-mineral land, not contiguous to the vein or lode, is used or 
occupied by the proprietor of such vein or lode for mining or 
milling purposes, such non-adjacent surface-ground may be 
embraced and included in an application for a patent for such 
vein or lode, and the same may be patented therewith, subject 
to the same preliminary requirements as to survey and notice as 
are applicable under this act to veins or lodes : Provided, That 
no location hereafter made of such non-adjacent land shall ex- 
ceed five acres, and payment for the same must be made at the 
same rate as fixed by this act for the superfices of the lode. 
The owner of the quartz-mill or reduction works, not owning a 
mine In connection therewith, may also receive a patent for his 
mill-site as provided In this section. 

87. To avail themselves of this provision of law, parties hold- 
ing the possessory right to a vein or lode, and to a piece of land 
not contiguous thereto, for mining or milling purposes, not ex- 
ceeding the quantity allowed for such purposes by the local 
rules, regulations or customs, the proprietors of such vein or 
lode may file in the proper land office their application for a 
patent, under oath, in manner already set forth herein, which 
application, together with the plat and field notes, may include, 
embrace and describe, in addition to. the vein or lode, such non- 
contiguous mill-site ; and after due proceeding as to notice, etc., 
a patent will be issued conveying the same as one claim. 



3o6 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

%%. In making the survey in a case of this kind, the lode claim 
should be described in the plat and field notes as "Lot No. ^il^ 
A." and the mill-site as " Lot No. 2)1^ B," or whatever may be its 
appropriate numerical designation ; the course and distance from 
a corner of the mill-site to a corner of the lode claim to be in- 
variably given in such plat and field notes, and a copy of the 
plat and notice of application for patent must be conspicuously 
posted upon the mill-site as well as upon the vein or lode for the 
statutory period of sixty days. In making the entry, no separate 
receipt or certificate need be issued for the mill-site, but the 
whole area of both lode and mill-site will be embraced in one 
entry, the price being ^5 for each acre and fractional part of an 
acre embraced by such lode and mill-site claim. 

89. In case the owner of a quartz- mill or reduction works is 
not the owner or claimant of a vein or lode, the law permits him 
to make application therefor in the same manner prescribed 
herein for mining claims, and after due notice and proceedings, 
in the absence of a valid adverse filing, to enter and receive a 
patent for the mill-site at said price per acre. 

90. In every case there must be satisfactory proof that the 
land claimed as a mill-site is not mineral in character, which 
proof may, where the matter is unquestioned, consist of the 
sworn statement of the claimant, supported by that of one or 
more disinterested persons capable from acquaintance with the 
land to testify understandingly. 

91. The law expressly limits mill-site locations made from and 
after its passage to five acres, but whether so much as that can 
be located depends upon the local customs, rules or regulations. 

92. The Registers and Receivers will preserve an unbroken 
consecutive series of numbers for all mineral entries. 

PROOF OF CITIZENSHIP OF MINING CLAIMANTS. 

93. The proof necessary to establish the citizenship of appli- 
cants for mining patents, whether under the present or past 
enactments, it will be seen by reference to the seventh section 
of the act under consideration, may consist, in the case of an in- 
dividual claimant, of his own affidavit of the fact ; in the case of 



STATE AND OTHER LOCAL MINING LAWS. -i^n 

an association of persons not incorporated, of the affidavit of 
their authorized agent, made on his own knowledge or upon in- 
formation and behef that the several members of said association 
are citizens ; and in the case of an incorporated company, organ- 
ized under the laws of the United Slates, or the laws of any 
State or Territory of the United States, by the filing of a certi- 
fied copy of their charter or certificate of incorporation. 

94. These affidavits of citizenship may be taken before the 
Register or Receiver, or any other officer authorized to adminis- 
ter oaths within the district. 

STATE AND OTHER LOCAL MINING LAWS. 

Repeated allusions are made in these mining laws and rules of 
the United States Government, to the State and other local laws 
and regulations, as restricting, or otherwise modifying, the action 
of the United States laws. With the changes which have been 
made in the government laws within the last six or eight years. 
and the perfection they have reached through careful observation 
of their action, there is far less necessity for these local laws than 
there was, a few years ago, and we cannot learn that in Utah, 
Montana, or the Black Hills, any such laws or rules have been 
established. In California, and in Nevada, almost every county 
or mininor district b.ad its own minincj laws ; Nevada had also n 
State law, but California did not. Oregon, Idaho, Colorado, 
New Mexico, and Arizona, have their State or Territorial laws, 
the last named Territory, from its peculiar situation, having a 
somewhat lengthy code. We give below these State, Territorial, 
and District laws, so far as they are to be obtained, as they are 
of great importance to the mine-owners, and those who are 
intending to purchase mining property. 

STATUTE OF NEVAIW C( >\CERNING MINING CLAIMS. 

The followinor are the main sections of a statute of the State 
of Nevada approved February 27, 1866: 

Section i. Any six or more persons who are males of 
the age of twenty-one years and upwards, holding mining 
claims in any mining district, or who hold mineral lands not 



^q3 our western empire. 

within the boundaries of any estabhshed mining district, may 
form a new mining district embracing said claims, at a meeting 
of such persons to be called by posting for five days in at least 
five conspicuous places within the limits of such proposed new 
district, notices in writing stating the place and time for holding 
such meeting, describing as near as may be the limits of such 
proposed new district, and signed by not less than five of such 
persons. At said meeting all males of the age of twenty-one 
years and upward holding mining claims, or any interest therein, 
within said limits, may vote, and by a majority vote determine 
whether said new mining district shall be established, and its 
boundaries, which shall be within the limits named in said notices ; 
and thereafter the persons so qualified and holding mining claims 
in such newly established district shall proceed to select a name 
therefor and elect a district recorder, who shall be qualified as 
aforesaid. He shall perform all the duties required of him by 
law, and shall, within thirty days after qualifying, file and record 
in his office a record of the proceedings of said meeting. No 
district formed under the provisions of this act shall be divided 
by any county line. Mining districts now existing may be con- 
tinued. 

Sec. 2 2. On and after the second Saturday of July, 1866, all 
locations of mininof claims shall be made In the following manner : 
On a monument not less than three feet high, firmly established 
in a conspicuous place on the claim, there shall be placed a 
plainly-written notice embracing a description of the ground 
claimed, the date of location, the name of the claim, the name 
of the company, and the names of the locators, with the number 
of feet claimed by each, and a copy of said notice, accompanied 
by a written request for a survey of said claim by the district 
recorder, shall, within thirty days after the making of such loca- 
tion, be filed in the office of the district recorder of the district 
in which said claim is located ; and in case there be no legally 
authorized district recorder in and for the district, or the claim be 
outside of the limits of an organized mining district, then, and in 
that case, said notice may be filed in the office of the county 
recorder of the county in which said claim is located ; and a 



NEVADA MINING LAWS. ^OQ 

written request for a survey by the county surveyor shall be 
served upon the county surveyor within a reasonable time there- 
after; the county surveyor, or his deputy, shall perform all the 
duties required of a district recorder by the provisions of this 
act. He shall keep a record of all his transactions in such cases, 
and for such services he may charge and receive the same fees 
allowed by law for his services in like cases. Within thirty days 
after the making of such location there shall be done on said 
claim, as assessment work, to hold the same up to and including- 
the day preceding the first Saturday of the then following 
August, excavation involving the removal of fifty cubic feet of 
earth or loose material, or five cubic feet of solid rock, for each 
two hundred feet in the claim ; and, as soon as may be thereafter, 
said district recorder shall survey the same and record the notice 
of survey as provided in section 14 of this act; and said district 
recorder shall file and record a certificate in regard to the assess- 
ment work, which shall be substantially in the following form : 



DISTRICT, COUNTY, NEVADA, DAY OF MONTH OF YEAR. 

This is to certify that on the claim governed by the 

company, surveyed on date, there has been done 



by or on behalf of said company sufficient work to hold said 
claim up to the first Saturday of August next. 

, Distinct Recorder. 

Sec. 23. Any person may locate mining claims in favor of 
others, but no person shall be entitled to hold by location more 
than two hundred feet of any one ledge, except by virtue of discov- 
ery of the same, for which he shall be entitled to hold two hundred 
feet additional. In the case of locations made as extensions, the 
location of two hundred feet by virtue of discovery is allowed. 
No claim shall, in the aggregate, exceed in extent two thousand 
feet on any one ledge. 

Sec. 24. Any location made on a ledge by authority of this 
act shall be deemed to include all the dips, spurs, angles, and 
variations of said ledge. The locators of any ledge shall be 
entitled to hold one hundred feet on each side of it, except 



,IO OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

where they would by so doing invade the territory of a claim 
previously located. 

Sec. 31. On the first Saturday of August, 1866, at which time 
the first assessment year shall begin, this act shall supersede all 
district mining laws, and thereafter said laws shall be considered 
as repealed : Provided, Any and all rights heretofore acquired 
under and by virtue of such distinct mining laws shall be deter- 
mined in accordance with said mininor laws existinof at the time 
when said rights were acquired. During the period extending 
from and including the ist day of May, 1866, to and including 
the day immediately preceding the first Saturday of the following 
August, no claim shall become subject to relocation by reason of 
the non-performance of assessment work. Locations may be 
made under this act at any time on and after the second Saturday 
of July, 1866, at which time the district recorders elected under 
this act shall, if qualified, enter upon the discharge of their duties, 
and on and after said second Saturday of July, no location shall 
be made under district mining laws. 

Sec. 32. The doing of assessment work, or the payment of 
assessment dues, shall not be required in order to hold a claim 
during any assessment year, if during the year next preceding 
such assessment year there has been done on said claim, by or 
on behalf of the claimants thereof, an amount of work costing, at 
a fair valuation, not less than fifty cents for each foot in said 
claim ; but in all other cases assessment work shall be done or 
assessment dues shall be paid as provided in this act. Assess- 
ment dues shall be paid for every assessment year by the parties 
holdinof the claim to the district recorder elected under this act, 
before the first Saturday of August, commencing the assessment 
year for which they are paid, except as otherwise provided in this 
section. 

Sec. 33. Except as otherwise provided in section 32, every 
mining claim located and held under district mining laws, on 
which, before the ist day of May, 1866, there has been work done 
involving the excavation of fifty cubic feet of earth or loose 
matter, or five cubic feet of solid rock, for each 200 feet in such 
claim, shall be subject to assessment dues. On every mining 



REGULATIONS OF VIRGINIA DISTRICT. ^11 

claim located and held under district mining laws, on which such 
work has not been done before the ist day of May, 1866, assess- 
ment work shall be done on or before the day immediately pre- 
ceding the first Saturday of August, 1866. The doing of such 
assessment work or the paying of such assessment dues shall 
enable the owner of said claim to hold the same for the next 
ensuing assessment year, commencing on the first Saturday of 
Auorust, 1866. 

Sec. 34. The assessment work done within the thirty days after 
the location of a claim under this act, as provided in section 22, 
shall hold the same only up to the beginning of the assessment 
year following the date of said location, and for such next en- 
suing assessment year and for every year thereafter, except as 
provided in section 32 of this act, such claim shall be subject to 
assessment dues. 

Sec. 45. The extraction of gold or other metals from alluvial or 
diluvial deposits, generally called placer mining, shall be subject 
to such regulations as the miners in the several mining districts 
shall adopt. 

18. REGULATIONS OF THE VIRGINIA DISTRICT, NEVADA. 

The following are the regulations of the district of Virginia 
City, Nevada, adopted September 14, 1859: 

Article i. All quartz claims hereafter located shall be 200 
feet on the lead, including all its dips and angles. 

Art. 2. All discoverers of new quartz veins shall be entitled to 
an additional claim for discovery. 

Art. 3. All claims shall be designated by stakes and notices 
at each corner. 

Art. 4. All quartz claims shall be worked to the amount of 
^10 or three days work per month to each claim, and the owner 
can work to the amount of 5^40 as soon after the location of the 
claim as he may elect ; which amount being worked shall exempt 
him from working on said claim for six months thereafter. 

Art. 5. All quartz claims shall be known by a name and in 
sections. 

Art. 6. All claims shall be properly recorded within ten days 
from the time of location. 



^12 <^UR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Art. 7. All claims recorded in the Gold Hill record, and lying 
in the Virginia district, shall be recorded free of charge in the 
record of Virginia district, upon the presentation of a certificate 
from the recorder of the Gold Hill district, certifying that said 
claims have been duly recorded in said district ; and said claims 
shall be recorded within thirty days after the passage of this 
article. 

Art. 9. Surface and hill claims shall be 100 feet square, and 
be designated by stakes and notices at each corner. 

Art. 10. All ravine and gulch claims shall be 100 feet in length, 
and in width extend from bank to bank, and be designated by a 
stake and notice at each end. 

Art. 1 1. All claims shall be worked within ten days after water 
can be had sufficient to work said claims. 

Art. 12. All ravine, gulch, and surface claims shall be recorded 
within ten days after location. 

Art. 13. All claims not worked according to the laws of this. 
district shall be forfeited and subject to relocation. 

Art. 14. There shall be a recorder elected, to hold his office 
for the term of twelve months, who shall be entided to the sum 
of fifty cents for each claim located and recorded. 

Art. 15. The recorder shall keep a book with all the laws of 
this district written therein, which shall, at all times, be subject to 
the inspection of the miners of said district ; arid he is further- 
more required to post in two conspicuous places a copy of the 
laws of said district. 

19. REGULATIONS OF REESE RIVER DISTRICT, NEVADA. 

The following are the regulations of the Reese River District, 
Nevada : 

Section i. The district shall be known as the Reese River 
Mining District, and shall be bounded as follows, to wit: On the 
north by a distance of ten miles from the overland telegraph line, 
on the east by Dry creek, on the south by a distance of ten miles, 
from th<^ overland telegraph line, and on the west by Edward's 
creek, where not conflicting with any new districts formed to date. 

Sec. 2. There shall be a mining recorder elected on the ist 



REGULATIONS OF REESE RIVER DISTRICT. 313 

day of June next for this district, who shall hold office for one 
year from the 17th of July next, unless sooner removed by a new 
election, which can only be done by a written call, signed by at 
least fifty claim-holders, giving notice of a new election to be 
held, after said notice shall have been posted and published for at 
least twenty days in some newspaper published in or nearest this 
district ; and the recorder shall be a resident of this district. 

Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of the recorder to keep in a suitable 
book or books a full and truthful record of the proceedings of 
all public meetings ; to place on record all claims brought to him 
for that purpose, when such claim shall not interfere with or affect 
the rights and interests of prior locators, recording the same in 
the order of their date, for which service he shall receive ^i for 
each claim recorded. It shall also be the duty of the recorder to 
keep his books open at all times to the inspection of the public ; 
he shall also have the power to appoint a deputy to act in his 
stead, for whose official acts he shall be held responsible. It shall 
also be the duty of the recorder to deliver to his successor in 
office all books, records, papers, etc., belonging to or pertaining 
to his office. 

Sec. 4. All examinations of the record must be made in the 
full presence of the recorder or his deputy. 

Sec. 5. Notice of a claim of location of mining ground by any 
individual, or by a company, on file in the recorder's office, shall 
be deemed equivalent to a record of the same. 

Sec. 6. Each claimant shall be entitled to hold by location two 
hundred feet on any lead in the district, with all the dips, spurs, 
and angles, offshoots, outcrops, depths, widths, variations, and all 
the mineral and other valuables therein contained, the discoverer 
of and locator of a new lead beinof entitled to one claim extra for 
discovery. 

Sec. 7. The locator of any lead, lode, or ledge in the district 
shall be entitled to hold on each side of the lead, lode, or ledge 
located by him or them one hundred feet ; but this shall not be 
construed to mean any distinct or parallel ledge within the two 
hundred feet other than the one originally located. 

Sec. 8. All locations shall be made by a written notice posted 



^I^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

upon the ground, and boundaries described, and all claimants' 
names posted on the notice. 

Sec. 9. Work done on any tunnel, cut, shaft, or drift. In good 
faith, shall be considered as being done upon the claim owned 
by such person or company. 

Sec. 10. Every claim (whether by individual or company) lo- 
cated shall be recorded within ten days after the date of location. 

Sec. 1 1. All miners locating a mining claim in this district shall 
place and maintain thereon a good and substantial monument 
or stake, with a notice thereon of the name of the claim, the 
names of the locators, date of location, record, and extent of 
claim. It is hereby requested that owners in claims already lo- 
cated do comply with the requirements of this section. 

Sec. 12. The recorder shall go upon the ground with any and 
all parties desiring to locate claims, and shall be entitled to re- 
ceive for such service one dollar for each and every name in a 
location of two hundred feet each. 

Sec. 13. It is hereby made the duty of the mining recorder, 
upon the written application of twenty-five miners, to call a meet- 
ing of the miners of the district by giving a notice of twenty 
days through some newspaper published in the Reese river 
district, which notice shall state the object of the meetingr and 
the place and time of holding the same. 

Sec. 14. The laws of this district passed July 17, 1862, are 
hereby repealed. 

Sec. 15. These laws shall take effect on and after the 4th day 
of June, 1864. 

20. QUARTZ statute OF THE STATE OF OREGON. 

Section i. That any person, or company of persons, estab- 
lishing a claim on any quartz lead containing gold, silver, copper, 
tin, or lead, or a claim on a vein of cinnabar, for the purpose of 
mining the same, shall be allowed to have, hold, and possess the 
land or vein, with all its dips, spurs, and angles, for the distance 
of three hundred feet in length, and seventy-five feet in width on 
each side of such lead or vein. 

Sec. 2. To establish a valid claim the discoverer or person 



QUARTZ STATUTE OF OREGON: ^IJ 

wishing to establish a claim shall post a notice on the lead or 
vein, with name or names attached, which shall protect the claim 
or claims for thirty days ; and before the expiration of said thirty 
days he or they shall cause the claim or claims to be recorded 
as hereinafter provided, and describing, as near as may be, the 
claim or claims, and their location ; but continuous working of 
said claim or claims shall obviate the necessity of such record. 
If any claim shall not be worked for twelve consecutive months 
it shall be forfeited and considered liable to location by any per- 
son or persons, unless the owner or owners be absent on account 
of sickness, or in the service of their country in time of war. 

Sec. .3. Any person may hold one claim by location, as here- 
inafter provided, upon each lead or vein, and as many by pur- 
chase as the local laws of the miners in the district where such 
claims are located may allow ; and the discoverer of any new 
lead or vein, not previously located upon, shall be allowed one 
additional claim for the discovery thereof. Nothing in this sec- 
tion shall be so construed as to allow any person not the dis- 
coverer to locate more than one claim upon any one lead or 
vein. 

Sec. 4. Every person, or company of persons, after establish- 
ing such claim or claims, shall, within one year after recording 
or takincT such claini or claims, work or cause to be worked to 
the amount of fifty dollars for each and every claim, and for 
each successive year shall do the same amount of work, under 
penalty of forfeiture of said claim or claims: Provided, That any 
incorporate company owning claims on any lead or vein may be 
allowed to work upon any one claim the whole amount required 
as above for all the claims they may own on such lead or vein. 

Sec. 5. It shall be the duty of the county clerk of any county, 
upon the receipt of a notice of a miners' meeting organizing a 
miners' district in said county, with a description of the boun- 
daries thereof, to record the same in a book to be kept in his 
office as other county records, to be called a "book of record of 
mining claims ;" and, upon the petition of parties interested, he 
may appoint a deputy for such district, who shall reside in said 
district or its vicinity, and shall record all mining claims and 



,1(5 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

water rights In the order In which they are presented for record; 
and shall transmit a copy of such record at the end of each 
month to the county clerk, who shall record the same in the 
above-mentioned book of record, for which he shall receive one 
dollar for each and every claim. It shall further be the duty of 
said county clerk to furnish a copy of this law to his said deputy, 
who shall keep the same in his office, open at all reasonable times 
for the inspection of all persons interested therein. 

Sec. 6. Miners shall be empowered to make local laws in re- 
lation to the possession of water rights, the possession and 
working of placer claims, and the survey and sale of town lots 
in mining camps, subject to the laws of the United States. 

Sec. 7. That ditches used for mining purposes, and mining 
flumes permanently affixed to the soil, be and they are hereby 
declared real estate for all Intents and purposes whatever. 

Sec. 8. That all laws relative to the sale and transfer of r^l 
estate, and the application of the liens of mechanics and laborers 
therein, be and they are hereby made applicable to said ditches 
and flumes: Provided, That all Interests in mining claims known 
as placer or surface diggings may be granted, sold, and conveyed 
by bill of sale and delivery of possession as in cases of the sale 
of personal property: Provided f mother, That the bills of sale or 
conveyances executed on the sale of any placer or surface 
mining claim shall be recorded within thirty days after the date 
of such sale, In the office of the county clerk of the county in 
which such sale is made, In a book to be kept by the county 
clerk for that purpose, to be called the record of conveyances 
of minlnor claims. 

Sec. 9. Mortgages of Interests in placer or surface mining 
claims shall be executed, acknowledged, recorded, and foreclosed 
as mortfjacres of chattels. 

Sec. 10. The county clerk shall be entitled to a fee of one 
dollar each for every conveyance or mortgage recorded under the 
provisions of this act. 

21. QUARTZ STATUTE OF IDAHO. 

The following is the statute of Idaho in regard to quartz 
claims : 



QUARTZ STATUTE OF IDAHO. ^I/ 

Sec. I. That any person or persons who may hereafter dis- 
cover any quartz lead or lode shall be entitled to one claim thereon 
by right of discovery, and one claim each by location. 

Sec. 2. That a quartz claim shall consist of tttvo hundred feet 
in length along the lead or lode by one hundred feet in breadth, 
covering and including all dips, spurs, and angles within the 
bounds of said claim, as also the right of drainage, tunnelling, 
and such other privileges as may be necessary to the working 
of said claim. 

Sec, 3. The locator of any quartz claim on any lead or lode 
shall, at the time of locating such claim, place a substantial stake, 
not less than three inches in diameter, at each end of said claim, 
on which shall be a written notice specifying the name of the 
locator, the number of feet claimed, together with the year, month, 
and day when the same was taken. 

Sec. 4. All claims shall be recorded in the county recorder's 
office, within ten days from the time of posting notice thereon : 
Provided, That when the claim located is more than thirty 
miles distant from the county seat the time shall extend to fifteen 
days. 

Sec. 5. Quartz claims recorded in accordance with the 
provisions of section 4 of this act shall entitle the person so 
recording to hold the same to the use of himself, his heirs and 
assigns : Provided, That w^ithin six months from and after the 
date of recording he shall perform, or cause to be performed, 
thereon work amounting in value to the sum of one hundred 
dollars. 

Sec. 6. Any person or persons holding quartz claims in 
pursuance of this act shall renew the notice required in section 
3 at least once in twelve months, unless such claimant is occupy- 
ing and working the same. 

Sec. 7. The conveyances of quartz claims heretofore made 
by bills of sale or other instruments of writing, with or without 
seals, shall be construed in accordance with the local mining 
rules, regulations, and customs of miners in the several mining 
districts, and said bills of sale or instruments of writing con- 
cerning quartz claims without seals shall h& prima facie evidence 



-[8 ^<^'^^' ll'^-^SJ-£A\V EMPIRE. 

of sale, as if such conveyance had been made by deed under 
seal. 

Sec. 8. Conveyances of quartz claims shall hereafter require 
the same formaiities and shall be subject to the same rules of 
construction as the transfer and conveyance of real estate. 

Sec. 9. The location and pre-emption of quartz claims here- 
tofore made shall be established and proved when there is a 
contest before the courts, by the local rules, customs, and 
regulations of the miners in each mining district where such 
claim is located, when not in conflict with the laws of the United 
States or the laws of this Territory. 

Sec. 10. This act to take effect and to be in force from and 
after its approval by the governor. 

Approved February 4, 1864. 

23. statute of ARIZONA. 

The following is the statute of Arizona on the registry and 
government of mines L^nd mineral deposits, with the exception 
of the sections providing the manner in which the rights of miners 
shall be enforced by the courts: 

Sec. I. All mining rights on the public lands of the United 
States, as well as rights acquired by discovery on the lands of 
private individuals, are possessory in their character only, and 
such possessory rights shall be limited, regulated, and governed 
as hereinafter provided. 

Sec. 15. Every mining claim or pertenencia is declared to 
consist of a superficial area of 200 yards square, to be 
measured so as to include the principal mineral vein or mineral 
deposits, always having reference to and following the dip of the 
vein so far as it can or may be worked, with all the earth and 
minerals therein. But any mining district organized in accordance 
with the provisions of this chapter may prescribe the dimensions 
of said mining claim or pertenencia for such district: Provided, 
That in no case the dimensions so prescribed shall exceed the 
number of yards allowed by this section ; and further provided. 
That no such miningf district shall diminish the extent of the 
territorial claim to one pertenencia, as defined in this section. 



MINING REGULATIONS OF ARIZONA. -.jO 

Sec. 1 6. Any person discovering or opening a vein or other 
mineral deposit in this Territory, not actually worked or legally 
owned by other parties or registered in accordance with this 
chapter, shall by properly denouncing and registering the same 
be entitled to claim and hold a possessory right to a tract of land 
to the extent of two mining claims or pertenencias, including the 
said vein or mineral deposit, and conforming as nearly as possible 
to the general direction thereof, each to be measured 200 yards 
long by 200 yards wide, the direction of the lines to be deter- 
mined by the person claiming. 

Sec. 1 7. If two or more persons are associated, and have 
formed a company for the exploration and working of mines, 
and one or several shall make discoveries of mineral deposits in 
consequence thereof, said company so engaged in exploration 
shall be entitled to denounce and register one discovery claim 
only upon each lode. 

Sec. 18. It shall be lawful for the claimants of a mine or 
mineral lands to locate and take p^ssesfion of public lands for a 
mill site and other neci^jsary works connected therewith, which 
shall not exceed one-quarter section, containing a stream or 
other water suitable for the purpose. They shall have a right to 
place a dam or other obstructions on such stream, and to divert 
its water for the above uses and purposes. They shall, within 
the time and in the manner prescribed in this chapter for the 
registration and denouncement of mines, proceed to denounce 
and register the same with the clerk of the probate court, and 
they shall be known as auxiliary lands. And if within three 
years from the day their notice of claim is so recorded they shall 
expend in fitting the same for a mill, or in placing a mill or 
reduction works thereon, the sum of $100, they may cause the 
record of such work to be made and proceedings for confirming 
their title to be instituted as provided in section 29 of this 
chapter, with like effect, and receive a certificate of title as 
thereon provided, conforming as nearly as they can to the require- 
ments of that section. Instead of the work required by section 
32 of this chapter they shall use the machinery or other works 
erected upon said land for mining purposes at least thirty days 



5 20 <^^-^ WESTERN EMPIRE. '' 

in each year. Such claims shall be subject to all the provisions 
of this chapter which are applicable to mining rights, and may be 
abandoned and relocated. All rights to auxiliary lands acquired 
under the laws of any mining district before this act takes effect 
shall be valid, and the owners of the same, upon complying with 
the provisions of this section, may take the like proceedings to 
confirm their titles, with a like effect. 

Sec. 19. It shall be the duty of all claimants of mining claims, 
mineral lands, and auxiliary tracts, to at once define the extent 
and boundary of them as nearly as possible, by good substantial 
monuments or other conspicuous marks, in the presence of the 
recorder of the mining district, or of some witness who shall 
prove to the satisfac-tion of the recorder that the same has been 
done, and to post up a public notice of their claim at the opening 
of the principal vein, and to have them properly registered and 
recorded within three months from the time of first claiming them 
at the office of the mining district recorder according to the 
provisions of this chapter. Such record shall give a faithful 
description of the veins, mineral deposits, and tracts of lands, the 
character and bearing of the veins or deposits, and their con- 
nection with natural monuments or conspicuous objects in the 
vicinitv. 

Sec. 20. No person shall change his original monuments or 
boundaries of mineral or other lands, but if a subsequent 
investigation makes this convenient or necessary, and it can be 
done v/ithout prejudice to other parties, then such change shall 
take place by the sanction of the judge of the probate court, 
provided they are properly recorded, and the new boundaries 
and monuments fixed at once when the original ones are re- 
moved. 

Sec. 21. All minerals, woods, waters, earths, and vegetation 
found within the boundaries of any tract of land registered and 
claimed for mining shall be exclusively used by him or them who 
are legally entitled to the possession of the land wherein or 
whereon they are situated, so long as they are used for mining 
purposes only : Provided, That no one shall have the right to 
prevent transient persons from using the waters along the pub- 



MINING REGULATIONS OF ARIZONA. 32 1 

lie highways, where they were provided by nature in natural 
tanks, springs, streams, or otherwise, nor from making such 
equitable disposition of the waters as the legislature shall pre- 
scribe. 

Sec. 22. No person shall have the right to impede or incon- 
venience travelling by fencing up the public roads, filling them 
up with rubbish, or undermining them so as to endanger their 
safety, neither shall any one change their established direcdon 
without sanction of the proper authorities. 

Sec. 23. Whenever two or more persons or parties explore 
and prospect one and the same vein, and at or about the same 
time but at different places, and without knowledge of each 
other, then he or they who shall prove first occupancy shall havQ 
the right of first location, taking the principal point of excavation 
as the centre of their claim or claims on each side along the 
general direction of such vein or deposit. The other parties 
shall proceed by the same laws after the others have fixed their 
boundaries. Should there be left vacant ground between the 
different pardes, then it shall be at the option of the first dis- 
coverers so to change their boundaries as shall best suit them, 
and have them recorded accordingly. Any other parties shall 
locate in the order of the Ume of their arrival on the vein or 
mineral deposit. 

Sec. 24. Whenever two or more parties shall select the same 
mine or mineral deposit for exploration, and the parties first on 
the ground, knowing the other parties to be at work, shall fail to 
give warning, either verbally or in writing, of their priority claim 
on such vein or deposit, then that portion of the mine situated 
between the main excavations of the two parties shall be equally 
divided between them, irrespective of the number of members 
each company may have : Provided, That the intervening por- 
tions shall not exceed the quantity of land allowed by the pro- 
visions of this chapter. 

Sec. 25. The laws and proceedings of all mining districts 
established in this Territory for the denouncement, registration, 
and reguladon of mines, mining claims, mineral lands, and 
auxiliary lands, prior to the day this act takes effect, are hereby 



222 0^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

legalized and declared to be as valid and binding In all court.s of 
law as If enacted by this legislative assembly, to the extent and 
under the conditions and restrictions herein contained, 

I. All rights, claims, and titles to any veins, mineral lands, or 
mineral deposits, and auxiliary lands, acquired before this act 
takes effect, under, by virtue of, and in conformity to the laws of 
said mining districts, are hereby declared to be valid and legal, 
and shall be respected and enforced in all courts of this Terri- 
tory, when sustained by the evidence herein provided ; but no 
amount of work done thereon shall be construed to give a per- 
petual title thereto, but shall give such title only and such rights 
and privileges as are provided in section 29 of this chapter; and 
no person v^'ho was at the time of the location of his claim an 
inhabitant of this Territory shall forfeit his claim because he was 
not a resident also of the minlngf district in which his said claim 
was located. And no such right, claim, or title shall be con- 
sidered as abandoned provided the claimant shall within six 
months from the day this act takes effect file with the clerk of 
the probate court of the county in wiilch his claim is situated a 
brief description of the same, giving the name of the district in 
which the lode is situated, and of the lode or lodes, and the ex- 
tent of his claim thereon, with a declaration that he intends to 
retain and work the same according to law, unless such claim 
has been forfeited and subject to re-location under the laws of 
such mlnlnof district before this act takes effect. 

II, All records and all papers required by the laws of said 
mining districts to be deposited with the recorders of said dis- 
tricts for record shall be received as evidence of their contents 
in all courts of this Territory, and shall not be rejected for any 
defects in their form, when their contents may be understood, 
but shall be valid to the extent provided by said mining laws, 
except as hereinbefore restricted : Provided, That such records 
and papers are deposited with or recorded by the clerk of the 
probate court of the county in which said mining district is 
located, and within three months from the time this act takes 
effect; and if said records or papers are lost or mutilated, or if 
such recorder of a mining district shall neglect or refuse to 



MnV/jVC REGULATIONS OF ARIZONA. •33 

deposit the same as aforesaid, an affidavit of their contents made 
by any person interested therein, or certified or sworn copies 
thereof, may be so recorded, and shall- have the like effect. 

III. All conveyances of mines, mining rights, mineral and 
auxiliary lands made prior to the time this act takes effect shall 
be valid and binding to pass the title of the grantor thereof, 
although defective in form and execution, if their contents can 
be understood, and as such shall be received and regarded in all 
courts of this Territory: Provided, That such conveyances shall 
be deposited with or recorded by the clerk of the probate court 
of the county where said mines are situated, within three months 
from the time this act takes effect, and if lost or mutilated, copies 
or affidavits of their contents, executed as aforesaid, may be 
recorded as provided above. 

Sec. 26. Every recorder, register, clerk, or other recording 
officer, of every such mining district, or who has at any time 
acted as such recording- officer, within three months after this 
act takes effect, shall deposit with the clerk of the probate court 
of the county in which said district or greater part thereof is 
situated, all records which he has so kept, and all papers 
deposited in his hands for record, and papers so made or 
deposited with his predecessors in said office, which are in his 
hands as aforesaid, or he shall so deposit certified copies of the 
same. And such records and other papers shall be securely 
k^pt by such clerk, open in office hours to public inspection, 
and copies of the same duly certified by him shall be received in 
all courts of justice, and have the saine effect as the originals. 
And any such recorder, register, or other recording officer of 
each mining district who shall neglect or refuse to comply wuth 
the provisions of this section shall be liable in damages to the 
party injured thereby, and shall be liable to be punished by the 
judge of probate of the county in which said mining district, or 
the greater part thereof, is situated, for contempt, by fine not 
exceeding <^5,ooo and imprisoned not more than one year, and 
shall be incapable of holding any such office and mining claim. 

Sec. 27. Mining districts now existing may be continued, or 
new mining districts may be established in the manner and for 
the purposes hereinafter provided. 



2 24 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

I, The recorder of every mining district now existing shall at 
the same time that he deposits the records of said districts with 
the clerk of the probate court, as the last preceding section re- 
quires, take an oath before the judge of said court that he will 
faithfully perform the duties of his office until another recorder 
shall be elected and qualified In his place, which oath shall be 
recorded by the clerk of the probate court. He shall record in 
a book to be kept by him for that purpose all notices of claims 
or rights to veins, mineral deposits, mineral lands, and auxiliary 
lands which may be left with him to be recorded, and shall note 
on all papers which may be received by him to be recorded, the 
time when they were so received by him, and they shall be con- 
sidered as recorded from that time. He shall, when requested 
by any such claimant, go \vlth him to his claim and see that the 
same is measured by metes and bounds, and marked by substan- 
tial monuments on the surface of the earth, and shall make a 
record of the same, and of the time when it was done, and cer- 
tify It to be correct, or shall make a record and certificate of the 
same on the evidence of a credible witness, who was present 
when the same was done, and is cognizant of the facts, and 
whose name shall be entered on the record. He shall, when re- 
quested by any such claimant, go with him to his claim and ex- 
amine any shaft that may be sunk by him, or tunnels that may 
be opened to the same, and make measurements of the same, 
and a record and certificate as aforesaid ; and he shall in like 
manner examine, measure, or estimate, and make and record a 
certificate of any work which is required by law to be done by a 
claimant. And the said recording officer shall, quarterly, file 
with the clerk of the probate court of the county in which said 
district is located a copy by him certified of all records made by 
him for the three months last preceding, which shall be duly 
recorded by said clerk, and a copy of said record duly certified 
by him shall be evidence of its contents in all courts of this 
Territory. And such recording officer shall be liable to all the 
penalties provided in the preceding section If he shall neglect or 
refuse to perform any of the acts and duties required of him by 
this section, but shall not be required to perform any such ser- 



MINING REGULATIONS OF ARIZONA. ^25 

vice until his fees for the same, to be fixed by the mining dis- 
tricts, are paid him, if he requests it. And if any paper deposited 
with him for record is required to be recorded by the clerk of 
the probate court, he shall at the time said paper is so deposited 
with him take and receive the fee fixed by law for recording 
such paper by said clerk, and pay tlie said clerk said fee when 
he deposits said paper with him to be recorded as aforesaid. All 
such mining districts ma)i make laws not inconsistent with the 
laws of the Territory, may elect officers for the government of 
such districts, and fix their compensation, but all such acts and 
proceedings shall be recorded, and all records and papers 
thereof filed with the clerk of the probate court as aforesaid. 

II. Any number of persons, not less than twelve, owning 
mining claims in any mining district, or in any contiguous mining 
districts, or who have discovered and may wish to denounce a 
mine or mineral lands, not within the limits of any established 
mining district, may proceed to make a new mining district at a 
meeting of persons holding claims in such district so to be estab- 
lished, and of claimants in any districts to be divided or to be 
Ificluded therein. They shall cause a notice in writing, and 
Simecifying the limits of said contemplated district, signed by 
them, to be posted in three conspicuous places in said district, 
and if any part of an established district is to be included therein, 
by leaving a copy of said notice with the recorder of said district 
at least ten days before the day of said meeting. At said 
meeting all persons holding claims as aforesaid may vote, and 
may determine by a majority vote of those present whether said 
new district shall be established, and its limits, but within the 
boundaries named in the notice for said meeting, and thereupon 
the persons holding claims in such newly established district 
shall proceed to select a name, and make laws therefor, and 
elect a recorder, who shall be qualified as aforesaid, who shall 
perform all the duties and be subject to all the liabilities provided 
in this chapter for such officers, and shall file with the clerk of 
the probate court as aforesaid a record of the proceedings of this 
and all subsequent meetings at the time and in the manner 
herein provided. 



2 26 <^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Sec. 2S. It shall be the duty of all claimants of mineral tracts 
to sink at least one shaft of thirty feet in depth, or to run a 
tunnel of fifty feet in length, in the body of the vein or in the 
adjoining rock, so as to test the vein from the surface, for the 
purpose of ascertaining the character and capacity of such 
mineral deposit, within the space of one year from the day of 
first' taking possession thereof, and they shall notify the recorder 
of the mining district that said shaft or other work is completed, 
and that they intend working the vein or mineral deposit. And 
the recorder shall examine said work in person, and make and 
record a certificate of the result of such examination, which 
shall contain a statement of the condition and quality of the vein 
or mineral deposit, the amount of labor performed, and a 
general view of the results obtained. Said report shall be 
accompanied by three specimens taken from different parts of 
the work, which said specimens, with a copy of the record so 
made by him, shall be filed by him within the time required by 
this act In the office of the clerk of the probate court. And said 
clerk shall make a record of the same. Such specimens shall 
be numbered and described by him, and be preserved for the 
use of the mineralogical professorship of the University of Ari- 
zona. 

Sec. 29. The judge of the probate court, at any time within 
thirty days after the record made by the clerk of said court, as 
provided In the preceding section, upon complaint in writing 
made to him by such claimants, describing fully their claims, 
stating the labor perfonPied by them, and the certificate thereof, 
and that the registration of the same has been made as required 
by law, and requesting that their title thereto may be confirmed, 
shall cause a summons, under the seal of his court, to be issued, 
requiring all persons Interested to appear at a day named there- 
in, and which shall not be less than sixty days from the day the 
same was issued, and show cause why the title of such com- 
plainants and claimants should not be confirmed, a copy of 
which complaint and summons, duly attested by the clerk of the 
probate court, shall be published twice in the territorial news- 
paper, and be kept posted in the office of said clerk from the 



PERFECTING TITLE TO MINING CLAIMS. 327 

day of issuing- the same to the return day thereof; and if no 
person shall appear on such return day to contest the right of the 
claimants to such claims, the judge of probate shall examine all 
the records filed in the office of his clerk relating to such claims, 
and if he finds that the said claimants have in all respects com- 
plied with the provisions of this chapter, he shall make a decree 
in substance that the complainants have complied with the laws 
of this Territory relating to the denouncement and registration 
of mines, have acquired a perfect title to their claims (describing 
the same) until the ist day of January, a. d. 1868, and forever 
after unless abandoned by them. And the said clerk shall give 
the said claimant a copy of such decree, under the seal of the 
court, which shall be conclusive evidence of title in any pro- 
ceedings relating to such claims, until they are abandoned. And 
unless the persohs adversely interested and contesting the title 
of the complainants shall appear on the day named in said com- 
plaint, and proceed as hereinafter provided, they shall be forever 
barred from contesting the title of said complainants to such 
claims. And if the contestants shall so appear they shall on 
that day or some day to be fixed by said judge proceed to file an 
answer, setting forth their claim and case, and the proceedings 
shall then be conducted in conformity to the provisions of this 
chapter and the code of civil practice. And whenever a final 
decree is made thereon, determining the title to said claim or 
mine, by said judge, or by any other court on appeal, the said 
judge shall cause a record to be made in the office of his clerk 
of such decree, and a certified copy thereof may be made as 
aforesaid, with the like effect. And any claimants of mineral 
lands who before this act takes effect have in any way or under 
any law acquired a title to such mineral lands, after filing with 
the clerk of the court their evidence of title and description of 
claim as required by this chapter, may cause an examination of 
the shaft sunk by them or other work done by them to be made 
as aforesaid, and take the like proceedings for the confirmation 
of their titles, with the same effect : Provided, This section shall 
not apply except when the complainants are in possession of 
such mine or mining rights, claiming title thereto. 



2 28 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Sec. 30. By reason of the Indian wars and unsettled condition 
of the country, the time within which a shaft is required to be 
sunk, or other labor performed on a claim, shall not commence 
until two years from the day this act takes effect, and all the pro- 
visions of this chapter relating diereto are suspended for that 
time ; but any claimant may sink a shaft or do such other labor, 
and at any time after the record of their claims with the probate 
court, and thereupon institute proceedings to confirm their tides, 
and be entided to all the rights and privileges provided for in 
this chapter. 

Sec. 31. No single person or company shall be compelled to 
sink shafts or make other improvements on more than one of the 
tracts of land claimed by him or them for the same vein or 
mineral deposit; and any number of claimants on the same vein 
or mineral deposit, who may unite for said purpose, sliall be 
allowed to concentrate labor, capital, and energy to any one 
single point which to him or them shall be the best suited to as- 
certain to the best advantage the general character, quality, and 
capacity of that particular vein or mineral deposit, and may take 
the like proceedings to confirm their titles. 

Sec. 32. After the work required by section 28 of this chapter 
has been performed, and the record thereof made as therein pro- 
vided, two years shall be allowed the claimants of mineral lands 
to develop the same, and procure machinery and provide for 
working the same ; and during that time the same shall not be 
considered abandoned, although no work be done thereon : Pro- 
vided, That in such an event, they shall annually, and before the ist 
day of June in each year, file with the clerk of the probate court 
an affidavit signed by them that they have not abandoned such 
claims, but Intend, In good faith, to work them ; and said term of 
two years shall not commence until the ist day of January, a. d. 
1868. And after the expiration of said term of two years, it shall 
be obligatory upon claimants to such mineral lands to hold actual 
possession of them and work the vein, which' obligation shall be 
considered as complied with by doing at least thirty days' work 
thereon in each year; but if such claimants are prevented from 
working such vein by the hostility of Indians or other good cause, 



MINING ON PRIVATE LANDS. -,2g 

rendering said working difficult or dangerous, diey may, ly au- 
thority of the judge of probate first obtained, be relieved from 
performing labor thereon from time to time, but for not more 
than one year at any one time, during the condnuance of such 
cause. 

Sec. l^)' -^"y person who may discover a mineral vein or de- 
posit as aforesaid, which is not included within a mining district, 
or which may be in a mining district in which there is no legally 
authorized recorder, may acquire title thereto, and to auxil!;iry 
lands, by giving notice as aforesaid, and recording the same with 
the clerk of the probate court of the county in which the same 
is situated, and may take the same proceedings, with the like 
effect, with the clerk of the probate court that are required to be 
taken w^ith the recorder of a minincr district. 

Sec. 34. Discoverers of mines on lands in the legal ownership 
or possession of others, and not public lands, before doing the 
work of sinking the shaft required by section 28 of this chapter, 
shall pay to such parties such com.pensation for the use of the 
same as may be awarded by the judge of probate upon complaint 
of either party, or shall give bond to such parties for payment 
of the same, and sureties to be approved by said judge; and 
whenever it becomes necessary or advantageous to construct 
tunnels for the purpose of drainage, ventilation, or the better 
liauling of ores or other subterraneous products or minino- 
i:iaterials, it shall be lawful for any party or parties to construct 
such tunnel or drift through all private and public property: 
Provided, That all damages arising from such subterranean works 
to the other pardes, to be determined as provided above, shall 
be paid by the parties for whose benefit such tunnelling is done, 
to be paid before such work is commenced, or security given to 
the satisfacdon of the judge of probate for the payment of the 
same ; but no damages shall be paid on public lands when claims 
for such lands shall be set up after such tunnel shall have been 
projected or actually in process of construction : Pi'ovided, That 
the lapse of dme between projecdon and actual work shall not 
exceed ninety days, and that the tunnelling pardes give timely 
nodce of their project to any new claimant of the so affected 
ground. 



--Q OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Sec. 35. Whenever such tunnel as mentioned in the preceding 
section shall intersect or traverse mineral deposits, or run along 
lodes claimed and held by other parties, then it shall be at the 
option of the owners of such other mineral deposits either to pay 
one-half of the expense of excavation for the distance that such 
tunnel runs through their mineral deposits, and secure the whole 
of the ores excavated, or to divide the ores with the tunnelling 
parties, the latter paying all expenses of excavation ; or, it shall 
be optional with either party to abandon all claim to the ores 
excavated. 

Sec. 36. If, in the construction of such subterranean works, 
new veins or deposits are encountered in ground not claimed or 
owned by other parties, they shall become the property of th(; 
party for whom such tunnel is constructed, and shall be denounced 
and registered as is required of new mines, and shall be governed 
by the same laws as are prescribed in this chapter. 

Sec. 2)1' ^^y claimant or claimants not complying with any of 
the foreo-oine conditions and obliorations, shall forfeit all rio-ht to 
any such recorded or unrecorded claims to mineral and auxiliary 
tracts ; and it shall not be lawful for him or them to register such 
claims anew within a period of three years after such forfeiture. 
All such tracts shall be free for working and registry to any but 
those excepted in this section. 

Sec. 38. All veins and mineral deposits situated on public 
lands, which have not been worked and occupied from the 
time of the acquisition of the Territory by the United States up 
to the time of the passage of this chapter, except as herein pro- 
vided, shall be considered as abandoned and subject to registry 
and denouncement. 

Sec. 39. All veins and mineral deposits that have been or may 
\vi abandoned hereafter shall, in all cases and respects, be gov- 
erned by the laws regulating the opening and working of new 
veins and deposits, as prescribed in this chapter. 

Sec. 40. Whenever any mine, vein, or mineral deposit shall 
have been abandoned or forfeited in accordance with the provi- 
sions of this ciiapter, and registered anew by other parties, it shall 
be obligatory upon such parties to give the former owners warning 



ABANDONED MINING CLAIMS. 33I 

thereof, so as to remove from the tract, within the space of three 
months, anything he or they may think vahiable or useful. Such 
warning shall be given in the nearest newspaper published in the 
Territory, and by posting it at three of the most conspicuous 
places in the county where the mine is situated. Three months 
after the expiration of such warning, any and all buildings, 
furnaces, arrastras, metals, and every other species of property 
which mav still remain on the o-round of such mine, vein, or 
mineral deposit shall become the undisputed property of the new 
claimant, without compensation of any kind to any person what- 
ever. 

Sec. 41. Any person taking possession of or entering upon a 
mining claim or auxiliary lands, registered according to the pro- 
visions of this chapter, and before it is abandoned, shall be ousted 
therefrom in a summary manner by the order of the probate 
judge, and the malfeaser shall be adjudged to pay all damages 
and costs consequent thereon. 

Sec. 51. It shall be the duty of persons who may discover and 
claim mining rights or mineral lands, at the same time that they 
may define the boundary of their claim or claims to any lode or 
mine as required by the provisions of this chapter, to lay off and 
define the boundary of one pertenencia, as required by the pro- 
visions of this chapter, adjoining their claim or claims, which shall 
be the property of the Territory of Arizona. And at the same 
time that they present their notice of claim or claims to be recorded 
by the recorder of the mining district, they shall also present to 
such recorder the claim of said Territory. And, if said discoverers 
and claimants shall neglect or refuse to present to such recorder 
the claim of said Territory as aforesaid, they shall forever forfeit all 
claim to the mine or ledge so discovered by them. Any record- 
ing officer recording the claim or claims of such discoverers and 
claimants, when the claim of said Territory is not filed therewith 
as aforesaid, shall be subject to all the penalties provided in 
section 26 of this chapter. Such claim shall be recorded as pro- 
vided in this chapter for like claims, but no work shall be required 
to be done thereon, nor shall it be considered to be abandoned 
so long as- it is the property of the Territory; and if sold, the 



--2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

time within which the purchaser shall be required to work said 
claim shall commence from the day of sale, except when the time 
is suspended as before provided. Every clerk of the probate 
court, as soon as he records- the said claim, shall send a copy of 
his record to the treasurer of the Territory, and no fees shall be 
charo-ed by any recording officer in any matter relating to said 
claim. And the Territorial treasurer may, at any time after six 
months from the day he receives such record as aforesaid, and at 
such time and place as in his opinion will be most for the interest 
of the Territory, cause such claim to be sold at auction to the 
highest bidder; but every such sale shall be at least twice adver- 
tised in the Territorial newspaper, and be held at his office, or 
the office of the clerk of the probate court, or the recorder of 
the minino- district of the county where the claim is situated. 
And the treasurer is authorized to make a deed of the same to 
the purchaser in the name of the Territory ; and the amount 
received by him shall be added by him to any fund now or here- 
after provided' for the protection of the people of the Territory 
of Arizona against hostile Indians, and be expended as provided 
by law. And after all such expenses as are incurred by the Terri- 
torial authorities for the purpose of destroying or bringing into 
subjection all hostile Indian tribes in this Territory are liquidated, 
then all remaining or accruing funds, out of all or any sales of 
Territorial mining claims, shall be applied as a sinking fund for 
school purposes. 

Sec. 52. The extraction of gold from alluvial and diluvial 
deposits, generally termed placer mining, shall not be considered 
mining proper, and shall not entide persons occupied in it to the 
provisions of this chapter, nor shall any previous section of this 
chapter be so construed as to refer to the extraction of gold from 
the above-mentioned deposits. 

Sec. 53. This chapter shall be in force and take effect from 
and after the ist day of January, a. d. 1865. 



MINING LAWS OF COLORADO. ^^^ 



MINING LAWS OF COLORADO. 



AN ACT CONCERNING MINES. 
Be it enacted by the Council and House of Representatives of Colorado : 

EXTENT OF LODE CLAIM. 

Section i . The length of any lode claim hereafter located may 
equal but not exceed 1,500 feet along the vein. 

DIMENSIONS. 

Sec. 2. The width of lode claims hereafter located in Gilpin, 
Clear Creek, Boulder and Summit counties, shall be seventy-five 
feet on each side of the centre of the vein or crevice ; and in all 
other counties the width of the same shall be 150 feet on each 
side of the centre of the vein or crevice : Provided, That here- 
after any county may, at any general election, determine on a 
greater width, not exceeding 300 feet on each side of the centre 
of the vein or lode, by a majority of the legal votes cast at said 
election ; and any county, by such vote at such election, may 
determine upon a less width than above specified. 

CERTIFICATE OF LOCATION. 

Sec. 3. The discoverer of a lode shall, within three months 
from the date of discovery, record his claim in the office of the 
recorder of the county in which such lode is situated by a loca- 
tion certificate, which shall contain: ist, the name of the lode ; 
2d, the name of the locator ; 3d, the date of location ; 4th, the 
number of feet in length claimed on each side of the centre of 
the discovery shaft; 5th, the general course of the lode as near 
as may be. 

WHEN VOID. 

Sec. 4. Any location certificate of a lode claim which shall not 
contain the name of the lode, the name of the locator, the date 
of location, the number of lineal feet claimed on each side of the 
discovery shaft, the general course of the lode, and such descrip- 
tion as shall identify the claim with reasonable certainty, shall 
be void. 

DISCOVERY SHAFT. 

Sec. 5. Before filing such location certificate the discoverer 



334 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



shall locate his claim by first sinking- a discovery shaft upon the 
lode to the depth of at least ten feet from the lowest part of the 
rim of such shaft at the surface, or deeper, if necessary to show 
a well-defined crevice. * Second, by posting at the point of dis- 
covery on the surface, a plain sign or notice containing the name 
of the lode, the name of the locator, and the date of discovery. 
Third, by marking the surface boundaries of the claim. 

STAKING. 

Sec. 6. Such surface boundaries shall be marked by six sub- 
stantial posts, hewed or marked on the side or sides which are 
in toward the claim, and sunk in the ground, to wit: One at 
each corner and one at the centre of each side line. Where it 
is practically impossible on account of bed-rock or precipitous 
ground to sink such posts, they m.ay be placed in a pile of stones. 

OPEN CUTS, ETC 

Sec. 7. Any open cut, cross cut or tunnel which shall cut a 
lode at the depth of ten feet below the surface, shall hold such 
lode the same as if a discovery shaft were sunk thereon, or an 
adit of at least ten feet along the lode, from the point where the 
lode may be in any manner discovered,' shall be equivalent to a 
discovery shaft. 

TIME. 

Sec. 8. The discoverer shall have sixty days from the time of 
uncovering or disclosing a lode to sink a discovery shaft thereon. 

CONSTRUCTION OF CERTIFICATE 

Sec. 9. The location or location certificate of any lode claim 
shall be construed to include all surface crround within the sur- 
face lines thereof and all lodes and ledofes throuorhout their 
entire depth, the top or apex of which lies inside of such lines 
extended downward, vertically, with such parts of all lodes or 
ledges as continue to dip beyond the side lines of the claim, but 
shall not include any portion of such lodes or ledges beyond the 
end lines of the claim, or at the end lines continued, whether by 
dip or otherwise, or beyond the side lines in any other manner 
than by the dip of the lode. 



RE-LOCATION OF CLAIMS. o,c 

CANNOT HF. FOLLOWED. 

Sec. io. If the top or apex of a lode in its longitudinal course 
extends beyond the exterior lines of the claim at any point on 
the surface, or as extended vertically do\^mward, such lode may 
not be followed in its longitudinal course beyond the point where 
it is intersected by the exterior lines. 

RIGHT OK WAV AND RIGHT OF SURFACE. 

Sec. II. All mining claims now located, or which may here- 
after be located, shall be subject to the right of way of any ditch 
or flume for mining purposes, or any tramway or pack-trail, 
whether now in use or which may be hereafter laid out across 
any such location : Provided always, That such right of way shall 
not be exercised against any location duly made and recorded 
and not abandoned prior to the establishment of the ditch or 
flume, tramway, or pack-trail, without consent of the owner, 
except by condemnation, as in case of land taken for public 
highways. Parol consent to the location of any such easement, 
accompanied by the completion of the same over the claim, shall 
be sufficient without writings. And pi'ovided further. That such 
ditch or flume shall be so constructed that the water from such 
ditch or flume shall not injure vested rights by flooding or 
otherwise. 

Sec. 12. When the right to mine is in any case separate from 
the ownership or right of occupancy to the surface, the owner or 
rightful occupant of the surface may demand satisfactory security 
from the miner, and if it be refused, may enjoin such miner from 
working until such security is given. The order for injunction 
shall fix the amount of the bond. 

RE-LOCATI(3N OF CLAIMS 

Sec. 13. If at any time the locator of any mining claim here- 
tofore or hereafter located, or his assigns, shall apprehend that 
his original certificate was defective, erroneous, or that the re- 
quirements of the law had not been Complied with before filing; 
or shall be desirous of chaneinof his surface boundaries; or of 
taking in any part of an overlapping claim which has been aban- 
doned ; or in case the original certificate was made prior to the 



2^5 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

passage of this law, and he shall be desirous of securing the bene- 
fits of this act, such locator or his assigns may file an addi- 
tional certificate, subject to the provisions of this act: Proindcd, 
That such relocation does not interfere with the existing riehts 
of others, at the time of such relocation ; and no such relocation, 
or t!:e record thereof, shall preclude the claimant or claimants 
from proving any such title or titles as he or they may have 
held under previous location. 

PROOF OF DEVELOPMENT. 

Sec. 14. The amount of work done, or improvements made 
during each year, shall be that prescribed by the laws of the 
United States. 

FORM OF AFFIDAVIT. 

Sec. 15. Within six months after any set time, or annual 
period herein allowed for the performance of labor or making 
improvements upon any lode claim, the person on whose behalf 
such outlay was made, or some person for him, shall make and 
"^co- 1 an affidavit in substance as follows : 

State of Colorado, ) 

- ss 
County of j 

Before me, the subscriber, personally appeared who, being 

duly sworn, saith that at least dollars' worth of work or im- 
provements were performed or made upon [here describe the claim or part of 

claim] situate in .mining district, county of State 

of Colorado. Such expenditure was made by or at the expense of. 

owners of said claim, for the purpose of said claim. 

[Jurat.] (Signature.) 

And such signature shall be prima facie evidence of the per- 
formance of such labor. 

WORKING OVER OLD CLAIMS. 

Sec. 16. The relocation of abandoned lode claims shall be by 
sinking a new discovery shaft and fixing new boundaries in the 
same manner as if it were the location of a new claim ; or the 
relocator may sink the original discovery shaft ten feet deeper 
than it was at the tim.e of abandonment, and erect new or adopt 
the old boundaries, renewing the posts if removed or destroyed. 
In either case a new location-stake shall be erected. In any 



RECORD FOR CLAIM. 32/ 

case, whether the whole or part of an abandoned claim is taken, 
the location certificate may state that the whole or any part of 
the new location is located as abandoned property. 

RECORD FOR CLAIM. 

Sec. 17. No location certificate shall claim more than one 
location, whether the location be made by one or several locators. 
And if it purport to claim more than one location, it shall be 
absolutely void, except as to the first location therein described. 
And if they are described together, so that it cannot be told 
which location is first described, the certificate shall be void as 
to all. 

Sec. 18. All acts or parts of acts in conflict with this act are 
hereby repealed. 

Sec. 19. This act shall be in force from and after June 15, 
1874. 

Approved February 13, 1874. 

SUPPLEMENTARY ACT. ^ '^ 

Be it enacted by the Council and House of Representatives of Colorado: 
JURISDICTION' OF AUTHORITIES. 

Sec. I. In all actions pending in any district court of this 
Territory, wherein the title or right of possession to any mining 
claim shall be in dispute, the said court, or the judge thereof, 
may, upon application of any of the parties to such suit, enter 
an order for the underground as well as the surface survey of 
such part of the property in dispute as may be necessary to a 
just determination of the question involved. Such order shall 
designate some competent surveyor, not related to any of the 
parties to such suit, or in anywise interested in the result of the 
same ; and upon the application of the party adverse to such 
application, the court may also appoint some competent surveyor, 
to be selected by such adverse applicant, whose duty it shall be 
to attend upon such survey, and observe the method of making 
the same; said second survey to be at the cost of the party 
asking therefor. It shall also be lawful in such order to specify 
the names of witnesses named by either party, not exceeding 
three on each side, to examine such property, who shall here- 



338 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



upon be allowed to enter Into such property and examine the 
same ; said court, or the judge thereof, may also cause the re- 
moval of any rock, debris, or other obstacle in any of the drifts 
or shafts of said property, when such removal Is shown to be 
necessary to a just determination of the questions involved : 
Provided, howeve?^, That no such order shall be made for survey 
and Inspection, except in open court or In chambers, upon 
notice of application for such order of at least six days, and not 
then except by agreement of parties or upon the affidavit of two 
or more persons that such survey and inspection Is necessary to 
the just determination of the suit, which affidavits shall state the 
facts In such case, and wherein the necessity for survey exists ; 
nor shall such order be made unless it appears that the party 
asking therefor has been refused the privilege of survey and in- 
spection by the adverse party. 

WRITS RESTORING POSSESSION. 

Sec. 2. The said district courts of this State, or any judge 
thereof, sitting In chancery, shall have, in addition to the power 
already possessed, power to issue writs of Injunction for affirma- 
tive relief, having the force and effect of a writ of restitution, 
restoring any person or persons to the possession of any mining 
property from which he or they may have been ousted, by force 
and violence, or by fraud, or from which they are kept out of 
possession by threats, or whenever such possession was taken 
from him or them by entry of the adverse party on Sunday or a 
legal holiday, or while the party In possession was temporarily 
absent therefrom. The granting of such writ to extend only to 
the right of possession under the facts of the case in respect to 
the manner in which the possession was obtained, leaving the 
parties to their legal rights on all other questions as though no 
such writ had Issued. 

PENALTIES FOLLOWING UNLAWFUL ENTRY. 

Sec. 3. In all cases where two or more persons shall associate 
themselves together for the purpose of obtaining the possession 
of any lode, gulch or placer claim, then In the actual possession 
of another, by force and violence, or threats of violence, or by 



FORCE OF VIOLENCE. - ,o 

stealth, and shall proceed to carry out such purpose by making 
threats against the party or parties in possession, or who shall 
enter upon such lode or mining claim for the purpose aforesaid, 
or who shall enter upon or into any lode, gulch, placer claim, 
quartz-mill or other mining property, or not being upon such 
property, but within hearing of the same, shall make any threats, 
or make use of any language, signs or gestures, calculated to 
intimidate any person or persons at work on said property from 
continuing to work thereon or therein, or to intimidate others 
from engaging to work thereon or therein, every such person so 
offending shall, on conviction thereof, be fined in a sum not to 
exceed $250, and be imprisoned in the county jail not less than 
thirty days nor more than six months ; such fine to be discharged 
either by payment or by confinement in said jail until such fine 
is discharged at the rate of $2.50 per day. On trials under this 
section, proof of a common purpose of two or more persons to 
obtain possession of property, as aforesaid, or to intimidate 
laborers as above set forth, accompanied or followed by any of 
the acts above specified by any of them, shall be sufficient evi- 
dence to convict any one committing such acts, although the par- 
ties may not be associated together at the time of committing 
the same. 

FORCE OR VIOLENCE. 

Sec. 4. If any person or persons shall associate and agree to 
enter or attempt to enter by force of numbers, and the terror 
such numbers are calculated to inspire, or by force and violence, 
or by threats of violence against any person or persons in the 
actual possession of any lode, gulch or placer claim, and upon 
such entry or attempted entry, any person or persons shall be 
killed, said persons, and all and each of them so entering or 
attempting to enter, shall be deemed guilty of murder in the first 
degree, and punished accordingly. Upon the trial of such cases, 
any person or parties cognizant of such entry, or attempted entry, 
who shall be present, aiding, assisting, or in anywise encouraging 
such entry, or attempted entry, shall be deemed a principal in 
the commission of said offence. 



240 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Sec. 5. This act shall take effect and be in force from and 
after its passage. 

Approved February 13, 1874. 

THE ACT OF 1877. 

An Act to provide for the Drainage of Mines, and to regulate the Liabilities of Miners, Mine- 
Owners and Mill-Men in certain cases, and to repeal all Territorial acts on the subject. 

Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Colorado : 

DRAINAGE. 

1830. — Sec. I. Whenever contiguous or adjacent mines upon 
the same or upon separate lodes have a common ingress of 
water, or from subterraneous communication of the water have 
a common drainage, it shall be the duty of the owners, lessees 
or occupants of each mine so related to provide for their pro- 
portionate share of the drainage thereof. 

PENALTY FOR NON-COMPLIANCE. 

1 83 1. — Sec. 2. Any parties so related failing to provide as 
aforesaid for the drainage of the mines owned or occupied b^jT 
them, thereby imposing an unjust burden upon neighboring 
mines, whether owned or occupied by them, shall pay respec- 
tively to those performing the work of drainage their proportion 
of the actual and necessary cost and expense of doing such 
drainage, to be recovered by an action in any court of competent 
jurisdiction. 

COMMON INTERESTS. 

1832. — Sec. 3. It shall be lawful for all mining corporations 
or companies, and all individuals engaged in mining, who have 
thus a common interest in draining such mines, to unite for the 
purpose of effecting the same, under such common name and 
upon such terms and conditions as may be agreed upon ; and 
every such association having filed a certificate of incorporation, 
as provided by law, shall be deemed a corporation, with all the 
rights, incidents and liabilities of a body corporate, so far as the 
same may be applicable, 

SUBJECT TO ACTION. 

1833. — Sec. 4. Failing to mutually agree, as indicated in the 
preceding section for drainage jointly, one or more of the said 



ACTION TO RECOVER— WATER RIGHTS. 34 j 

parties may undertake the work of drainage, after giving reasonr 
able notice ; and should the remaining parties then fail, neglect 
or refuse to unite in equitable arrangements for doing the work, 
or sharing the expense thereof, they shall be subject to an action 
therefor as already specified, to be enforced in any court of com- 
petent jurisdiction. 

ACTION TO RECOVER. 

1834. — Sec. 5. When an action is commenced to recover the 
cost and expenses for draining a lode or mine, it shall be lawful 
for the plaintiff to apply to the court, if in session, or to the 
judge thereof in vacation, for an order to inspect and examine 
the lodes or mines claimed to have been drained by the plaintiff; 
or some one for him shall make affidavit that such inspection or 
examination is necessary for the proper preparation of the case 
for trial ; and the court or judge shall grant an order for the 
underground inspection and examination of the lode or mines 
described in the petition. Such order shall designate the 
number of persons, not exceeding three, besides the plaintiff or 
Ihis representative, to examine and inspect such lode and mines, 
srnd take the measurement thereof, relating to the amount of 
v^ater drained from the lode or mine, or the number of fathoms 
of ground mined and worked out of the lode or mines claimed 
to have been drained, the cost of such examination and inspection 
to be borne by the party applying therefor. The court or judge 
shall have power to cause the removal of any rock, debris, or 
other obstacles in any lode or vein, when such removal is shown 
to be necessary to a just determination of the question involved: 
Provided, That no such order for inspection and examination 
shall be made, except in open court or at chambers, upon notice 
of application for such order of at least three days, and not then 
except by agreement of parties, nor unless it appears that the^ 
plaintiff has been refused the privilege of making the inspection 
and examination by the defendant or defendants, or his or their 
agent. 

WATER RIGHTS. 

1835. — Sec. 6. That hereafter, when any person or persons, 
or corporation, shall be engaged in mining or milling, and in the 



^42 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

prosecution of such business shall hoist or raise water from 
mines or natural channels, and the same shall flow away from 
the premises of such persons or corporations, to any natural 
channel or gulch, the same shall be considered beyond the 
control of the party so hoisting or raising the same, and may be 
taken and used by other parties the same as that of natural 
water-courses. 

1836. — Sec. 7. After any such water shall have been so raised, 
and the same shall have flown into any such natural channel, 
gulch or draw, the party so hoisting or raising the same shall 
only be liable for injury caused thereby, in the same manner as 
riparian owners along natural water-courses. 

EXPLANATORY. 

1837. — Sec. 8. The provisions of this act shall not be construed 
to apply to incipient or undeveloped mines, but to those only 
which shall have been opened, and shall clearly derive a benefit 
from being drained. 

EVIDENCE. 

1838. — Sec. 9. In trial of cases arising under this act the 
court shall admit evidence of the normal stand or position of 
the water while at rest in an idle mine, also the observed 
prevalence of a common water-level or a standing water-line in 
the same or separate lodes ; also the effect, if any, the elevating 
or depressing the water by natural or mechanical means in any 
given lode has upon elevating or depressing the water in the 
same, contiguous or separate lodes or mines ; also the effect which 
draining or ceasing to drain any given lode or mine had upon 
the water in the same, or contiguous or separate lodes or mines, 
and all other evidence which tends to prove the common ingress 
or subterraneous communication of water into the same lode or 
mine, or contiguous or separate lodes or mines. 

Approved March 16, 1877. 

TAXES 

Section 3, Article 10, of the Constitution of the State of 
Colorado, reads as follows : 

"All taxes shall be uniform upon the same class of subjects 



MINING LAWS OF NEW MEXICO. 343 

within the territorial limits of the authority levying the tax, and 
shall be levied and collected under general laws, which shall 
prescribe such regulations as shall secure a just valuation for 
taxation of all property, real and personal : Provided, That mines 
and mining claims bearing gold, silver, and other precious metals, 
(except the net proceeds and surface improvements thereof,) 
shall be exempt from taxation for the period of ten years from 
the date of the adoption of this constitution, and thereafter may 
be taxed as provided by law. Ditches, canals, and flumes owned 
and used by individuals or corporations for irrigating lands 
owned by such individuals or corporations, or the individual 
members thereof, shall not be separately taxed, so long as they 
shall be owned and used exclusively for such purpose." 

MINING LAWS OF NEW MEXICO. 
An Act to Regulate the Manner of Locating Mining Claims, and for Other Purposes. 

CONTENTS. 

Sec. I. Location — bounds to be marked; notice of name of 
locator ; make record in three months. 

Sec. 2. Record books must be provided. 

Sec. 3. Value of labor on mining claims defined. 

Sec. 4. Locations heretofore made, there being no adverse 
claims, may file claim within six months. 

Sec. 5. Ejectment in mining claims and real estate. 

Sec. 6. Repeals former acts. 

Be it enacted by the Legislative Assembly of the Territory of New Mexico : 

Sec. I. That any person or persons desiring to locate a 
miningclaim upon a vein or lode of quartz or other rock in place — 
bearing gold, silver, cinnabar, lead, tin, copper or other valuable 
deposit, must distinctly mark the location on the ground so that 
its boundaries may be readily traced; and post in some con- 
spicuous place on such location, a notice in writing, stating 
thereon the name or names of the locator or locators, his or 
their intention to locate the mining claim, giving a description 
thereof by reference to such natural object or permanent monu- 



,^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

ment as will identify the claim ; and also within three months 
after posting such notice, cause to be recorded a copy thereof in 
the office of the recorder of the county in which the notice is 
posted ; and it is provided that no other record of such notice 
shall be necessary. 

Sec. 2. In order to carry out the intent of the preceding 
section, it is hereby made the duty of the probate judges of 
the several counties of this Territory, and they are hereby 
required to provide, at the expense of their respective counties, 
such book or books as maybe necessary and suitable in which to 
enter the record hereinbefore provided for. The fees for record- 
ino- such notices shall be ten cents for every one hundred words. 

Sec. 3. That in estimating the worth of labor required to be 
performed upon any mining claim, to hold the same by the laws 
of the United States, in the regulation of mines, the value of a 
day's labor is hereby fixed at the sum of four dollars : Pj'ovided, 
hoiuever, That in the sense of this statute, eight hours of labor 
actually performed upon the mining claim shall constitute a day's 
labor. 

Sec. 4. All locations heretofore made in good faith, to which 
there* shall be no adverse claims, the certificate of which locations 
have been or may be filed for record and recorded in the 
recorder's office of the county where the location is made, within 
six months after the passage of this act, are hereby confirmed 
and made valid. But where there may appear to be any such 
adverse claim, the said location shall be held to be the property 
of the person having the superior title or claim, according to the 
laws in force at the time of the making of the said locations. 

Sec. 5. An action of ejectment will lie for the recovery of the 
possession of a mining claim, as well as of any real estate, 
where the party suing has been wrongfully ousted from the 
possession thereof, and the possession wrongfully detained. 

Sec. 6. That " an act concerning mining claims," approved 
January i8th, 1865, and an act amendatory thereof, approved 
January 3d, 1866; also, an act entitled an act to amend certain 
acts concerning mining claims in the Territory of New Mexico, 
approved January ist, 1872; be and the same are hereby 



STATE AND TERRITORIAL LANDS. 245 

repealed : Provided, That no locations completed or commenced 
under said acts shall be invalidated, or in anywise affected, by 
such repeal. 

Sec. 7. That this act shall take effect and be in full force from 
and after its passage. 

Approved January ii, 1876. 



CHAPTER V. 



State and Territorial Lands — Agricultural College, University, and 
School Lands — The Quantity, Prices, and Terms of Purchase — Other 
State Lands — Lands Granted to Benevolent Institutions — Desert and 
Swamp Lands — The Texas Land System — Railroad Lands. 

Emigrants to Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, 
Nevada, or California, may find that some of the lands held by 
ihe State are more eligibly situated, or for one reason or another 
more desirable, than the government lands, while the prices are 
so moderate as not to be beyond their reach. What are these 
State lands ? They are : 

1. The public school lands, which, in all the newer States and 
Territories, are two sections, the sixteenth and thirty-sixth, 
1,280 acres in each township, which has been surveyed in 
these States and Territories. These are often very valuable 
lands. They are usually sold for from ^4 to ^6 per acre, payable 
with interest at seven, eight, or ten per cent., in ten annual instal- 
ments. By selecting those which have a stream flowing through 
them, or a spring, the purchaser may often become the owner of 
a very valuable property. The quantity of these lands is from 
2,500,000 to 5,000,000 acres. 

2. University and Agricjdtural College Lands or Scrip for 
thein. — Congress has granted a quantity of lands, usually about 
46,000 acres, or the privilege of locating that quantity of land on 
any government lands, usually in the State or Territory, to each 
new State and Territory, for the founding and maintenance of a 
State or Territorial University. These lands are located by 



346 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

State or Territorial officers, and do not always rate quite as high 
as the school lands, though they may be as valuable. They are 
sold at present, in most of the States and Territories, at from ^3 
to ^6 per acre. The Agricultural College lands or scrip are 
granted only to the States, under the law of 1862. The grant is 
of 30,000 acres for each Senator and Representative in Congress 
when the grant is made ; the scrip issued for it having the privi- 
lege of location in any State or Territory where there are govern- 
ment lands unsold. This land scrip of the various States is often 
in the market, and is purchasable at various rates, from ^2 to ^5 
per acre. There are also grants from Congress of lands for 
the building of State prisons, for insane hospitals, institutions for 
deaf mutes, blind and idiotic children, etc. Some of the States 
have also received from Congress grants of swamp and over- 
flowed lands, and of desert lands, which had been long in the 
market without selling. Some of these lands are of excellent 
quality, and with slight expense for drainage or irrigation will 
be very productive. 

There are also bounty land warrants capable of location on 
any government lands, the scrip for which was granted to soldiers 
of the war of 181 2, the Florida war, Mexican war, or the late 
civil war. These, which usually realized to the original owners 
but about fifty or sixty cents per acre, are now held at from ^3 to 
^4.50 per acre, but, for some purposes, are well worth the money. 

In California, New Mexico, and Arizona there are lands yet 
held under Mexican titles, sometimes of great extent, but these 
are, for the most part, pasturage lands. There is always a liability 
to a conflict of titles in relation to these, and therefore they are 
less desirable than government lands in which the title is absolute 
and without a flaw on which to base a liti^ration. 

When the Republic of Texas was annexed to the United States 
and became the State of Texas, her public lands were not given 
up to the United States Government, as all the other public lands 
had been, but were retained by the State for the purposes of edu- 
cation, internal improvements, etc. From the proceeds of these 
lands the State has built several railroads, has laid the foundation 
for a very large school fund, and endowed a university, asylums, 



TEXAS LANDS— HOW SOLD. 



347 



etc. The school fund now amounts to ^3,500,000, and when the 
school lands are all sold will probably approach ^i8,ooo,(X)0. 
The Land Commissioner of the State oives the followine account 
of the three methods by which the public lands are furnished to 
settlers at prices below those of most of the other States and 
Territories. It should be understood, however, that not all of 
these lands are of the best quality : 

" Persons desirinof to secure homes in Texas can do so either 
(i) by settlement under the homestead donation law, (2) by 
locating a certificate, or (3) by purchase from the State of 
common school, university or asylum lands. 

" Under the first mode, every head of a family who has no other 
homestead can acquire title to 160 acres, and each single person 
of eighteen years of age can secure eighty acres, by settling on 
the same and occupying and improving it for three consecutive 
years. Application must be made to the surveyor of the county 
in which the party desires to settle. The fees for surveying and 
retCirning field notes to the general land office are from ^10 to 
^15. After three years' occupancy, proof of which fact must be 
made, patent will issue to the settler or his vendor. Patent 
fee, $5. 

" Under the second mode, land certificates or warrants can be 
located upon any vacant and unappropriated public land. These 
certificates are of two characters, viz. : ' Straights ' and * alter- 
nates.' The * straights ' are those issued to early settlers as 
headrights or for service in the Texas revolution, and to some 
railroad and ditch companies, and are located without any reser- 
vation for public schools. These certificates are worth from 
fifteen cents to thirty-five cents per acre, according to quantity 
— the largest bringing the lowest figure. 'Alternates' are 
issued to railroads and other works of internal improvements, 
and require the survey of double the amount of land called for 
by the certificate. This is divided in two equal parts, one-half of 
which patents to the owner, and the remainder is reserved for 
common schools. These certificates can be bought for about ten 
cents per acre. 

" The State does not sell any certificates, and they can only be 



2^8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

bought from the persons or corporations to whom they were 
issued. Under either of the above modes first-class land must 
not be expected in the older and settled counties, but must be 
sought in the west and northwest. 

" By the third mode, viz., purchase, choice homes may be 
secured. Within the settled and organized counties of the State 
there are about 12,800,000 acres of common school lands, 219,- 
000 acres of university, and 407,615 acres of asylum lands. 
These are all for sale on ten years' time; the university and 
asylum lands to actual setders in tracts of 80 to 1 60 acres, at a 
minimum price of $1.50 per acre; the common school lands in 
tracts of 160 acres to three sections, or 1,920 acres, at a mini- 
mum of ^i per acre. These lands are among the finest in the 
State, and are to be found in almost every organized county. 
Application for purchase must be made to the county surveyor, 
in whose office will be found a map and general description of 
the lands of his county." 

We come next to railroad lands. The great enterprises which 
were proposed for opening highways from the Mississippi to the 
Pacific coast, and for encouraging the settlement of lands far 
])eyond the frontiers, were too vast to be undertaken by private 
corporations without government aid in some shape. When, in 
the midst of our civil war, it became desirable to initiate a system 
of railways, which should connect the Mississippi valley with the 
Pacific coast, it was found necessary not only to grant lands 
along the line, alternate sections, to a width of ten miles on 
each side of the track or road-bed, but, as these lands could not 
be made readily available, the government loaned its credit, 
issuing bonds to the amount of ^^54,700,000, and taking bonds 
of the roads in return. On these bonds the United States gov- 
ernment has paid interest beyond what has been repaid, to the 
amount of more than ^26,000,000. Similar aid was subsequently 
granted in the way of bonds, though in smaller amounts, to the 
Kansas Pacific, the Western Pacific, and the Sioux City and Pacific 
Railroads to the amount of nearly ^10,000,000 more, and Interest 
to the amount of ^4,500,000 has been paid on these bonds by 
the government, so that these roads have been furnished with 



RAILROAD LAND- GRANTS. o^g 

bonds and interest by the United States to the amount of over 
^96,000,000, besides the land-grants, which amounted on the 
Union and Central Pacific and their branches to about 9,018,000 
acres. 

But the grants of land for aid in railroad construction were, 
by no means, confined to these roads which received bonds ; 
other roads projected because of the success of the first trans- 
continental railway, made their plans and surveys with termini on 
the Pacific coast, and demanded both land and bonds, and received 
the former, but not the latter. The Northern Pacific was the 
largest and boldest of these enterprises, and as deserving as any 
one of them. It proposed to extend its line from Duluth, on 
Lake Superior, to the mouth of the Columbia river, with several 
branches, its general course being between the 45th and 47th 
parallels. It has a land-grant of about 6,000,000 acres, in 
alternate sections, on both sides of its road-bed, and is now 
operating more than 800 miles of its road. 

In general, it may be said, that all the railroads in Minnesota, 
Dakota, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Arkansas, Colorado, 
New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California, Oregon, Wash- 
ington, and Idaho are land-grant railroads, either as branches of 
the great trunk roads, or by direct grant under their own cor- 
porate titles. , After the Union and Central Pacific and the 
Northern Pacific, the most important of these are the Chicago 
and Northwestern and its branches and leased roads, the 
Wabash and its connections, the Burlington and Missouri 
River, the Kansas Pacific, the Denver Pacific, the Atchison, 
TopeTca and Santa Fe, with its branches and extensions, the 
Denver and Rio Grande, the Missouri, Kansas and Texas, the 
St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern, the Memphis and Little 
Rock, and the Little Rock and Fort Smith, the Texas Pacific, the 
Southern Pacific, the Western Pacific, the Atlantic and Pacific, the 
St. Louis and San Francisco, the Oregon Central, and the Oregon 
and California, the Utah Central, Utah Southern, and the Utah 
and Northern. The Texas railroads are also land-grant railroads, 
but obtain their lands within that State from the State itself, and 
not from the National Government. These roads have, in all. 



oco <^UR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

not far from 35,000,000 acres already patented to them, and nearly 
as much more yet to come when surveyed and when their lines 
are completed. 

Each road has its schedule of prices, its plan of payment by 
instalments, and its rate of interest for its lands. The prices 
for the lands on the line of the same road vary according to their 
location, their distance from markets, the character of the land, 
and the length of the credit given. 

It is perhaps sufficient to say in regard to the States and Terri- 
tories east of the Rocky Mountains, except in Texas, that the 
railroads sell their lands at prices ranging from %2 or $2.50 to 
^10 or ^12 per acre, according to the location, distance from 
markets and from neighbors, quality of soil, necessity of irriga- 
tion, and general productiveness. They usually have schedules 
of terms, according to the length of credit given on the lands; 
thus, at eleven years' credit, a first payment of from ten to twenty- 
five per cent., with interest in advance on the remainder, and 
interest annually in advance ; the second payment on the princi- 
pal being on the third or fourth year, and subsequently annual 
payments of principal and interest until the whole is paid up. 
Generally, in these long credits, the price per acre is about ten 
per cent, more than on shorter credits. A contract to give a 
deed is issued about the third year, but no warranty deed is 
given till the last payment has been made. They have also 
schedules for six years, for three years, or some of them for two^ 
and for cash ; in these, the price is ten per cent, lower than in the 
first, the interest is not paid till it has accrued, and there are other 
small discounts. Where cash is paid in full at the time of pur- 
chase, a discount of twenty-five per cent, is made by some roads 
and thirty-three and one-third per cent, by others. Timber lands 
are held at a higher price than prairie lands, varying, however, 
in different States and Territ<Dries. A purchaser can buy on 
these terms 640 acres in one piece or less, as he pleases. He 
may buy more than this quantity if he chooses, but the govern- 
ment or even sections (the railroad lands are all odd sections) 
surround this on all sides, so that his lands will be a mile apart, 
unless he can buy the government section between, which he 



HOIV RAILROAD LANDS ARE SOLD. ,0 

may do If It Is not taken up by pre-emption, or purchase, or 
bounty land-warrants, or altogether. The government does not 
sell or pre-empt Its lands (except desert lands) in greater quan- 
tities than 1 60 acres, but it will take bounty land-warrants or 
agricultural college scrip for them at the rate of $1.25 per acre, 
its price being for these lands within railroad limits $2.50 per 
acre, so that a warrant for 160 acres will buy but 80 acres of 
these lands. 

Most of the roads, In their circular to immigrants, present a 
schedule like the following, which, though taken from the Atchi- 
son, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, substantially represents them 
all, except in its discount for a full cash payment, which Is thirty- 
three and one-third, while most of the others are but twenty- 
five per cent. 

TERMS OF SALE. 

ELEVEN years' CREDIT. 

Terms No. i — Is on eleven yea.rs' credit, with seven per cent, 
interest. The first payment at date of purchase is one-tenth of 
the principal and seven per cent, interest oh the remainder. At 
the end of the first and second year, only the interest at seven 
per cent. Is paid ; the third year and each year thereafter, one- 
tenth of the principal is paid with seven per cent, annual interest 
on tlie balance until the whole is paid. 



160 acres, at 
follows : 



EXAMPLE. 

an acre, bought April i, 1879, the payments would be as 



Date of Payments. 



Apr 
Apr 

Apr 
Apr 
Apr 
Apr 
Apr 
Apr 
Apr 
Apr 
Apr 
Apr 

Total 



1879, (date of purchase) 



1880 

18S1 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1 885 

1886 

18S7 

1 888 

1889 

1890 

of payments at end of 1 1 years 



Principal. 



80 00 
80 GO 

80 CO 

80 GO 

80 GO 

80 GO 

80 GO 

80 00 

80 00 



5GO 00 



^50 40 
50 40 
50 40 

44 80 
39 20 
ZZ 60 

28 GG 

2 2 4G 

16 80 

I I 20 

5 60 
$352 80 



5130 40 

50 40 

50 40 

124 80 

119 20 

113 60 

ig8 00 

102 40 

96 80 

91 20 

85 60 

80 00 



;i,i52 80 



352 



OUR IVESTEKX EMPIRE. 



SIX YEARS CREDIT. 
20 per cent, discount. 

Terms No. 2 — Is on six years' credit, with seven per cent, 
interest. The first payment at date of purchase is one-sixth of 
the principal and seven per cent, interest on the remainder. 
The second payment at the end of the first year is only interest. 
Afterwards one-sixth of the principal is paid and seven per cent, 
annual interest on the remainder until the whole is paid. We 
make a discount from the appraised price of twenty per cent, 
and the payments will come as per 

EXAMPLE. 

160 acres, at ^5 an acre, bought April i, 1879, would amount to ^800. 
Twenty per cent, off would reduce it to ^640, and the payments would be as 
follows : 



Date of Payments. 



April I, 1879, (date of purchase) 

April I, 1880 

April I, 1881 

April I, 1882 

April I, 18S3 

April I, 1884 

April I, 1885 

Total of payments at end of 6 years 



Principal. 



^106 67 

106 67 
106 67 
106 67 

106 66 
106 66 



%31 33 
37 33 
29 86 
22 39 

14 93 
7 46 



$149 30 



Total. 



^144 00 

37 33 
136 53 
129 06 
121 60 
114 12 
106 66 



$789 30 



TWO YEARS CREDIT. 
30 per cent, discount. 

Terms No. 3 — Three payments. In consideration of the pur- 
chaser's paying one-third of the principal at time of purchase, 
with ten per cent, interest on the remainder, and the balance in 
two annual payments, we make a discount from the appraised 
price of THIRTY per cent., and the paym'ents will come as per 

EXAMPLE. 

160 acres, at $5 an acre, bought April i, 1879, would amount to ;g8oo. 
Thirty per cent, off would reduce it to $560, and the payments would be as 
follows :• 



Date of Payments. 

April I, 1879 

April I, 1880 

April I, 1881 

Total of payments at end of 2 years 



Principal. 


Interest. 


$186 67 

r86 67 
r86 66 


$31 33 
18 67 


$560 GO 


$56 00 



Total. 



$224 GO 
205 34 

186 66 
)6i6 GO 



ATCHISON, TOPEKA AND SANTA FE RAILWAY LANDS. 



35; 



CASH PURCHASE. 

Z'SYi P'^'' cent, discount. 



Terms No. 4. — This is a sale where the whole amount of pur- 
chase money is paid down and deed given. For cash, we make 
a discount of thirty-three and one-third per cent, from the 
appraised price. 



EXAMPLE. 



April I, 1879, 160 acres, at ^5 per acre 
Cash discount of t^t^Yi per cent, off . 



500 00 
j66 67 



Total amount of payment $533 Zi 

or less than half the amount at eleven years' credit. 

If payments are all made in advance of maturity and dee<:( 
taken, purchasers on long credit will be allowed a liberal dis- 
count. 
FRKE AND LOCATION OF THE COMPANY'S LANDS IN KANSAS. 



Counties. 



Wabaunsee 
Morris . 
Chase 
Marion . 
Butler 
Harvey . 
Sedgwick 
McPherson 
Reno . 
Rice . 
Barton . 
Rush . . 
Pawnee . 
Edwards . 
Ford . 
Pratt . . 
Hodgeman 



11,688.94 
27,069.13 
123,650.50 
90,422.87 
38,746.02 

44,961.54 
42,566.41 

29,837-59 

202,038.77 

86,467.10 

196,013.43 

57,403.67 

127,858.52 

91,716.63 

95,721.10 

12,012.04 

74,099.55 



Price, per acre. 



50 to 
50 to 
50 to 
00 to 
00 to 
00 to 
00 to 
00 to 
00 to 
00 to 
00 to 
00 to 
00 to 
00 to 
00 to 
00 to 
00 to 



5 50 

6 50 
9 00 
9 00 
9 00 

10 GO 

10 00 

7 50^ 

8 00 i 
8 00 
7 00 

6 00 

7 00 
6 00 

8 00 
4 00 
8 00 



The Northern Pacific Railroad makes its prices, especially in 
Dakota and Montana, including the fertile valley of the Red 
river of the North, and the excellent lands of Northern Mon- 
tana, somewhat lower, ranging from ^2.50 to ^8.50 on credits 
of six years, or will take its own preferred stock at par in pay- 
ment, a privilege which three or five years ago was equivalent 
23 



-C4 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

to seventy-five per cent, discount, but this stock has now ap- 
preciated, though still quoted at fifty-four to fifty-six. The immi- 
o-rant on this, and we believe on all the Minnesota and Dakota 
railroads, receives also material reductions of fare for himself and 
family, and specially low rates of freight for the transportation 
of his household goods, live-stock, and farming implements, and 
this, whether he buys the company's lands or government land. 
The freights of grain and other produce on this road going east- 
ward are also very low. The rates of interest on Minnesota 
and Northern Pacific Railroad lands are seven per cent. ; on the 
Iowa Railroad lands they are only six per cent., but on the long 
credits the price of the lands are advanced ten per cent. 

In Texas the prices of railroad lands are considerably cheaper, 
rano'ing from ^2 to ^5 per acre on long time, and seldom exceed- 
ing ^2 when they are paid for in two or three years. In the 
northwest counties, where there is so much drought that the 
lands are only suitable for grazing, they can be bought at lower 
prices than these, especially if taken in large quantities. 

West of the Rocky Mountains, on the Union Pacific, Central, 
Western, and Southern Pacific and their branches and connec- 
tions, prices are higher, and terms (there being little or no com- 
petition) are more rigorously enforced. The following extract 
from the latest circular of these roads explains itself. Some of 
these lands are well worth the price asked for them ; others are 
nearly worthless ; but as the buyer is requested to select for him- 
self, and the company refuses to make selections or take any 
risk, there is no ground for complaint: 

No Sale Before Patent. — The general rule of the company is 
to sell no land before a patent has been issued to the company. 
This protects the purchaser against the danger of getting a bad 
title, and the company against the suspicion of taking advantage 
of the ignorant. 

Railroad Title. — The company holds under a patent direct 
from the Federal Government, and its tide is thus free from the 
dangers that beset all titles that have passed through a number 
of individuals. No suit will be instituted against the railroad 
title on account of minor heirs, undivided interests, defective 



CENTRAL, WESTERN AND SOUTHERN PACIFIC LANDS. 355 

acknowledgments, or those common flaws to be found in a long- 
succession of conveyances. 

Settlement Before Patent. — The company invites settlers to go 
on the lands before patents are issued or the road is completed ; 
and intends, in such cases, to sell to them in preference to any 
other applicants, and at prices based upon the value of the land 
without the improvements put upon it by the settlers. It makes 
no definite contract with any individual upon this basis, but it 
treats all fairly. It will not sell to somebody else, merely be- 
cause the latter offers a higher price. It will not sell to any one 
land that may be required by it for railroad purposes, such as 
places for depots, stations, etc., or for town sites. Any person 
desiring to settle upon vacant railroad land, after survey and 
before it is patented, should address a letter to the Land Agent 
of the company, requesting a copy of a blank application for the 
purchase of land. The following is a copy of one of these appli- 
cations as filled in, the words and figures here enclosed in 
brackets occupying spaces which are blank in the printed form, 
and which the applicant should fill in to suit his own case : 

APPLICATION. SOUTHERN PACIFIC RAILROAD COMPANY. LAND DEPARTMENT. 

[Bakersfield, Nov. ist, 1S76.] 
The undersigned hereby applies to purchase the [northwest quarter] of sec- 
tion [6] of township [30 south] range [25 east] [Mount Diablo] base and 
meridian, in [Kern] County, California, containing [160] acres. 
Residence [2 miles south of Bakersfield]. 
Post-office address [Bakersfield, Kern County, California]. 

John Smith. 

The value of the application depends entirely upon the care 
and correctness with which the blanks are filled in. If the num- 
bers are wrong, or if the signature cannot be read, or if the post- 
office address is not given with entire clearness, the applicant 
must not blame anybody but himself if the application does not 
benefit him. Every letter in the signature should be so plain 
that there can be no mistake about it. A scratch may be 
intelligible to a personal friend, who, knowing from whom to 
expect a letter, and what to expect in it, may understand that 
which would be illegible to others. Five minutes of extra time 



356 OUR WESTERS' EMPIRE. 

is all that is necessary for getting the application right. The 
address given should be the permanent address, where the ap- 
plicant can be reached at any time ; and if, after giving it, he 
should move, he should then send his new address, mentioning 
in his letter the township and range of the land for which he has 
applied, so that the new address can be put with the application, 
which is filed according to the township and range in which it is 
situated. If he wants several pieces of land in the same town- 
ship, he should include all in one application ; if he wants land in 
different townships, then there should be a different application 
for each township. 

The Land Agent will send a receipt for the application, and if 
then the applicant will, without unreasonable delay, permanently 
occupy and cultivate the land, he can expect to have preference 
over all other applicants ; but his claim will not be entitled to 
any consideration if he does not show his good faith by occupa- 
tion and cultivation, or improvement. The company will give a 
preference to settlers over speculators. 

If the settler goes upon the land before survey, he should de- 
scribe it as nearly as possible, and so soon as the survey is made, 
send the description to the Land Agent. 

An application for land confers no vested right or privilege on 
the applicant. It is merely a notice that he wishes to buy. 

The filing of an application does not carry with it the right or 
permission to cut wood or timber from the lands of the company, 
except for fire-wood for the domestic uses of the actual occupants 
of the tract applied for, or for fencing and improving it. 

Applicants, or other persons, who shall be detected in cutting 
wood or timber on railroad lands, except for the purposes above 
specified, or in selling or carrying it away, will be prosecuted with 
the utmost severity of the law. 

Land Policy of Company. — The policy of the company has 
always been, and is now, to encourage the settlement of its lands 
in small tracts, by persons who will live on and cultivate them. 
To this end settlers are invited to make applications to buy and to 
occupy and put to use the vacant lands until such time as they 
shall be ready for sale. If the settler desires to buy, the company 



SOUTHERX PACIFIC RAILIVAY LANDS. 357 

gives him the first privilege of purchase at tlie fixed price, which, 
in every case, shall only be the value of the land, without regard to 
the improvements. It must be understood that the application of 
a speculator, or of a person who does not improve or occupy the 
land, will not, although received first, take precedence or priority 
of that of the settler whose application may, perhaps, be filed 
last of all. The actual settler, in good faith, will be preferred 
always, and the land will be sold to him as against every other 
applicant. The company also wishes it to be known that a mere 
application to buy land, unaccompanied by actual improvement or 
settlement, confers no right or privilege whi-ch should prevent an 
actual settler from taking it, it vacant, into possession, and culti- 
vating and improving it. 

When there are two or more applicants for the same tract of 
land, an adjudication of their respective claims will be made by 
the Land Agent, upon due notice given to the parties, and the 
right to buy, at the graded price, will be awarded to the applicant 
who shall be deemed to have the most equitable claim. Should 
the applicants, or either of them, pay no attention to the notice, 
or fail to be present in person, or by representative, at the time 
and place mentioned in it, they shall be considered to have aban- 
doned their applications, and all right or claim to purchase ; and 
the land will then, at the option of the railroad company, be open 
for purchase by any person to whom the company may choose 
to sell. 

Careful regard is paid to the requirements of the law in every 
particular, so as to protect the officers of the company against 
complaints for the past and distrust for the future. The cultiva- 
tion of confidence is necessary for the company. 

No deed will be made until the entire price shall have been 
paid. 

Payment ill Coin. — All sales are made for gold coin, which may 
be paid in person, or sent by express, or by a banker's check on 
a bank in San Francisco. The company does not deal in ex- 
change, or take any risk of loss in transmission. The collection 
of orders upon business men in San Francisco, or of checks upon 
city banks drawn by farmers or country merchants, is often 



^rg OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

attended with much delay and vexation, and therefore such 
orders or checks will not be received ; but a check drawn by any 
solvent country bank upon a San Francisco bank, with which it 
has funds, is good. No paper is made out until after payment. 
No contract is made to accept work of any kind as payment. If 
the purchaser is in the employment of the company, he should 
g-et his money and come with it to the Land Office. It is useless 
for him to bother with offers to grade, cut wood, or do something 
in compensation for land. The departments have separate ac- 
counts. 

The company does not give free transportation to persons 
who wish to examine or buy, or who have bought land. Nor 
after purchase does it carry their building material, furniture or 
cattle, free. In this as in other respects, the land and transporta- 
tion departments of the company manage their business on the 
cash basis and on separate accounts. 

Prices. — The lands are not uniform in price, but are offered at 
various figures from ^2.50 upwards per acre ; usually land 
covered with tall timber is held at ^5 per acre, and that with 
pine at ^10. Most is for sale at from $2.50 to ;^5. It is im- 
possible to give the prices by sections or minor subdivisions in 
this pamphlet. Special inquiry must be made as to each piece. 
The purchaser must pay for the acknowledgment of the three 
sip-natures to the deed — the law now allows one dollar for each 
signature — and he must pay for recording, usually about $2.50 
for each deed. 

Grading Lands. — When lands are ready to be sold, the com- 
pany sends a man well acquainted with the quality of soil and 
skilled in determining the kind of agricultural product to which 
it is best adapted, as also in determining its true market value, 
to look at the various sections and tracts. After personal ex- 
amination, he grades the land as being first, second or third 
quality of farming, vineyard, timber or grazing land, and reports 
the value of each piece. His report is examined, and, if found 
correct, a price is established. The price is generally that of 
unimproved land of the same quality in the immediate vicinity at 
the time of the grading. In ascertaining the value, any improve- 



SOUTHERN PACIFIC RAILWAY LANDS. 259 

ments that a settler or other person may have on the land will 
not be taken into consideration, neither will the price of the land 
be increased in consequence of them. Further, there is but one 
price — that fixed by the company — and land will be sold at that 
rate to those who in equity have the best right to buy, even if 
others should offer more per acre than the amount asked. Set- 
tlers are thus assured that, in addition to being accorded the first 
privilege of purchase at the graded price, they will also be pro- 
tected in their improvements. 

When Time Allowed. — Land is sold on contract allowing time 
for payment of a part of the purchase money — if the tract be 
eighty acres or more and if it have no timber. If it be less than 
eighty acres, or if it be covered wath timber, no sale will be made 
except upon full payment of cash before the execution of any 
paper. The rule of the company is to make no contracts for 
sale of land before the patent for it has been received. 

Terms of Time Sales. — All contracts for the sale of land on 
time are made in uniform manner. The terms are the same in 
every case. The purchaser must pay one-fifth of the price and 
also interest for one year on the balance before he can get a con- 
tract; he must then pay the interest in advance at the beginning 
of each subsequent year, till the fifth year is up, and then pay his 
principal and take his deed. No instalments are accepted, but 
if his interest is not delinquent he can at any time pay the 
principal and get his deed. This system protects the company 
against complication of accounts, gives the purchaser an abun- 
dance of time for making payments, and enables him to select his 
own day within five years for closing up the transaction. As 
stated, payment in full of the purchase money can be made at 
any time, but after interest has been paid, no part of it will be 
refunded. This is done in order to avoid confusion in keeping 
the accounts. The purchaser can draw interest on his money in 
a savings bank till the end of the year, if he sees fit. 

No longer credit than five years is allowed in any case. 

In many cases in which purchases have been made on credit, 
the buyers have made enough from the crops of a single year to 
pay for the land. 



^6o <^^''^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Let US suppose that the purchaser takes i6o acres at ^5 per 
acre, under contract dated January ist, 1877. The total price is 
$800. If he wants to buy on time, he must pay in advance one- 
fifth of the principal, $160, and ^64 as interest at 10 per cent, on 
the $640 of the remainder, or $224 in all, cash, on the day when 
the contract is made. Then he must pay ^64 interest on the ist 
of January, 1878, and as much more on the same days in 1879, 
1880 and 1881 ; and on the ist of January, 1882, he must pay 
the $640 remainder of the principal, and then he is entitled to 
his deed. 

On land sold under contract the purchaser must cut no wood 
save for domestic purposes, or for fencing the tract bought, until 
he has made his last payment. All contracts may be assigned 
by the purchaser. 

When the contract is made, the purchaser must from that date 
see that the land is assessed to him, and must pay all the taxes 
and assessments of every kind levied on the land for public 
purposes. 

Kind of Deed. — The company gives what is known as a 
bargain and sale deed, the form customary in California. It 
warrants to the purchaser that he gets the entire title acquired 
by the company from the Federal government, and is signed by 
the president and secretary of the company and two trustees. 

Select for Yoursef. — No officer of the railroad selects land for 
another person, nor could such selection be made without ex- 
posing the company to vexatious complaints. Everybody who 
intends to buy should, if possible, visit and examine the land, 
lor nobody knows so well what he wants, or at least nobody can 
safely assume the responsibility of deciding for him. 

Rent. — The company will lease its vacant grazing or agri- 
cultural lands by the year, or for a term of years, but reserves 
the right of selling its grazing lands so leased at any time, or 
its agricultural lands at the end of any crop year, repaying to 
the lessee a share of the rent money proportioned exactly to 
the area sold, the time of the sale and the duration of the lease. 
The lessee must not cut any timber except for firewood for 
domestic purposes. The conditions are distinctly stated in the 
lease. 



WHERE THE RAILWAY LANDS ARE. ^^I 

The rent must always be paid in coin, and in advance. 

Railroad Lands. — Lands granted by Mexico, lands which have 
been sold by the United States, or pre-empted or taken by 
homestead, in accordance with law, belore the railroad title 
attached, and lands which have been reserved as mineral, are not 
" vacant Federal lands " as that term is used here, and do not 
pass to the company. 

The lands given to the Southern Pacific Railroad Company by 
Congress, extend from San Jose, by way of Gilroy, Hollister, 
San Benito Pass, Huron, Goshen, Tehachapi Pass, Los Angeles 
and San Gorgonio Pass, to Fort Yuma, and also from Tehachapi 
Pass, eastward to the Needles, on the Colorado river. 

The San Francisco and San Jose Railroad has been incorporated 
with the Southern Pacific Railroad, having been constructed on 
part of the route before the bill granting the franchise and land 
to the latter road was passed. 

The land-grant from San Jose to Fort Yuma is 690 miles long, 
and covers all the unreserved odd sections within thirty miles of 
the road on each side. It would not take more than twenty 
miles from the road if all had been unreserved; but portions of 
Santa Clara. Santa Cruz, Monterey, San Benito, Ventura, Los 
Angeles and San Bernardino and other counties were held 
under Mexican grant or were otherwise reserved from the 
company, which will not get the full 12,800 acres for each 
mile, even by going to the full distance of thirty miles from the 
road. 

The railroad grant on the section between San Jose and Tres 
Pinos, fifty-one miles long, covers nearly all of Santa Clara and 
Santa Cruz counties, parts of Merced, Fresno and Monterey, 
and small portions of Alameda, San Joaquin and Stanislaus. 
Most of these lands, however, were previously covered with 
Mexican grants, or were otherwise legally occupied, and 
the company has little land for sale in those counties, and 
most of that little is in the mountains, and at present difficult of 
access. 

It should be understood that the railroad companies, except 
perhaps in Texas, have no mining lands to sell. These are all 



262 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

carefully reserved by the United States government, and where 
land which had been patented to them, proved to be mineral or 
mining land, before they had sold it, the government claimed it 
and has given them other lands in the place of it. 

The mining laws and regulations, "which we have given in full 
in a previous chapter, explain fully the only methods of procuring 
mining lands direct from the government. There is nothing 
to prevent an immigrant from buying an interest in a mine, and 
in the land in which or under which it is situated, from those who 
hold it, but an interest in a mine is not necessarily an interest in 
the land above it. A bill now before Congress provides that 
land may be sold in tracts containing eight square miles or less, 
for grazing purposes, subject to the condition that if a mine 
passes underneath it, the rights of the miners shall not be 
prejudiced by this occupancy of the surface. 

We have alluded in previous chapters to the opportunities 
which are often offered to buy partially improved farms and cat- 
tle or sheep ranches. This opportunity occurs so frequently 
that the immipfrant who has two or three thousand dollars of 
capital will often find it better to purchase one of these farms, 
than to take up new land by any of the methods offered in this 
chapter. It is not at all to the discredit of the fertility, climate, 
or productiveness of any of these States or Territories that so 
many farms should be for sale. The causes which lead to it are 
usually these : a man with very little capital has taken up a farm 
or sheep or cattle ranche, either by pre-emption or under the 
Homestead or Timber-Culture Acts, or has bought of the railroad 
lands, and being perhaps not a good manager, or having a large 
family and meeting with misfortunes in his crops, finds himself 
in debt, and unable to extricate himself and keep his farm. Per- 
haps he has bought too much land, and the cost of breaking it 
up and his annual payments on it swallow up all he can make, 
and he becomes discouraged. He will find that if he mortgages 
his land, the interest will eat up the whole value of the farm, and, 
being sold out under foreclosure, he has nothing left, and has to 
hire himself out as a laborer. If he can sell the farm, the pay- 
ments yet to be made can be met by the purchaser, and though 



BUYING PARTIALLY IMPROVED FARMS. 363 

he receives less than he has expended in money and labor upon 
the land, yet he is out of debt and can move on to the frontier 
where, taking a farm under the Homestead Act or Timber-Culture 
Act, and building a sod house, he can have a better chance to 
retrieve his fortunes. Meanwhile, the immigrant who buys finds 
the land ready broken for crops, and perhaps the crops for the 
season sown, so that within four or six months he can, if the sea- 
son is favorable, realize from his crop nearly what the farm has 
cost him. 

These farms can generally be bought at a reasonable price, 
because there are so many in the market. They should not be 
bought at a high price for two reasons : first, that in most regions 
there is some uncertainty about the crop from drought, grass- 
hoppers, Colorado beetles, worms, or excess of rain ; and second, 
that the first crop, especially of grain or roots and tubers, is 
usually larger than those which succeed it. 

By caution in buying, the immigrant will generally do well, 
and by careful and thorough cultivation he may find his partially 
improved farm a source of great wealth. 



CHAPTER VI. 



Farming Life — The Amount of Capital Needed — Management of a Farm 
AT THE West — The Best Farming Regions — What Crops are Best — How 
Farming can be made most Profitable. 

Having in previous chapters shown the immigrant how to 
reach the West, how to select his land or location, and the 
various methods by which he may become the owner and pos- 
sessor of a farm or other landed estate, we are now ready to 
assist him in settling upon his land and making his first crops. 
In the case of immigrants from Europe this is particularly neces- 
sary ; for though it is very possible that the immigrant may, in 
his own country, and under the circumstances existing there, be 
as good a farmer as can be found; yet the circumstances here 
are so different in the character of the soil, the climate and sea- 



-,54 ^i^'^i' iVE STERN EMPIRE. 

sons, the amouni; of rain-fall, and the crops most in demand, that 
he will find that he has much of his business to learn anew. 

The first thing to be decided is, what description of crops he 
would prefer to cultivate, and this point should be settled before 
he sets out for the West, whether his previous home had been 
in Europe or in the Atlantic States. If he desires to raise the 
small grains, and perhaps root crops, he must still decide whether 
he will grow winter or spring wheat and rye. For spring wheat 
and the other small grains, as well as for root crops, there Is no 
region so good as Minnesota, Dakota, Montana, and perhaps 
Iowa and Southern Dakota, east of the Rocky Ivlountains, and 
Washingto.n and Oregon west of those mountains.'-' The spring 
wheat of Montana surpasses that of any other part of the world. 
In an average season it weighs sixty-nine pounds to the bushc/, 
sixty pounds being the standard, and with ordinary care in cul- 
tivation thirty-five to forty bushels to the acre, many entire crops 
exceeding this large yield. Dakota and Minnesota and Oregon 
and Washington Territory are not far behind. Iowa grows 
some winter wheat, though the spring wheat largely predomi- 
nates ; but, probably on account of less thorough cultivation, 
neither the yield nor the weight are equal to those of the north- 
ernmost tier of States and Territories. There is one other rea- 
son alleged for the excellence of the grain crops of this northern 
region, which includes the fertile valley of tlie Red river of the 
North ; it is that the surface frost thaws very early in the spring, 
but that at the depth of three and one-half or four inches the 
earth is still frozen, and that when the seed is sown this deeper 
frost, thawing gradually, keeps the roots of the grain moist and 
develops them more moderately and surely than can be done in 
any other way. 

There is this further advantage in regard to Northern Minne- 
sota. Dakota, and Eastern Montana, that the crops can be 
quickly and cheaply marketed over the Northern Pacific and its 

* F"or all thi^ northern region sp> iii^ wheat is a very certain crop, jvinia- wheat an exceed- 
ingly uncertain one. During the long and severe frosts, the roots of the winter wheat are 
frozen, or winter-killed, and in many instances it does not recover its vitality. Some winter 
wheat is sown in Minnesota, Northern Dakota, and more in Iowa, but it proves very nearly a 
failure, while the spring wheat yields from twenty-one to forty bushels, or even more, to the acre. 



WINTER IVnEAT, MAIZE AND SORGHUM. ^5r 

branches, and that they can be sent to Europe direct, and will 
ordinarily bring- largely remunerative prices there. Root crops 
of all kinds yield enormously over the whole of this region. The 
immigrant who wishes to preserve this abundant productiveness 
of his lands, should do two or three things which very many of 
the farmers there do not do ; he should plow deeply ; the soil is 
from five to ten feet, or even more, in depth, and will yield con- 
tinuous large crops, if the ground is plowed to a depth of from 
eighteen inches to two and a half feet, but this should be done 
in the fall, and with a thorough harrowing, in the spring the soil 
will be in fine condition for a crop. He should rotate his crops, 
not after the five years' plan adopted in England and on the 
continent, but, perhaps, one year of grain, one of root crops, and 
one of clover. Alfalfa, Hungarian grass or millet, thus allowing 
the constituents withdrawn from the soil to be replaced. He 
should also keep horses and mules for his work, oxen and cows, 
sheep and swine, and though it is a general matter of belief with 
the settlers on these new lands that they need no manuring, he 
will not find his crops at all diminished, if he uses upon his lands 
all the manure, liquid as well as solid, produced by his animals, 
and he can consume a part of his crops at home, and turn them 
into products which will pay him better than to sell them direct. 
If our immigrant prefers to raise winter wheat, Indian corn, 
sorghum (though the early varieties of the sorghum will do well 
almost to the Canada border, while the latter and larger varie- 
ties yield more bountifully in the central belt), he will find 
Southern Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas and Wyoming his 
best region east of the Rocky Mountains, and Northern and 
Central California, some districts of Nevada, Utah and Western 
Colorado, west of these mountains. Here, too, most of the root 
crops, and many special crops, such as the castor-oil bean, pearl 
millet, Egyptian rice corn, sweet potatoes, alfalfa, and Hungarian 
grass do well. Especially can we commend Kansas and Ne- 
braska and Eastern Colorado for the winter wheat and Indian 
corn crops, among the States and Territories east of the Rocky 
Mountains. But we must caution immigrants, even in these 
States, that they should not press forward beyond the line of 



,66 <^^'^^' WESTERN EMPIRE. 

general advance in their settlement of these farming lands. 
That line is moving westward at about the rate of fifteen miles a 
year in Kansas and Nebraska, but it is not well for the immi- 
grant to go to the front at first, for these reasons : As we go 
westward from the Missouri river to the foot-hills of the Rocky 
Mountains, the amount of rainfall diminishes, and there is dan- 
ger of drought, which would be fatal to corn, though the wheat, 
ripening earlier, might not be so much affected by it. The rain- 
fall is increasing as the line of cultivation moves westward, 
because the spring rains are absorbed where the hard surface or 
crust has been broken ; but where the soil has been beaten solid 
for hundreds of years under the hoofs of millions of buffalo, all 
the rain which falls either runs off or is speedily evaporated. 
The deeply-plowed lands drink in the rain, and the vegetation 
which springs up gathers the moisture from dew and showers 
and suffers it to be more slowly evaporated and return in rain. 
We know, that taking one year with another, the rainfall which 
ten years ago, on these unbroken lands, west of the 9Sth meri- 
dian, was only 10.5 or 1 1 inches annually, has steadily increased, 
till in 1879 it was 17 or 17.5 inches. Even with this amount 
some of the crops would be the better for irrigation ; but with 
the prospect of an increasing rainfall each year the settler can 
bide his time. Two things can be said in regard to the danger 
from drought in this region of very moderate rainfall: first, that 
though the amount of rain is perhaps somewhat less than could 
be desired, it always falls just at the right time to help the crops, 
and is not so violent or copious as to uproot or injure them; 
second, in the valley of the Upper Arkansas, where much of this 
land is situated, there is a remarkable provision of nature to 
prevent injury to plants and grains ; the river and its branches, 
though fed in the spring by mountain torrents, never overfiows 
its banks, but its valley, which is alluvial, is underlaid at a depth 
of eight or ten feet by a close, solid clay, and the water spreads 
out and flows under the surface of this loam and above the clay, 
saturating the loam with moisture. The soil of this valley re- 
tains its moisture even when there is no rain for three months 
or more, and the crops do not suffer from drought. The valley 



DRY LANDS AND IRRIGATION. 367 

of the Platte, in Nebraska, is somewhat similarly protected from 
drought. With the increasing rainfall that portion of these 
States east of the meridian of 99° west from Greenwich, is not 
now in any great danger from drought ; while the lands west of 
that meridian which are cultivated can generally, at moderate 
expense, be provided with irrigating canals. In Eastern Colo- 
rado the lands are still more elevated than in Kansas, ranging 
from 5,000 to 6,500 or 7,000 feet above the sea. Portions of 
this land are too high for corn crops to be raised with certainty, 
as the cool nights and somewhat early frosts may prevent its 
ripening ; but most of it will, when irrigated, yield most astonish- 
ing crops of corn, wheat, oats, and potatoes. 

The immigrant who does not come as a member of a colony, 
or under the direction of an emigration company, will hardly 
find it advisable to farm lands requiring irrigation unless he has 
a considerable capital to invest. The first cost of irrigating 
canals or ditches is considerable for a single individual, and can 
better be borne by a colony, where there are a considerable 
number to use the water thus obtained. Still, where a man has 
sufficient capital to take ilp a square mile (640 acres) of the so- 
called desert land, which can now be purchased by the payment 
of ^160 down and $640 more at the end of three years, construct 
his irrigating ditch, which may cost him from ^i.ocoto ^3,000, 
according to location, stock his farm and break up one-half of 
his land, which will cost him ^2,000 more, or ^2,500 with his 
cabin and corrals, he can rely with considerable certainty upon 
gathering crops from this 320 acres under cultivation before the 
expiration of the three years from the time of taking the land, 
of a net value of not less than ^25,000 on an outlay of not more 
than ^7,500 or ^8,000 at the outside, and he will have his land 
clear and his irrigating canals ready for further operations. Some 
farmers on these lands have done much better than this.'=' The 
advantage of irrigation is that the crop is always certain. If the 

* In Northern Colorado, California, and perhaps some of the other States and Territories, land 
and irrigation companies have been formed, often with English capital, which buy large tracts 
of land, construct irrigating canals, sometimes of fifty or sixty miles in length, and sell the land 
with the guaranty of water for irrigation at from J13 to ^15 per acre. Many purchasers have 
found this plan profitable. 



^58 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

rainfall is greater than usual, less irrigation is required ; if it is 
less than usual, more water can be turned on, and these lands 
which, when watered, are the richest and most fertile in the 
West, respond with a great crop every year. 

Of course' irrigation does not entirely preclude the dangers 
from the insect pests, the Rocky Mountain locust or grasshop- 
per, and the Colorado beetle or potato bug; but it is a partial 
preventive to the ravages of both, and the farmers of those 
regions have learned how to prevent serious evils from their 
depredations, by early and deeper plowing, ditches, fire-pits, and 
the protection of the grouse or prairie hens from indiscriminate 
slauo-hter. 

The enterprising farmer will find farming greatly facilitated, 
when his land is once broken, by the use of agricultural 
machinery and improved methods of cultivation. We cannot 
urge upon him too strongly the necessity of deeper plowing than 
is generally practised, and thorough harrowing and cultivation. 
For these purposes, and especially on prairie lands, he will find 
it wise, if he can, to procure the best kind of gang-plows, and 
those which will turn the deepest furrows, the best harrows, cul- 
tivators and horse-hoes. And having procured good agricultural 
machines, he must take good care of them, not exposing them to 
the weather to rust and crack and fall to pieces when not in use. 

If the farmer keeps as much stock as he should, say for a farm. 
of 1 60 acres or tw-ice that quantity, a pair of stout, strong and 
serviceable horses, a pair of good mules, one or two yoke of 
oxen (better two than one), two or three good milch cows and half 
a dozen pigs, and cultivates ten or twenty acres in forage grasses, 
such as Alfalfa, Hungarian grass, millet or Egyptian rice-corn, he 
will, if he manages well, accumulate manures which will restore to 
the soil the elements which his wheat, barley, oats and corn have 
taken from it, and though his neighbors may laugh at him for 
doing so, his enormous crops will show that he is wise in putting 
his fertilizers on even prairie soils. 

But to return to the new agricultural machines: The ordains 
and root crops are sown so much better and so much more 
rapidly by the use of some of the drills or seed-sowers, and the 



AGRICULTURAL MACHINES NECESSARY. 360 

farmer who uses them has so much more opportunity to diversify 
his crops, and make those accurate experiments in regard to 
improved seeding and the cultivation of new crops, as well as to 
employ profitably his teams in work for others, that they very 
soon pay for themselves. He must not, however, forget that his 
crops need careful cultivation, and that weeds grow in the West 
as well as in the East. His Indian corn, his sorohum and his 
root crops, as well as most special crops he may cultivate, will 
need, certainly two or three times in the season, careful cultiva- 
tion with the horse-hoe. His fruit trees and small fruits will 
yield much better for being carefully cared for, and the insect 
pests destroyed before they have had time to destroy the fruit or 
foliage of the trees. If he cultivates hops, pea-nuts, beans, broom- 
corn, tobacco, castor beans, sweet potatoes, flax, hemp, jute, or 
any other special crop, on a moderate scale, devoting a few acres 
to them, he will find that all, or nearly all, of these crops exhaust 
the soil and require, for success, the free use of the manures he 
has been accumulating ; and as rich soil is almost invariably a 
weedy soil, he will require for these crops a more earnest and 
constant conflict with weeds than with most others. 

Very early, in this middle belt of States and Territories, does 
the harvest commence. The hay crop is not so important here 
as in the East, and not so important as it will be a few years hence. 
If the farmer has any considerable crop of the small grains he 
must of course use the harvester in Catherine them — his own, if 
he can possibly afford to buy one ; if not, a hired machine. 
Threshing machines, with all the attachments for winnowing, 
assorting and sacking the grain, are very often owned by men 
who go from farm to farm, and thresh and sack the grain. The 
eye of the master should be on all these operations to avoid 
waste and carelessness, and to see to it that all the grain is 
gathered, threshed and delivered. 

In harvesting the corn and sorghum crops, the practice is very 
general, now, of gathering the ears of corn first and then cutting 
and stripping the stalks, the leaves being cured for fodder, and 
the stalks bound and sent immediately to the sugar mill, the 
heads of the sorghum and rice-corn being cut off after they are 



270 <^^'-^ VVESl/iKX EMPIRE. 

buncllec!;" when the corn or sorghum seeds are just ripe and 
not too hard, the stalks yield the largest quantity of crystallizable 
sug^ar. 

The husking and shelling of the corn, both now performed by 
machinery, the digging of the potatoes, also effected by a 
machine, the gathering of the other root crops and fruit, make 
the farmer's life in these early autumn days a very busy one. 
No sooner is the ground freed from the crops of the season than 
the autumnal plowing, especially for winter grains, commences. 
In these regions more attention should be paid to a rotation of 
crops than is generally practised. It may not be feasible or 
desirable to attempt the five years' rotation which is recommended 
by the best English farmers — but root crops should succeed 
grain, and clover or the forage grasses the root crops, and even 
on the best soils, deep plowing, a moderate use of manures, or 
the occasional plowing in of a green crop will be found to yield 
ample returns in the crops which follow. 

It Is a fact which should be carefully considered by all intelli- 
gent farmers, that even on these new lands, each year of cultiva- 
tion of the cereals produces a smaller yield to the acre. Montana 
and Dakota now boast their thirty or thirty-five bushels of wheat to 
the acre, but Minnesota and Kansas, even with their larcre amount 
of new lands, do not average quite twenty-one bushels ; while Iowa 
and Missouri, with lands somewhat longer cultivated, cannot report 
more than from eleven to fifteen bushels ; and Arkansas, with 
her careless culture, produces an average of but six bushels. 
This falling off In the yield per acre of the wheat crop is equally 
marked in the States east of the Mississippi — Ohio, Indiana, and 
Illinois. Michigan is, at present, an exception, because her lands 
are newer. 

The reason of this rapidly diminishing yields is not mysterious 
or inexplicable. The soil of the prairies is only scratched to a 
depth of three or four inches ; there is no rotation of crops ; 
both the grain and the straw are removed from the soil ; except, 

* The seeds or heads of both the sorghum and the rice-corn, aside from their value for sow- 
ing the next season, are nearly or quite equal to corn as food for animals, either whole or ground, 
and are eagerly sought for by them. 



QUANTITY OF SEED TO THE ACRE. ^jrj 

that in some sections, the latter is burned, either to get rid of it 
or as fuel for the steam-threshers and other implements, and the 
alkalies and earths thus taken from the soil, and not returned to 
it in any way, impoverish it. The remedies are deep plowing, 
restoration to the soil of what the crops have taken from it, 
and a rotation of crops. The great Dalrymple farms of north- 
eastern Dakota, ten years hence under the present mode of culti- 
vation, will not yield ten bushels of wheat to the acre. There is 
no excuse for thus wasting the goodly heritage which the Almighty 
has bestowed upon us. 

On one other point there is need of improvement, viz.: in the 
quantity of grain sown to the acre. Under the old system of 
sowinof it broadcast, there was ereat waste ; two bushels or two 
and a-half of seed- wheat was regarded as the smallest amount 
which should be used in sowing an acre. The new method of 
drilling the wheat has materially reduced the quantity deemed 
necessary, but it is still too large In Minnesota and Kansas 
eighty to eighty-five pounds of seed, equal to forty or forty-thre^ 
quarts, per acre, is the usual allowance. Yet, there is no state- 
ment connected with agriculture, and especially with the cultiva- 
tion of the cereals, more capable of absolute mathematical demon- 
stration than this, that the quantity of seed now used is aboitt 
five times larger than is necessary. The seed, whether of wheat, 
barley, or oats, should be carefully selected, the finest and largest 
ears being culled, and those from seed which has shown the most 
disposition to tiller or expand, so as to produce the greatest 
number of stalks from one seed; and the ground being thoroughly 
harrowed and pulverized, the seed should be drilled In at the dis- 
tance of ten inches apart each way (twelve inches apart if they 
can be sown the last of August or the first of September) ; the 
amount of seed being dependent upon the date of sowing of the 
wint^'^r grains. The earlier the sowing, the smaller the amount 
of seed required ; the more perfect and extensive the tillering, the 
better the resistance to the winter's cold, and the earlier and 
larger the crop. This is no idle theory, but the result of twenty 
years' careful experiment by Major F. F. Hallett, of Manor Farm, 
Kemptown, England, one of the most successful wheat-growers 



^72 O^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of that country. By a careful selection, running through a long 
series of years, Major Hallett succeeded in producing and ex- 
hibited to the British Association from a single grain of the ordi- 
nary red wheat, plants which produced ninety-four stems, each 
crowned with its ear of wheat, and from a single ear of this wheat 
124 grains, or a total production of over 10,000 grains from one.* 
This extraordinary result is not reached by any increase in the 
amount of manures (all wheat land is manured in England, and 
the ordinary crop is about thirty-four bushels to the acre), or by 
any new process of tillage, but by the careful selection of the 
best and most productive seed, now known bothjn England and 
this country as " Hallett's pedigree wheat," early sowing, and the 
sowing of the grains at a distance of twelve by twelve inches apart. 
By these means Major Hallett. sowing his wheat the last week in 
August, and sowing but five pints to the acre, was able to obtain a 
yield of seventy bushels to the acre, in extensive wheat fields, for 
a series of years. He states that for every week of delay after 
the middle of September there should be an addition of from 
three to four quarts of seed, but every week's delay increases the 
danger of winter-killing, diminishes the amount of tillering, and 
the probable quantity of the crop per acre. Wheat sown about 
the first of September comes up in seven days ; about the 
first of October, in fourteen days ; the first of November, in 
twenty-one days ; the first of December, not under twenty-eight 
days. These figures would be rather exceeded than diminished 
in the West. 

We recapitulate : the essentials to great success in the raising 
of cereals in the West are: deep plowing; the restoration to the 
soil of the elements taken from it, either by manuring, plowing 
in of green crops, or the turning up of a new stratum of soil ; 
rotation of crops ; in the cultivation of winter grains, a very careful 
selection of the best and most productive seed ; early sowing, 
not later than the first of September; and sowing by drill, each 
grain being ten or twelve inches distant from each other, to give 



*Tlii^ loult ot incicasiii;^ the production by tillering was not confined to wheat, for Major 
Hallett exhibited to the British Association at the same meeting a ])lant of barley from a single 
grain with no stems, and a plant of oats from a single grain with 87 stems. 



ADVANTAGES OF A LARGE YIELD. j^i 

It opportunity to tiller. The seed per acre thus sown should 
not exceed from six to eight quarts to the acre, and the yield 
should be more than double what it now is, and should not 
diminish from year to year. 

Some western farmers may say that it is of no use to increase 
the production of grain, for the market is often glutted, and the 
prices are not remunerative. The folly of such a position is 
easily demonstrated, for in the first place, the market is not 
glutted with the best quality of grain, it is only the poorer quali- 
ties which are salable only at low prices ; there may be a fluctua- 
tion in prices in different years, but the best grain is not raised 
at a loss in any year. In the next place, suppose that it is not 
desirable to increase the c^uantity of grain raised, is it not easier 
and every way better to raise 6,000 bushels from 100 acres, than 
the same quantity from 300 acres? If your farm consists of 
320 acres, and you can raise 6,000 bushels of wheat from loo 
acres, can you not put the other 220 acres in oats, barley, Indian 
corn, sorghum, or root crops, and thus realize triple profits on 
your land ? Even if wheat is down to eighty-five cents a bushel, 
as it was two or three years ago, doesn't it pay better to realize 
^51 an acre from it with the same labor than to realize only $17 ? 

Our cereal crops are so important to our national wealth and 
prosperity, that we have felt justified in devoting considerable 
space to the consideration of the methods by which their produc- 
tion per acre can be greatly increased, and we believe that our 
readers will appreciate our labors in this direction. 

Let us now turn to the immigrant farmer who has decided to 
try farming in the milder and more tropical southern belt of 
States and Territories. He seeks a home in Arkansas, Western 
Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, or Southern California, 
If he comes from Europe he finds a climate and crops to which 
he has hitherto been wholly unaccustomed. This is also true of 
immigrants from Illinois or the Ohio valley, in our own country; 
but a large proportion of the American immigrants into Arkansas, 
Texas, etc., are from the Southern Atlantic and Gulf States, 
where the climate, crops, etc., do not essentially differ from those 
of Texas and the States and Territories adjacent. The farmer 



2^4 OUR WESTER X EMPIRE. 

who migrates to this res^ion can have a much wider choice of 
crops than the northern farmer ; whether he can or will find his 
labor better remunerated remains to be proved. Arkansas, 
Texas, and Southern CaHfornia are the three sections in this 
region in one of which the farmer will be most likely to settle, 
for Louisiana is not sufficiently healthy for settlers from a north- 
ern climate, and Arizona and New Mexico, as well as Northwest 
Texas, have too litde rain-fall to be attractive to farmers gen- 
erally. 

It is not indispensable if an emigrant settles in Arkansas or 
Texas, that he should devote himself exclusively to the culture 
of cotton, or indeed that he should grow it at all. Much less 
should he reason that because rice and cane-sugar are produced 
there he must necessarily cultivate those crops. 

These States have lands adapted to a great variety of crops, and 
when all the circumstances are taken into account, perhaps one 
crop is as profitable as another. If the emigrant selects his 
farm in any of the coast counties, he will find the land some- 
what high priced, but he can raise sea-island or long staple cotton, 
and if he cultivates his crop skilfully he ought to make at least 
A bale to the acre of this valuable product ; or he can grow rice 
dr sugar cane, though for the latter he will require a large 
capital for his sugar works. The middling, or short staple cotton, 
can be grown here, though not so profitably as fifty or sixty 
miles north, as the land is too valuable ; nor is this land well 
adapted to wheat, but all the subtropical fruits as well as most 
of those of more temperate climates, and most of the root crops 
can be cultivated with great profit from the early date at which 
they ripen. Two crops of sweet or Irish potatoes can be raised 
in the long season, and the first will be at least six weeks earlier 
than in the vicinity of St. Louis. Strawberries, raspberries, 
peaches, grapes, plums, as well as bananas, olives, figs, oranges, 
lemons, guavas and all market garden vegetables grow 
luxuriantly, and are all from six to eio^ht weeks earlier than in 
the North. The trade in these articles of produce, between the 
coast counties of Texas and St. Louis and Chicago, is large and 
constantK' increasine. 



CROPS IN' TEXAS. 



375 



If the emigrant prefers a farm seventy or eighty miles back 
from the coast, he is in Eastern Texas in the *' timber country," 
where he can engage If he chooses In the lumber business with 
a good opportunity to make money; and the land here is fair 
for cotton, excellent for corn, and yields moderate crops of 
wheat. In Central Texas, at this distance from the coast he will 
find the best cotton lands In the State, and If he will give his 
undivided attention to his crop he can raise two bales of cotton 
to the acre ; but he must not let the weeds overrun it, nor the 
worms destroy it.'-' The easy-going planters around him will 
not set him a good example in these respects. Their shallow 
plowing without manure, their scant and slovenly cultivation, and 
careless picking, yields from half to three-fifths of a bale to 
the acre, and with an Indolence born, or at least nurtured by the 
protracted heat of the long season, they are content with this 
result ; and it Is no more than fair to say that our energetic 
immigrant, after a fewyears' experience of the enervating Inlluencc 
of the climate, will very possibly fall into the same careless 
ways, 

A hundred miles or more north from the Gulf coast, in North- 
eastern and Central Texas, is a good region for the cultivation 
of the cereals, Indian corn grows well and yields fairly every- 
where In Texas, except in the arid lands in the northwest of the 
State ; but the lands of which we are now speaking yield good 
crops of wheat, oats, barley and millet as well as corn, Texas 
is not, however, one of the great cereal-producing States. Her 
wheat crop Is not more than sufficient in ordinary years for the 
consumption of her own people. A moderate amount of flour 
and wheat (2,212 barrels of the former and 4,614 bushels of the 
latter in 1879) are exported, but the importation of wheat is 
more than twenty times, and of flour about twelve times as much. 
There is no good and sufficient reason why, in these more 
elevated lands, where the heat is not so enervating, the quantity 
of all the cereals annually produced should not be ten or twenty 

* A Mr. S. C. White, of Jasper, Texas, claims to have discovered and have practised for seven- 
teen years a method by which his growing cotton is rendered perfectly luorm-proof, and offers all 
an opportunity of testing his process. The discovery, if it proves to be one, will be invaluable 
for the cotton crop. 



2 -5 ^^'^"^ IVES TERN EMPIRE. 

times what it is ; corn is a crop so admirably adapted to these 
lands, and the demand for it at New Orleans on the one side, 
and throughout Arizona on the other, as well as the large home 
market, should make this a favorite crop with the immigrants. 
The production of wheat, barley and oats also might easily be 
increased almost indefinitely. 

Good corn land is also good land for sorghum, and bo-h can 
be planted in February, and if two crops are not produced from 
the same fields in a year, as they might be, of the earlier varie- 
ties, it is entirely practicable to have the sorghum pkinted at 
different times, so as to have the juice extracted from tiie stalks 
and boiled down into syrup in those months when other labor is 
not driving. Another very important consideration in favor 
of this mode of cultivation is that the leaves and seeds make an 
excellent fodder for milch cows, as well as other cattle, when the 
heat of summer has dried the grasses. The millets yield a large 
amount of forage and almost as much sugar as the sorghum. 

Root crops also yield largely in this region of Texas, and there 
is the great advantage that the best qualities of Irish potatoes as 
well as sweet potatoes can be ripened so early as to be put in 
the Northern markets full six weeks earlier than those grown in 
Illinois or Iowa, and so bring a better price. It is claimed, and 
we presume correctly, that of both kinds of potatoes two crops 
can be raised on the same land every year. Of other miscel- 
laneous products named in the consideration of the productions 
of the central belt, all can be produced with equal advantage 
here by proper care and good farming, and the crops will be 
largely remunerative. But Texas lands, especially after several 
years' cropping, and mere scratching the surface with a light plow, 
will not yield large crops without deep plowing and thorough, 
not lavish, manuring. It may as well be said here as anywhere 
that, except in the cotton and grain region of Central Texas, the 
soil though fair is not of the first class, and will very soon run 
down without careful cultivation and a moderate use of fertil- 
izers. Fortunately, some of the best of these, after farm-yard 
manures, plaster of Paris, some of the marls, and alkaline earths, 
salt, etc.. are easily accessible in the neighborhood of most of 



PROSPECTS IN ARKANSAS. ^yy 

the farms, while guano, fish guano, and the natural and artificial 
phosphates can be purchased at a moderate price. The soil 
does not leach, and fertilizers are retained for a considerable 
time, so that often the second crop after their application is 
better than the first. 

The other portions of the State, as well as part of South- 
western Texas, are better adapted to grazing than to cultivation ; 
still, much of these could be cultivated and would yield large crops 
if they were irrigated ; most of the region of Northwestern Texas 
is capable of successful irrigation, either from the Pecos or the 
Rio Grande or their affluents, or where these cannot supply water, 
by artesian wells, and thus irrigated, It would prove the most pro- 
ductive land in the State. But irrigation costs money, and, while 
the State has so much unimproved land of moderate fertility for 
sale at such low prices, it is not probable that the lands which 
require irrigation will be taken up except in rare instances. 

Arkansas has little or no land adapted to rice or cane sugar 
crops ; but her cotton lands in the Mississippi, Red, Arkansas, 
and White river bottoms, and her corn lands on the higher levels, 
are very productive. Arkansas is awakening from the lethargy 
which has so long bound her, and though she has as yet but few 
immigrants, industrious and enterprising men would find her 
lands on many accounts desirable. Race and slavery antipathies 
are dying out; the new school laws are being put in operation 
with great success ; the lands are rich and cheap, and markets 
generally accessible. The days of careless and slovenly tillage 
of the soil are fast passing away. Twenty thousand enterpris- 
ing, clear-headed, and skilful farmers, intelligent and upright in 
character, could almost revolutionize the State and make it a 
region which would be as desirable a home for immigrants as 
any other of the Western States. ' But the twenty thousand 
should come in groups of considerable size, and plant villages 
or setdements, which may become models to rouse a spirit of 
emulation on the part of those already there. 

The farming lands of Arizona mosdy lie along the Gila and its 
tributaries, though there are some good lands farther north which 
are irrieated. The Rio Colorado and its affluents, the Colorado 



--S OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Chiquito, Flax river, and in the northeast the San Juan, run 
through canons so deep as to drain very effectually the moisture 
from the mesas or table lands. Still, irrigation is possible on 
many of these lands, and would make them very productive, 
while the occasional protracted storms, might by cultivation, be 
made to give place to a larger and more equally distributed rain- 
fall. The mineral wealth of Arizona will call a population thither 
sufficient to make irrigation practicable, and then as in former 
ao-es. this region will show its thriving farms, its beautiful vil- 
lages, and its populous cities. In the central part of the terri- 
tory, not far from Prescott, the Maricopis Indians raise large 
crops of wheat of such excellence that it commands the highest 
price in San Francisco, in competition with the best California 
wheat. 

Southern California is the garden of the State. Vast crops 
of wheat and barley are grown here, and the vineyards, olive- 
yards, and plantations of pomegranates, almonds, Madeira nuts, 
etc., give the country an almost tropical appearance. Cotton 
does not succeed so well as other crops here on account of the 
long dry season. 

The climate is delightful, and is regarded as particularly bene- 
ficial to those suffering from pulmonary diseases if they come 
before the disease has progressed too far. Although much of 
the land is taken up in very extensive ranches, there are still, 
especially along the route of the Southern Pacific Railway, many 
desirable farming lands, both of the government and the railway 
grants. 



''WHAT A THOUSAND DOLLARS CAN DO." 37Q 



CHAPTER VII. 

Western Farming Continued — What Capital is Necessary for a Comfort- 
able Beginning on a New Farm at the West — A Larger Amount Needed 
in some States or Terriiories ihan in others— Advice to those who 

ARE unable /\T first "CO BUY AND StOCK A FaRM — INCIDENTS OF FaRM-LiFE 

— Renting Land unadvisacle — Great Farm^ ot.jectionable — The Home- 
stead and other Exemptions in the different States. 

In a former chapter we have referred briefly to the amount of 
capital needed for successful farming ; but we cannot too strongly 
impress upon die mind of the immigrant, the necessity of a mod- 
erate capital, if he proposes to own and develop a farm at once. 

it is possible for an immigrant to bring his family, unless it is 
a very large one, and most of his children too young to work 
effectively, to any of the newer districts of Dakota, Montana, 
Nebraska and perhaps Kansas and Minnesota, or to Washing- 
ton Territory or Oregon, if after reaching his destination he has 
^1,000, but he can only do this by securing his land under the 
Homestead or Timber-Culture Acts, or pre-empting it, or buying 
on long credit of a railroad company, emigration company or 
school lands of the State, which are usually sold payable in ten 
annual instalments. Even then it will in all probability be a very 
severe struggle for him for the first four or five years, especially 
if there should be any bad years, from a long and severe winter, 
a very late spring, drought, grasshoppers or other insect plagues. 
In Texas or Arkansas he may do better as the land is cheaper, 
but the cheap lands are generally less productive, and a large 
part of Texas suffers from occasional droughts. 

The following statement of "what can be done with $i,ooo by 
an Industrious, energetic farmer in the Arkansas Valley in Kan- 
sas," Is put forth by the Land Department of the Atchison, To- 
peka and Santa Fe Railway. It is nearer the truth than any 
statement we have seen published by any railroad or emigration 
company, but It Is rather highly colored, nevertheless. This was 
published. in the autumn of 1879, and there may be, even In so 
short a time, some changes In the prices. It should be said also 



2 go 067? WESTERN EMPIRE. 

that these lands are not more fertile than other lands in Kansas 
and elsewhere, and are occasionally subject to drought. The 
programme as there laid down, if the emigrant has but the ^i,ooo, 
requires incessant and very severe labor, and the margin, which 
leaves nothing for furniture, is much too meagre for the support of 
a family for fifteen months or more, and will require some other 
sources of income or the incurring of indebtedness. But here is 
the statement: 

*' First payment on 1 60 acres of railroad land, on six years' time, 
a-t the rate of $4.80 per acre, will be $1 72.80 ; house of two rooms 
and small kitchen, $250; team and harness, $180; breaking- 
plough, ^22 ; harrow, ^10; cow, 5^30 ; interest payment on land 
one year from purchase, ^44.80 ; total, ^^709. 60 — leaving a bal- 
ance of *^29c).40 for seed and support of family until crop can be 
raised. Nearly every family coming to Kansas to make a home 
have more or less furniture, farming implements, etc., which they 
can rarely sell to advantage. By inquiring of our nearest agent, 
they can ascertain the cost of chartering a car to destination, or 
rate per 100 pounds, and if the amount they will sacrifice on the 
sale of their goods is greater than the cost of transporting it to 
their new home, they can readily see It will pay to bring these 
things along, and they will find them very useful, if money with 
which to lay in a new supply is scarce. 

" The cost of starting on a new farm in a new country of course 
depends largely on the size of the family, and the economy, 
energy and perseverance of the farmer, but no man with a family 
should come to the Arkansas valley with less than $1,000 to 
start with. For a man of limited means, it is most advisable to 
come in the early spring, say in February or March. A week or 
two will get his house up, and his fam.ily settled, and then he is 
ready for business. No time is wasted in clearing the land of 
stumps and stones ; it lies all ready for the plow, entirely free 
from either, and the farmer commences at once turning over the 
sod. In a few weeks enough sod will be broken to enable him 
to put in a fair crop of barley, rye or broom corn ; the latter does 
well on sod, and is one of the best paying crops in the State. 
Enough vegetables can be raised for family use the first year. 



"WHAT A THOUSAND DOLLARS CAN DOr 38 1 

A few hogs and chickens kept through the summer will, when 
added to the spring crops and vegetables, carry an industrious 
and economical family through to the following spring. If ready 
cash is scarce the first year, work can generally be had for a team 
in the neighborhood, and by this means a hard-working man can 
earn a little now and then, to carry him along while making his 
own improvements, until his first crop has matured, 

"After the spring crops have been put in the ground, enough 
new ground can be broken during the summer, which, when added 
to that already in spring crops, will enable him to put in at least 
fifty acres of fall wheat. He will not be able to buy a grain drill 
of his own the first year, but he can secure the use of one from 
a neighboring farmer, and pay for its use by a day or two's work 
with his team. In harvesting his wheat, in June following, the 
same course will have to be pursued as in drilling, i. e., by ex- 
changing labor. This wheat crop, when harvested and marketed, 
gives him the ready money with which to meet current expenses, 
make necessary additions to his stock of implements, improve- 
ments on his farm, and provide enough for the next payment on 
his land. 

" This makes two crops raised from the same land within fifteen 
months from the time of his commencement on his new farm. 
The quick returns that can be secured in so short a time, is what 
makes it possible for men with limited means, but with industri- 
ous habits, to secure a farm and home of their own. 

"After harvesting his first crop of wheat, the farmer begins to 
realize the reward of his toil. Each year adds to the number 
of acres cultivated, and to the productiveness of the farm, and 
the occupant is usually able, by the third year, to pay up on his 
land and take a deed. By this time, by dint of hard work, 
frugality and some self-denial, he has made himself a comfort- 
able home, all his own, and nearly all paid for from the products 
of his farm, which will in a few years become valuable in conse- 
quence of the rapid growth of the country — yet it was secured, 
and a start made on it, including cost of house, stock, imple- 
ments, etc., with a capital of less than ^i,ooo. If the farmer is a 
man of taste, he will at the end of five years have his farm all 



^g2 CiYv' WESTKRX EMPIRE. 

surrounded and divided by a beautiful Osage orange hedge 
fence, and groves of forest trees, fruit-bearing orchards, small 
fruits of all kinds, and flowers and ornamental shade trees will 
surround his home. All these improvements, that in the East- 
ern States would have required a heavy outlay of money and 
many years of time, are here secured in a very short time at a 
nominal cost. 

"The new setder is not obliged to spend any money in fencing 
his farm. The herd-law protects his fields, and he can devote 
all his time to the breaking of sod and growing of crops. Fences 
can be grown with Osage orange that will turn stock in four 
years, and costing only the farmer's own labor in caring fgr 
them. 

"If the settler can find on the alternate sections of the lands 
along the railroad, any desirable lands as yet unsold, he can pre- 
empt 1 60 acres for very small fees, to be paid for at the end of 
thirty-three months, for $2.50 per acre, the sum of $400 and some 
fees to the amount of $20 or $25, or he can take up 80 acres in 
Homestead and 80 more under the Timber-Culture Act; the 
fees for botli being about $30 or ^36, but he will not obtain a 
clear title under from five to eight years. By securing his land 
by one of these methods his payments will at first not exceed 
^30 or $36, and so he will have from $136 to $142 more for the 
support of his family, making his entire sum $425 to $431 for 
their support for fifteen or oftener twenty months, aside from 
what vegetables and other produce he can raise in that time. 
From this small sum must be deducted what he has to pay fqr 
furniture or the freig^ht of it if he has brouQ;ht it with him, and 
also probably for pigs and poultry, though a part of this can 
come out of the item of interest payment on land one year from 
purchase, $44.80." 

We think it might be possible for an energetic, industrious 
farmer, who is a good manager, to live with his family, and plow, 
sow, and stock his farm on $1,000, till he can realize from his 
crops, if he pre-empts his land, or secures it under the Home- 
stead or Timber-Culture Act; but buying railroad land, even 
on six years' time, it w^ould be impossible, unless he had other 



"WHAT A THOUSAND DOLLARS CANNOT DO." 383 

sources of income, or overworked himself and his team. The 
item of "$250 for house of two rooms and small kitchen," might 
be diminished by living in a sod-house or a dug-out, but this is 
not pleasant. 

With an additional $500 many of the difficulties would be 
avoided. Care and economy would still be necessary, and 
there w^ould be many privations and inconveniences to be 
endured, but if he is not visited by drought, grasshoppers, or 
other insect or animal pests, and neither the cattle disease, nor 
cyclones, nor prairie fires visit him during the first three years 
after his immigration, he may, at the end of that time, have a 
good farm all his ovvn, and wathin two years more be so situated 
as to enjoy life, though only on condition of hard and steady 
labor. 

The disasters to which we have alluded, though sufficiently 
distressing at any time, are peculiarly severe and ruinous when 
they fall upon a farmer who is just looking forward to harvest- 
ing his first full crop. In a few days, perhaps in a few hours, 
his crops of grain and of vegetables are swept away and not a 
vestige of them left; or under the blaze of a summer's sun, un- 
tempered by clouds or rain, his arid fields have failed to yield a 
harvest ; or the insect and rodent tribes, banded together for the 
destruction ot his crops, have destroyed alike what is above and 
what is under the surface ; or more terrible still, the prairie fire 
rushes irresistibly over cabin, hay-ricks, and stacks of grain, 
scarce permitting himself and family to escape, scorched and 
blistered, from their burning home; or, once more, the swift 
moving storm plowing through the young and thriving village, 
involves scores or hundreds in a common disaster ; houses, 
barns, churches, forest trees, the growing grain or the gathered 
crops, are alike torn and scattered to the four winds of heaven, 
and it is much, if many lives, but an hour before joyous and full 
of hope and activity, are not also destroyed. Disasters by flood 
are infrequent in the West, though they sometimes occur along 
the upper affluents of the Mississippi and the tributaries of the 
Missouri. 

Yet, while these disasters visit the western settler only at 



,34 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

irregular and sometimes distant intervals, and cannot always be 
guarded against by any known precaution, their possibility is to 
be taken into the account, as a drawback upon what might 
otherwise be a perilous prosperity, and as the farmer attains a 
better position, he will do well to seek, if he can, to become the 
owner of a second farm (not falling into the error of trying to 
hold too much land) differently located, and, if possible, adapted 
to a different kind of culture. If his first is a grain farm, his 
second may be devoted to root crops, or sorghum, or forage 
grasses, or to some of the specialties already noticed ; if the first 
is on a prairie or in a valley, the second may be on a hill-side, 
in the timber, or at least by the banks of a stream, or he may 
gradually work into the rearing of cattle or sheep, or horses or 
mules. The cyclone or the prairie fire may spare one if the 
other is swept as with the besom of destruction ; or if the grass- 
hopper or locust, the weevil or the cutworm, the caterpillar, or 
the gopher and mole destroy his grain or root crops on one 
farm, there may be something left on the other. The young 
man with but little capital, but with no one dependent upon him, 
can, of course, commence farming with a small sum, but he will 
find his account, after purchasing or securing his land, and 
breaking it up and sowing his crop, in hiring out to some farmer 
in the vicinity, and working his way up to competence, in five or 
six years. At the end of that time he may be the owner of a 
good farm and farm-buildings, mainly the result of his own labor 
during those years. 

To those possessing somewhat larger means, say ^4,000 or 
^5,000, a better plan is to buy a partially improved farm, from 
some of those settlers who are constantly disposed to obey the 
policeman's injunction, and " move on." In many instances these 
settlers have either pre-empted their lands, secured them under 
the Homestead Act, or bought of the railroad companies, and in 
either case, have become embarrassed from some cause, and 
unable to make the desired payments, and so they are disposed 
to sell out, and moving to the extreme frontier try again. Some 
of this class have thus moved on, by successive stages, horn 
Eastern Iowa or Missouri to the frontier of Kansas, Nebraska. 



BUYING AN IMPROVED FARM. jgj 

Dakota, or even into Montana, Wyoming, or Utah. If their 
land is a homestead claim, it is worth only the improvements, as 
they have no title, and leaving it before the five years are up, the 
fee simple reverts to the United States government, and can be 
entered anew, either as a homestead, or by pre-emption, or pur- 
chase at government price. If pre-empted by the original settler 
there is probably a sum due to perfect the title. The purchaser 
should see to it that there are no liens on the property for taxes 
or judgments, but that his title is perfectly free from cloud. Gen- 
erally, a purchase of this kind can be made for considerably less 
than it has cost, at the ordinary price of labor. The cabin and 
other buildings will probably be poor or indifferent, and there 
may be no fences, or very imperfect ones, but this is not of much 
consequence, as the herd law, in most of the States and Terri- 
tories, protects the setders' crops, and better buildings are not 
expensive ; but, on the other hand, a considerable pordon of the 
land has been broken by the plow and harrowed, and has yielded 
one, two, or three crops, and there may be a growing crop on it 
at the time. The first crop, with the superficial plowing so gen- 
erally practised, is generally the best one, but the purchaser can, 
and will if he is wise, put in his plow for his next crop " beam 
deep," and turn up fresh and virgin soil for a more plentiful 
harvest. 

A farm of i6o acres, conveniently situated, and near a railroad 
or navigable river, may be purchased in this way with clear tide, 
cabin, sheds for stock, eighty acres under cultivation, and with 
perhaps a growing crop, the necessary live-stock, wagons, harness 
(the latter a little the worse for wear), and plows, hoes, rakes, 
and other agricultural implements, though hardly much agricul- 
tural machinery, in Dakota, Western Nebraska, Western Kansas, 
Colorado, Wyoming, or Montana, or in Oregon or Washington 
Territory for $800 or «^ 1,000. In Minnesota, Missouri, Eastern 
Nebraska, or Eastern Kansas, or in California, and probably in 
Texas, it would cost about twice as much, but the buildings and 
fences would be better. 

There are two courses, either of which the man who has a 
family and has but little more than money enough to take him 
-25 



286 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

and them to their destination may choose; for without the ;^i,oooor 
$1,500 lie cannot buy a farm, nor support his family on it while 
vvaitinij for his first or second crop, even if the land were given 
him outright. 

He may rent a farm with a cabin and the land broken, agree- 
ing to give half the first full crop for the rent the first year, and 
%\ to $1.50 per acre thereafter, but he must still have money to 
buy his furniture, agricultural implements, and necessary live- 
stock, and to support his family till his first crop comes in. This 
will require at least $450, and that amount is more than he proba- 
bly has. 

Or he can hire out his own services to some larQ-e farmer, and 
those of such members of his family as are able to w^ork, and secur- 
ing a homestead claim, erect his humble cabin, and after four or 
five years of hard work, he may succeed in getting his farm clear 
of debt, but not well stocked, nor very well cultivated. The pri- 
vations he and his family must undergo before he reaches this 
point, and indeed for two or three years after, will be very painful 
and severe, but in the end, perhaps, they will feel paid for their 
sacrifices. 

Hard as this life is, for so long a time, it is much better than 
renting a farm, and yet very many are to be found who are 
anxious to rent lands. Indeed, so much are farms in demand 
for rent, that as we have noticed elsewhere, Englishmen of 
fixed incomes, retired army or navy officers, clergymen, and 
retired civil officers have come to this country in very con- 
siderable numbers, purchased railroad and other new lands, 
hired them broken with tlie plow, erected cheap cabins, and 
rented them, deriving '^ much better interest for their money 
from the rental, than tJiey could realize in England. In many 
instances these foreign purchasers become the possessors of 
large tracts of land, and iluis lay the foundation for a landed 
aristocracy in the future. 

Renting farms is not a good practice in our Western Empire. 
It is not wise for those who hire the farms, and it will in the end 
prove injurious to the owners if they settle in the vicinity of 
their lands. The policy of our government and of our 



RENTING FARMS UNWISE. ^S? 

institutions is to have the land held in small parcels, not more 
than 1 60 acres, by as many holders as possible, one requisite 
being that these landholders shall be citizens of the United 
States or have declared their intention to become such. One 
result of these settlements with small farms is the speedy 
establishment of schools, churches, newspapers, and all the 
appliances of an intelligent, high and pure civilization. 

The rented lands, especially with absentee landlords, contribute 
nothing to this. The farmer who rents his farm of a wealthy land- 
lord is not, except in States where a poll-tax is exacted, a tax-payer, 
and has no special interest in the promotion of schools or general 
intelligence; the building up of a village, and the improvement 
of the moral character of the community, and its subordination 
to law, are matters which do not concern him. His only object 
is to get as much from his farm as possible, and spend as little 
on it as is consistent with that object ; for renting as practised in 
the West tends to demoralize a man and to bring out his greed, 
selfishness and meanness, and indeed all his worst traits. 

We have already referred briefly to the evils attendant on 
farming on a large scale; but we cannot speak too strongly in 
reprobation of it in its effect on the future welfare of those 
portions of the West where it prevails. California has suffered 
the most from these overgrown farms or ranches, and Texas 
and Colorado have also been materially hindered in their growth 
by them, and now Western Minnesota, Northern Dakota and 
Montana, are in danger of injury from the same tendency to 
own vast tracts of farming lands. 

The Northern Pacific Railway, after its disaster of 1873, 
disposed of its lands already patented to it at $2 to $2.50 per 
acre and received its preferred stock and its bonds at par in 
pa) -"lent. As these were for a time held at very low prices, 
sev'. al men of large weal '1 \v^o knew the value of these lands 
too.c the opportunity of procuring large tracts, paying for them in 
bonds and stock, and thus secured immense properties at fron^i 
twenty to twenty-five cents per acre. These lands have been 
generally sown in wheat and other easily cultivated crops, and 
25,000 to 35,000 acres in wheat has been a not unusual crop on 



^88 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

some of these great farms, and some of the wheat-fields of 
Southern California have been very nearly as large. This brings 
in a large revenue to the proprietors, ^200,000 or ^300,000 
annually for the present, but the objections to it are these: 

1. The soil is not properly tilled; the plowing is of the shal- 
lowest, merely scratching the ground ; the same crop is sown 
on each field year after year, and the yield per acre diminishes 
every year. The grain is all sent away, the straw and refuse 
burned in large heaps. Nothing is left to feed the soil or re- 
place what is taken from it. 

2. There are no villages, no schools, no trade built up, noth- 
ing to encourage, and everything to discourage permanent set- 
tlement. The proprietor chooses to cultivate his own land, and 
desires no neighboring small landholders. 

3. This mode of cultivation encourages tramps and wandering 
farm laborers, and discourages families and homes Each divi- 
sion of the great farm has its superintendent, who has his head- 
quarters during the farming season in his division, with excellent 
stables for his numerous horses and sheds for the agricultural 
machinery. There are rude temporary cabins whore the travel- 
ling laborers sleep at night well packed together, and a large 
cabin where the cookincj is done for the entire di^'ision. The 
men who come from all quarters are hired by the day or week, 
and dismissed as soon as their work is done. The superintend- 
ent and foremen are in the saddle all day through the plowing, 
harrowinor sowing^ and harvesting: and threshinor, overseeino- 
their workmen and dismissing them at once if they are not thor- 
oughly efficient. When the work is completed, the men are 
sent off without a word, and their future welfare is not a matter 
of consideration with any of the employers, who do not even 
know the names of their men. 

4. These vast farms, often comprising two, three, or four 
townships, are utterly opposed to the genius of our institutions, 
and prevent that healthy growth of population, manufactures, 
mechanism, and the industrial progress which has made our 
country what it is. Even the machinery, the horses, the pro- 
visions are purchased in large distant cities. Small farms with 



HOMESTEAD PROVISIONS. ,3g 

flourishing villages close at hand, a thrifty trade, manufactures 
struggling into existence, and the hearty feeling of good-will 
on the part of all the inhabitants of the neighborhood, the desire 
"to live and let live," furnish a much better basis for a new and 
enterprising State, than these overgrown estates in which are 
developed the worst features of large proprietorship, without any 
of its redeemino^ traits. 

Most of the States and Territories have homestead exemption 
laws which protect the struggling and impecunious young farmer 
from the danger of attachment of his farm, or house, or house- 
hold goods, by summary process. Some of the States have 
probably gone too far in these exemption laws, and have opened 
the way for cunning and unprincipled men to defraud their cred- 
itors easily; but, as a general rule, these laws are not abused. 
It is a question with many wise political economists whether it 
w^ould not be better to abolish all stay laws, and all laws for the 
collection of debts, and make credits depend solely upon the 
character of the purchaser. Were this rule tried, we think there 
mig^ht be some men who would find it difficult to obtain much 
credit. 

We give the Homestead Exemption law of Minnesota as a 
fair average of these laws throughout the West. Kansas, Ne- 
braska, and Dakota exempt 1 60 acres instead of eighty, while 
Iowa exempts but forty; Arizona, California, Idaho, and Texas 
exempt homestead or dwelling to an amount not exceeding 
^5,000, and furniture, books, tools, live-stock to a limited amount 
besides. Other States and Territories vary in amount from 
^1,000 to ^2,500 or ^3,000 on the homestead, with other ex- 
emptions. 

The following are the provisions of the Minnesota law : 

"That a homestead consisting of any quantity of land, not ex- 
ceeding eighty acres, and the dwelling-house thereon and its 
appurtenances, to be selected by the owner thereof, and not 
included in any incorporated town, city, or village, or instead 
thereof, at the option of the owner, a quantity of land not exceed- 
ing in amount one lot, being within an incorporated town, city, 
or village, and the dwelling-house thereon and its appurtenances, 



-.^.^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

owned and occupied by any resident of this State, shall not be 
subject to attachment, levy, or sale, upon any execution or any 
other process issuing- out of any court within this State. This 
section shall be deemed and construed to exempt such home- 
stead in the manner aforesaid during the time it shall be occu- 
pied by the widow or minor child or children of any deceased 
person who was, when living, entitled to the benefits of this act." 
The same law provides, in addition, that furniture shall be 
exempt to the amount of $500; animals, with food, and farming 
utensils, $300; provisions, tools, the books or instruments of pro- 
fessional men, etc., ^400. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

The Immigrant as a Cattle-ereeder and Stock-raiser — Methods of Stock- 
breeding IN Different States and Territories — The Texas Cattle 
ranche — The Ranche in California, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana — 
Cattle-breeding in New Mexico. Utah, Arizona — In Washington, 
Oregon, Nevada, and Idaho — Minnesota, Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, 
Missouri, and Arkansas as Cattle-breeding Stai es — Lands best Adapted 
TO this Pursuit — Different Methods Advisable in Different Sections 
— Scenes in a Cattle-ranche — " The Bulls of Trinity " — The Cow-boys 
OR Herders: their Care of their Herds — Their isolated, half-savage 
Life — Rounding up — Branding — The Capital Necessary ior Success — 
How a Poor Man can acquire a Cattle-ranche in Time — Statistics of 
the Cost of a moderately large Ranche. 

Our immigrant, like the sons of Jacob, has " had his trade or 
occupation about cattle from his youth until now," and he desires 
m migrating to this Western Empire to continue in the business 
with which he is familiar ; or he has heard wonderful tales of the 
great success and wealth gained in cattle-farming, and he believes 
that a similar success is within his reach, if he follows the busi- 
ness. This latter view of the case is one more likely to be enter- 
tained by one who emigrates from one of our Eastern States 
than by a European, for our Yankee is a universal genius and 
believes himself capable of doing anything and everything which 
any man has ever done — and generally^it must be acknowledged, 



CATTLE-BREEDING IN TEXAS. -.^^ 

he is successful in what he undertakes — while the European im- 
migrant generally prefers to follow the particular line of busi- 
ness to which he has been trained. 

How, or under what circunistanccs, can the immigrant 20 into 
the business of stock-raisinof as it is conducted here, witli a fair 
prospect of success? There are several other questions to be 
answered before we can reply definitely to this. These ques- 
tions are: 1. Where does he propose to establish his cattle 
fa.rm ? 2, What amount of capital has he ? 3. Has he any per- 
sonal acquaintance with the busyness ? 4. Is he informed as to 
the methods used in stock-raising? 5. Is he qualified to take 
the management of a large cattle-ranche owned by a joint-stock 
company a.nd conduct it successfully? 

A cattle-ranche or cattle-farm in Texas is one thine ; one in 
Colorado, or Montana, or Wyoming is quite another. If our 
immigrant proposes to start a cattle-farm in Texas, he will require 
less capital than for such an enterprise farther north ; for his 
cattle will cost less money, he need not buy much land, certainly 
not at the beginning, his buildings can be fewer and less costly, 
he has no occasion for barns or shelter corrals, his herders or 
cow-boys will be mainly Mexicans, and their wages will be lower, 
and aside from the expense of rounding up and branding his 
cattle, with a herder for each 1,000 or 1,500 head, they will take 
care of themselves, and he need not see them oftener than once 
a year. 

To counterbalance these advantages, however, the general run 
of Texas stock is decidedly inferior in quality ; they are long- 
horned, not of large size, very wild, and do not take on flesh readily. 
They cost less when two or three years old, and when ready for 
market bring a lower price, both alive and as beef carcasses. The 
cattle froni Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming and particularly from 
Montana, are larger, of better breeds, not wild, fat readily and 
will bring much higher price both alive and as dressed beef. 
They require somewhat more care, and a more intelligent class 
of herders, and should have some preparation made for shelter 
and for fodder during the wintry weather, but do not always get 
it. The cost of rearing steers, in the large way, in Texas is only 



^02 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

about forty to fifty cents per head per annum ; in the central and 
northern tiers of States and Territories, it ran<jes from 60 cents to 
5^1. 10; but this difference is more than made up in their greater 
market vahie. As to the capital required, this depends, even in 
Texas, very much upon the ability or inability of the stock-raiser 
to buy and fence his land. Land is very cheap in Texas ; grazing 
lands can be bought for from 10 cents to ^i per acre — but from 
3,000 to 5,000 acres are required for 1,000 head of cattle, and the 
fencing of this from $1,500 to 5^2,500, the fence being at first a single 
board and a barbed wire — whi«b will be sufficient to turn cattle. 
If the stock-raiser prefers to pasture on the range he must have 
for 1 ,000 cattle at least six herdsmen, whose wages will be from 
^1,200 to $1,500 and their cabins and keeping. 

Eight hundred cows, each with a calf, will cost about $10,000, 
and it will be best to invest not less than $2,000 more in Durham 
or Holstein bulls in order to improve the breed. The house, 
stable and pens, even of the rudest kind, will cost $1,000, and the 
horses, saddles, wagons and supplies not less than $1,000 more. 
If the immigrant buys and fences his land, he will have to invest 
from $18,500 to $21,500 at the start. If he buys no land except 
a homestead and pastures on the unimproved lands, he will be 
able to get along with about $4,500 less, say from $14,000 to 
$17,000 in all. 

For three years the returns will be small. The stock-raiser 
will -keep his heifer calves, and sell a few of his steers when they 
are a year old, though it pays better to keep them till they are 
two or three years old. His stock will be improving in quality 
every year, and at the end of three years he will have a mixed herd 
of 1,200 to 1,500 head, and can thereafter, unless his herd should 
be attacked by cattle plague or some other disease, sell off every 
year from $6,000 to $8,000 worth of cattle and yet increase his 
herd each year ; but he will have to buy his land and fence it, 
if he has not already done so, and increase the number of his 
employes. 

But, says the immigrant, can I not start in the business of cattle- 
raising with less than $15,000 or $20,000? Yes, if you are a 
single man, and have decided to settle in Texas. You may begin 



STOCKKAISJA^G IN COLORADO. ^g, 

with a small grazing farm, 500 acres or more, and purchase but 
100 cows and calves and attend to these yourself, milking a 
part of your cows, making some butter and keeping a dozen or 
twenty pigs. But even with this small beginning, you cannot 
start on much less than $4,500 to $5,000. There are other 
methods by which an immigrant with a still smaller capital may 
succeed in stock-raising in other States and Territories, but in 
Texas intimate association with the rough herders would be too 
unpleasant to be endured by most men, and there are few or no 
joint-stock companies which would employ a foreign manager 
on their great ranches. It might be possible to commence, as 
some of the present " cattle kings " in that State did, twenty-five 
or thirty years ago, withlitde or no capital, but times and circum- 
stances are changed, and there are not now so many stray cattle 
without owners who can claim them, as there were in war times. 
The business was not then organized or systematized, and wages 
as well as cattle are much higher than they were then. There 
are very few instances in Texas where the large stock-raisers 
make any account of the milk. Most of them buy their butter or 
go without it. In Kansas, even where the herds of cattle are mod- 
erately large, a part of the cows are kept for their milk, and dairying 
is often carried on in connection with stock-raising. Here a man 
may begin with a few cows and calves and gradually build up a 
cattle-ranche and dairy-farm at the same time. On the frontier 
it is still possible to raise stock without owning an acre of land, 
or at most only a homestead claim. In Eastern and Northern 
Colorado and in Wyoming, many of the cattle-ranches are on a 
large scale, and while their proprietors (in some instances joint- 
stock companies) purchase considerable tracts of land, they also 
avail themselves largely of the unimproved and unsurveyed Gov- 
ernment lands. Even the great Hermosillo Ranche, now owned 
by the Colorado Cattle Company, besides its 91,000 acres of 
purchased lands, pastures nearly 500,000 acres more of unsur- 
veyed lands on the adjacent mountain slopes. As a rule, stock- 
raising in Colorado only pays well when conducted on a large 
scale. The great parks, as well as the mountain slopes, afford 
fine pasturage, and Colorado beef has the highest reputation. 



,g4 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The man who attempts to start a cattle-ranche with less than 
i,ooo head, and with a capital of less than ^20,000 or ^25,000, 
will hardly find it profitable. And while this is the lowest limit, 
^100,000, ^200,000, or even ;^5oo,ooo can be invested with great 
advantage and profit in the business. We have spoken of the 
joint-stock companies for stock-raising. Persons of moderate 
capital, but who have money which can lie for two or three years 
without much return, in the hope of an ample one after that time, 
may find this a desirable mode of investment. It is not difficult 
for men who have been accustomed to the care of cattle, and 
who have a little capital of their own, to obtain a situation on 
these large ranches, where purchasing and branding a few cattle, 
they can have them pastured free on the ranche, and securing 
for themselves a quarter or half section of land, can, by degrees, 
erect the necessary cabins and corrals, break up their land, and 
sow it with forage grasses or root crops, and keeping up two or 
three of their cows, they have their own butter and milk, fat some 
pigs, and at the end of, say, five years, have a fair stock of cattle 
to start their own ranche, and if the location has been well selected, 
with abundant water, they can probably secure, when needed, suffi- 
cient land to pasture their stock, at very moderate prices. The 
herder's life is, however, a very lonely one, and a man who has a 
family will find it very distressing to him and them, to lead a life 
of such isolation and with so few comforts. There is indeed a 
prospect of a moderate competence in the future, but that future 
seems so far off, and meanwhile his children, if he has any, are 
growing up without opportunities of education, and without the 
refininof influences of social life. 

Cattle-ranches of large extent cannot exist in the immediate 
vicinity of large villages ; they require too much room ; some of 
them occupy an entire county, and except the necessary dwellings 
and offices at the home of the proprietor, where there may be 
also a post-office, there will be in the whole county no settle- 
ment aside from the isolated cabins of the herders, and, of course, 
neither schools nor churches. 

The life of the herder is not without its perils, and those more 
serious than are usually supposed. These perils are of various 



PERILS OF THE HERDER'S LIFE. - ^gr 

kinds : where, as in Texas, California, and New Mexico the catde 
are largely of the long-horned, half-wild Mexican breeds, the 
bulls and steers are dangerous, especially when the herder or 
any one else meets them in large numbers, and when excited by 
thirst or rage. 

The poet-novelist, Bret Harte, has immortalized in his "Gabriel 
Conroy," " the bulls of the Blessed Trinity," a ranche of South- 
ern California. Arthur Poinsett, one of his heroes, and a lawyer, 
visits the proprietress of the ranche, Donna Dolores, on business, 
and while waiting for her answer to his propositions, wanders out 
upon the grazing lands on foot, and suddenly finds vast herds 
of the bulls and steers of the ranche coming toward him from 
all directions. They are not ferocious or fierce ; they will even 
retreat for a little distance when he faces them resolutely, but 
meantime others are coming up at his back; he is surrounded, 
and by a stolid but determined herd, who will trample him under 
foot, without rage or excitement. There is apparently no hope. 
But just at the crisis of his fate, he is rescued by the lady who, 
mounted on a powerful horse, rides directly at the oncoming 
herds, and causes them to swerve on either side, and saves him, 
though he had already fallen, in terror and despair. The Colo- 
rado herds are fiercer and stronger than these Texan and Cali- 
fornia bulls, but perhaps not so wild. If the herder is well 
mounted, he is not in much danger, except in rounding up time, 
when the excited animals, worried by pursuit, will sometimes 
turn upon their pursuer, and unless the lasso is quickly and 
deftly flung, and both horse and rider are wary and alert, will 
gore and toss them to death in a moment. 

But this peril from the herd itself is by no means the only 
danger to which the herder is exposed. West of the divide or 
highest summit of the Rocky Mountains, the grizzly bear roams 
monarch among the beasts of prey, and has a decided appetite 
for fresh beef. If he is very hungry, he will pull down a steer or 
cow, even in the presence of the herder. He is said to be terri- 
fied by the yells of the herders, but, when ravenous, he will not 
hesitate to attack men as well as beasts, and his great muscular 
power, his terrible claws, and his remarkable vitality, render him 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



39^ 

a most formidable antagonist. It is very dangerous to attack 
him single-handed. The cougar or panther, and the jaguar or 
American, tiger, are also ready to prey upon the herd, whenever 
they can approach it from some rocky shelter or leafy covert, and 
if wounded are desperate and dangerous foes to encounter. 

Ordinarily, as we have said, except in the most elevated pas- 
ture lands of Colorado, the amount of snow and the severity of 
the cold is not sufficient to render it necessary to corral and feed 
the cattle, and they run at large, browsing the native buffalo and 
gama grass, and, though rather thin in the spring, they fatten 
rapidly in the spring, and in the early summer are almost too fat 
to be driven any considerable distance. But, at intervals of eight 
or ten years, there come winters of great severity ; deep snows 
occur every week : the streams are frozen, and even the bunch 
grass, which rises stiff and strong, from two and a-half feet to 
three feet above the soil, cannot reach above the level of the 
snows, and the cattle are liable to starve. 

The prudent stock-raiser has made provision for such sea- 
sons ; his wild hay is stacked near the corrals, and groves of 
evergreens shelter the stock from the driving storms ; where the 
herds are so large that they cannot all be under cover, such pro- 
tection as is possible is afforded them, and especially is a supply 
of water secured to them by artificial lakes, artesian wells, 
troughs and pools fed by hydraulic rams or by windmill-pumps. 
But unfortunately the number of prudent stock-raisers is not 
very large, and there Is a terrible destruction of cattle. During 
this period the labors of the herder are very severe. In the 
fierce, driving storms he must be constantly in the saddle, en- 
deavoring to bring the terrified and excited herd under his care, 
into safer and more sheltered positions ; as the snows grow- 
deeper and the trail more difficult to find, the cattle, wild with 
fright, plunge to one side or the other, and are at once burled in 
the drifts, and the herder must plunge In after them till some- 
times the horse and rider are too weary to regain the track and 
both sink down and perish. On such occasions these rude, 
rough men often manifest a heroism and fidelitv to the interests 
of their employers, an unfiinching courage, which goes to certain 



STOCK-RAISING IN CAIIFORNIA. _ y^j 

death, with a spirit worthy of the noblest of the martyrs of 
ancient or modern times ; nameless heroes, whose faithful ser- 
vice and unflinching self-sacrifice shall yet be found recorded in 
the archives of heaven. 

When the sun has again resumed his sway, and the winter 
snows are melted, the gray wolf, the coyote and the vultures 
have their abundant feasts off the carcasses of the dead cattle, 
and before mid-summer their bones lie, bleached and white, on 
all the hills. 

In Montana, and to some extent In Washington and Oregon, 
the business of stock-raising has fallen into good hands. Most 
of the ranches are large, they are carried on by joint-stock com- 
panies, limited, or by a partnership with a large capital, and 
employing the best men to be found as managers. The cattle 
are of high grade and are larger, fatter, and more tender of flesh 
than those of any other region of the West. The excellent and 
nutritious bunch-grass and the white sage bush after frost, have 
much to do with this peculiar excellence of the Montana beeves. 

Some of the largest ranches there have shelter, and wild rice 
or other hay for their cattle when the winter is severe ; but in 
many of the valleys where the snow does not lie deep and the 
bunch-grass is tall and stiff, they are not sheltered, but keep out 
all winter and do not ordinarily lose much flesh. In the spring 
and summer the only complaint in regard to Montana cattle is 
that they are too fat. They can be exported to England by 
way of the Northern Pacific and Duluth without special fattening 
and at a very large profit. 

In California there are but few of the old Mexican-Spanish 
ranches left. A better race of cattle have taken the place of the 
long-horned, raw-boned, lean Mexican cattle, and the proprietors 
of large herds are not now the dignified, rather pompous, but 
easy-going hidalgos of thirty-five or forty years ago, but wide- 
awake, keen-eyed Americans, Germans or Englishmen, whose 
cattle can boast of a pedigree in the herd-book, and whose 
object is to make fortunes out of the cattle trade. The number 
of cattle raised in California, though large, is not much in excess 
of the local and inter-state demand, and beeves are not shipped 



2gi, OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

thence to other countries to any great extent. They number 
probably about 1,800,000 head, of which about one-third are 
milch cows, and dairy-farming is rapidly increasing in importance. 
The character of the stock is very high, and some of the best im- 
ported cattle on this continent are to be found in CaliSornia. 
Both the bulls and cows are in demand in the States and Terri- 
tories east of the State, for stocking new ranches. 

Kansas and Nebraska, especially the former, have been more 
famous in the past for pasturing and fattening Texas cattle 
driven thither for that purpose, and shipping them when fattened 
over their railways to the East, than for the management of 
large herds of their own ; but this practice is less prevalent now 
than some years ago, as the Texas cattle are now fattened to a 
considerable extent at home, and sliipped cither as live-stock by 
steamer to Europe, or slaughtered and sent packed in refriger- 
ating rooms on the steamers to Europe or to New York. Kan- 
sas has now nearly 1,300,000 head of cattle, of which about one- 
third are milch cows, and iNlebraska about 700,000 in the same 
proportions, v/hile Texas with her 7,000,000 of cattle has not over 
800,000 milch cows. The western half of both Kansas and Ne- 
braska is well adapted to stock-raising, and with the facilities for 
shipping their stock to market over nine or ten nearly parallel 
railways, the business can be conducted with large profit. Iowa 
and Missouri have each nearly 2,500,000 head of cattle, of which 
in Iowa more than 800,000 are milch cows, and in Missouri 
about 675,000. 

Wyoming has large and increasing herds, and is probably 
somewhat better adapted to catt!(t than to sheep. Besides her 
own extensive ranges of pasture, ti e Wyoming stock- raisers 
have for some years driven large herds into the North Park of 
Colorado, where the pasturage is excellent. 

Utah and Nevada have some (jood f{razinor lands, and are 
turning attention to cattle-raising, and the number of herds, 
though small, is increasing. New Mexico is peculiarly adapted 
to sheep-culture, but, though dry, is also a good region for cattle, 
as are also portions of Arizona. In the lofty mesas or table- 
lands from which still more lofty spires and peaks lift their heads 



"THE ROUND UP." .„ 

into the region of perpetual snow, the melting snows form lakes 
and pools whose waters can be made to irrigate the lands below, 
and these lands, 6,000, 7,000 and even 9,000 feet above the sea. 
furnish excellent grazing for cattle. 

In all those States and Territories where there are laro-e herds 
which pasture upon the unsurveyed government or State lands, 
being turned out, as the phrase is, upon the range, they mincrje 
with other herds and stray away often many miles. The herders 
do what they can to keep them together; but there is a neces- 
sity once a year for a " round zip," which, if the herd is very 
large, may last two or three weeks. This is a great occasion for 
the herders and the catde men, of whom a considerable number 
are employed as extra hands. These are all experts in horse- 
manship and in the use of the lasso or lariat, and they have need 
of all their skill very often. In Texas, New Mexico, the Indian 
Territory, Arizona, and formerly in Southern California, where 
the cattle v/ere very wild, the herders, after gathering the herds 
together from over a wide circuit, rode into the crowded masses 
of cattle and lassoed every steer or cow which had the brand of 
their employer upon it and drew them out into a herd by them- 
selves. The calves followed their dams, and each herd was 
guarded and separated from the other till they could be driven 
to their corrals or their own particular herding ground. Occa- 
sionally a bull, bullock, or steer, or a cow unaccustomed to this 
rude treatment, and afraid her calf was to be taken from her, 
would show fight, and, with head lowered, would attempt to gore 
or toss the horse or his rider, from whose unerring aim the 
instrument of torture had been flunor, ^ut ^h^ horses trainr'l to 
their work \vere too active and alert to be in much danger, and 
both they and their riders enjoyed the sport. 

The herd being thus separated from the herds of other owners, 
two other important duties remained to be performed ; the calves 
were to be branded, which was effected by driving diem with the 
cows through a passage so narrow that but one animal could 
pass through at a time, and at the narrowest part of the passage 
the brander, his branding-iron heated to redness in a blazing 
pile of logs at his back, pressed it down upon the back of the 



400 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE 

calf. Every proprietor has his own peculiar brand, which is 
recorded in die county records. 

The next thing to be done is to select the three or four-year 
old steers to be sent to market, and, if any of the cows and calves 
are to be sold, they also are withdrawn from the herd. The se- 
lection of these animals for sale is easy or difficult, according to 
the degree of wildness which they manifest ; sometimes they are 
readily and easily culled out, but at other times the lasso is re- 
quired, and there is a protracted struggle, before a refractory 
steer will take his place where he belongs. 

Where, as in Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota, Iowa, and to some 
extent in Montana and California, dairy-farming is connected 
with stock-raising, and the herds are much smaller, it is possible 
for a man who is thoroughly conversant with the business to 
conduct a good stock and dairy farm, beginning, we will say, with 
forty or fifty cows and two or three bulls, with as many yearling 
or two-year old steers as he can find pasture for, with a capital 
at first of not more than 5^6,000. For this purpose he should 
buy a quarter-section, pre-empt another, take another under the 
Homestead Act, and another still under the Timber-Culture Act, 
if on the plains, looking out for the springs, and if he makes a 
wise selection he will have the land between the springs for a 
free range for some years. He will need to put considerable 
money into fixtures for a dairy farm, to select his cows from 
Alderney and Jersey grades if he can find them ; if not, Ayrshires 
or Holsteins ; and he should have at least one Alderney and per- 
haps one Holstein bull. 

He should sow forage grasses largely and keep his dairy cows 
near the homestead, feeding them freely as the pastjires become 
dry. He will be able to sell his steers at the end of one or two 
years if in good condition for a very large profit, and well-made 
butter and cheese always commands high prices throughout these 
States and Territories. 

An industrious and skilful dairy farmer beginning in this mod- 
erate way can, in ten years, have as large a dairy as he will wish 
to manage, and sell every year from $3,ocx) to ^6,000 worth of 
choice stock without impairing the value of his herd, and within 



DAIRY AND S7 OCA' FARMING COMBINED. .qj 

that time he can buy all the land he needs to pasture, and, hav- 
ing it under fence, he need employ no herders, and with his 
other farming can raise good crops of grain and increase his 
production every year. 

Except as we have indicated in previous pages, however, there 
is very little opportunity for a man with little or no capital to 
engage in stock-farming with any reasonable prospect of profit. 
If he is an expert in the management of cattle he may obtain a 
situation as manager on one of the joint-stock ranches, and, 
under a plan recently tried in Montana, he will eventually be- 
come wealthy. This plan, as described by Mr, Zimri L. White, 
is as follows: one or several capitalists purchase a herd of cattle 
of as good quality as possible and put them in charge of a man- 
ager in whom they have confidence ; he finds a suitable range 
and undertakes the payment of all the expenses of corrals, cabins, 
wages of herders, the hay provision, etc. (the range is free, being 
on unsurveyed lands). The capitalists retain their title in the 
orio^Inal herd, but the manacrer makes sales from the increase of 
the stock, and if he chooses may buy from the proceeds yearling 
or two-year old steers to fat and sell at the end of one or two 
years. When he has paid back to the investors the sum they 
originally put in, he becomes the owner of one-third of the herd 
and of the business, and receives thereafter one-third of the net 
profits after paying the expenses. In ten years' time a man 
whose abilities and integrity qualify him for the position can 
become wealthy. 
26 



.Q2 OUJi WESTERN EMPIRE. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Sheep-farming and Wool-growing — The Best Regions and the Best 
Breeds — The Most Direct Routes thither — The Methods of Sheep- 
farming IN OUR Western Empire — Capital Required in Different Sec- 
tions — The Shepherds — Antagonism of the Herders and Shepherds — 
Improving the Breeds — Wintering the Sheep — Water in Abundance a 
Necessity — Destruction of the Herds from Thirst — Snowing Under — 
Fatal Effects of a Severe Norther — The Shepherd's Life more Isolated 

AND WITH less ExCITEMENT THAN THAT OF THE HeRDER OR COW-BOV ItS 

Risks and Dangers — How to Buy and Stock a Sheep-ranche — The Amount 
OF Capital Necessary — The Cost and the Profits — The Enemies of the 
Sheep — How a Poor Man can become a Sheep-master. 

The increasing attention which has been given within the past 
ten or twenty years to sheep-farming in Great Britain, as well as 
on the continent, and the fact that in the Australian colonies, the 
South African colonies, and the Dominion of Canada, it is one 
of the chief branches of agricultural industry, will almost neces- 
sarily inspire in the minds of emigrants from Great Britain or 
the continent of Europe the desire to engage in it here. In 
Europe sheep-farming, except on a very small scale, cannot be 
conducted by any but wealthy proprietors. The land, especially 
in the United Kingdom, is in few hands, and is so valuable that 
a sufficiency of it for a large sheep-farm is beyond the means of 
the small farmer. Sheep-pastures, which rent at from ^8 to ^25 
per acre, are certainly beyond the reach of men of small means, 
especially if they reckon as they do in Colorado, in their lavish 
way, that they need to have a range of five acres to a sheep, in 
order to change their flocks from one pasture to another. 

The large and constantly increasing importation of sheep and 
mutton for food purposes into Great Britain from Australia, 
Canada, South Africa, and the United States, reduces the price, 
of mutton there so low that the farmers cannot raise sheep for 
their flesh, and the vast increase in the production of wool, and 
the marked appreciation in its quality in the United States and 
Canada, as well as in other countries, keeps down the price of 
that staple. 






ill* 




-'^\;""r**5 Jlp^^l^' ;; jliifeiiiii.. 








CAPITAL NEEDED FOR SHEEP-FARMING. ^q^ 

Let US then consider whether the immigrant coming- to the 
West from any part of Europe, or from our own Atlantic States, 
with a small capital can enter upon sheep-farming with any fair 
prospect of success ; and If so, In what region It will be best for 
him to locate, and what breeds of sheep he will find It most 
profitable to rear. 

Let us say, at the commencement of this discussion, that to 
the man who has not at least ^2,000 at his command, profitable 
sheep-farm.Ing, except as an employe of others, Is well-nigh Impos- 
sible ; and even with that much capital. It Is only practicable In a 
very few of the States or Territories, and with a much smaller flock 
than would suit the ambition of most of our sheep-masters. For 
starting on a small scale, Kansas, Texas, and Colorado have some 
great advantages and some disadvantages. Perhaps Kansas is, 
on the whole, the best for these small sheep-farms, Texas has 
cheaper land and more free range, but Kansas has enough for 
all present necessities. The Texas sheep are yet so largely of 
the Mexican breeds, that they yield but three or four pounds of 
wool at a shearing; the Kansas sheep have been improved till they 
will average over five pounds, perhaps nearly six, and their wool 
commands a somewhat better price in the market. The Texas 
sheep are subject to the scab, which gives them great torture, 
and sometimes kills them ; they suffer somewhat also from foot- 
rot, though not nearly as much as some years ago. In Kansas 
there is no foot-rot, and very little of the scab. 

But, perhaps, the best testimony we can have from either 
State Is that furnished by the simple testimony of practical wool- 
growers, who give their account of their success without any 
motive to make out a case worse or better than the facts will 
warrant. These statements will be far more satisfactory to the 
intending immigrant who desires to become a sheep-master, than 
any theoretical estimates which can be figured out, because they 
are what has been accomplished by men of average skill as wool- 
growers, and men perhaps no more skillful than those who desire 
to engage in the business. In Texas, with Its vast flocks of sheep 
(about 7,000,000 the present year), the sheep-masters do not 
encourage small sheep-farms, because they are apt to be In the 



404 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

way of their great free-ranges, and, as they allege, on account of 
the greater profit and advantage of handling them in large flocks ; 
but it is well to note what these sheep-masters say of the busi- 
ness. Col. John James, a sheep-master for thirty years, and 
occupying an extensive tract west of San Antonio, writes that 
that region known as Western Texas is well adapted for Merino 
sheep. " We have not tried fairly," he says, " to raise the finer 
and heavier mutton sheep. We know they do not herd well, or 
as well as the Merinos, and a great deal of expense is saved by 
being able to run them in large flocks. The finer-wooled sheep 
pay the best. We know no other disease among them except 
the scab,* which is not hard to cure, nor is the expense heavy to 
do so. We think that the scab will not originate in that country 
if the sheep are properly cared for and kept out of dirty pens. 
We have now an excellent scab law, and that disease will be 
so generally controlled that we will not hear much of it from 
this time forward. We run our sheep in flocks of from i,ooo to 
1,500, generally as high as the last named figure, and we use 
Mexicans for shepherds, and pay them ^12 a month, and rations 
which cost about ^6 a month more. The cost of living on a 
ranche may be rated somewhat as to the taste and habits of each 
ranchero. If persons can economize labor, the outlay for food 
is not a serious item. Meat is abundant and cheap, and is gen- 
erally produced on the ranche. The people live generally upon 
fresh meat — cattle, hogs, mutton, chickens, and game. Cofiee, 
sugar, and flour cost higher than where there are railroads. 
Corn is either raised on the ranche, or purchased at about ^i per 
bushel, and there are mills within reach to ofrind it. 

" Sheep and cattle men care very little for farming, their atten- 
tion in the spring of the year being devoted to their stock, which 
then requires more attention than at other times. 

"We do not pen our flocks at night; our shepherds sleep out 
on the ridges at night with the sheep — the flocks, at night, being 
near to each other for mutual protection ; nor do we put up any 
feed for winter use. The grasses and other food they get, upon 

* Perhaps not in that vicinity, but in the lower lands of Texas the foot-rot has been fearfully 
prevalent among the sheep. As the lands are drained this disease disappears. 



COLONEL JAMBS' EXPERIENCE. ^^c 

an average, are as good In January as in June. Nor do we have 
any shelter for them during stormy weather, except what we find 
in the ranges in the way of thickets and undergrowth — the object 
then beinof to break off the force of the wind. 

"Our grasses, we think, are as nutritious and valuable as the 
best cultivated grasses. But the grasses are not all that sheep 
require. Herbs, shrubs, nopal, and saline grasses and plants, 
contribute more to fatten these animals than the grasses. These 
last named are peculiar to that country, and which we Americans 
know the names of, in some instances, by the designation given 
to them by Mexicans in their own language, but not otherwise. 

" The climate in the sheep country referred to is generally 
warm, but very healthful — being tempered by the breezes from 
the Gulf in summer, while our coldest weather comes as northers 
— sometimes wet, but oftener dry. For a considerable part of 
the year the atmosphere has but little moisture in it, and this is 
one of the reasons why it is so good a sheep country. Often in 
the best ranges the sheep have to be driven two or four miles to 
water ; and this is another reason why the sheep thrive so well, 
for sheep do not require much water. In the hottest weather, 
water once a day is plenty for them, and they do better so than 
when water is abundant in their ranges, for they will drink it 
when it is better that they should not. It is true that a dry 
climate is the best for sheep. 

" It is doing well to raise 800 lambs a year old from i ,000 ewes. 
Probably 900 will be born, and generally nearly all raised. The 
Merino sheep seldom brings more than one Iamb, Shearing is 
done in May. A good hand at that work will shear and tie up 
fifty fleeces in a day. If the labor is employed off the ranche, 
the cost of shearing, tying up the wool and sacking it, is five 
cents a fleece. We do not wash our sheep, and we sell our wool^ 
at San Antonio. 

" The fleeces taken from the fine Merinos are the heaviest, the 
Mexican sheep furnish the lightest fleece. My flock this year 
averaged four pounds only.* Our wethers are sold as fast 

*This amount of fleece, or weight of mutton, would hardly satisfy the more enterprising 
wooLgrpwers of Kansas And the States farther north or northwest. 



^o6 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

as they mature, say in the winter preceding the clip ; therefore 
they are four years old. Such was the case the present year, 
and these animals produced the most wool, 

" The heaviest fleece we sheared from a ram, raised at home, 
gave over seventeen pounds. Good withers give from six to 
tefl pounds for the year's growth. 

" Sheep kept in smaller flocks give more wool than when 
kept in large flocks, but not enough to compensate for the extra 
expense. 

"There are plenty of four-year-old mutton sheep upon the 
ranchos now, in Uvalde and Frio counties, which will net sixty 
pounds, and will yield twenty pounds of tallow, and this is a 
good weight for Merino sheep to reach. 

" When a wool-grower has sheep enough to supply a flock 
master, say five thousand head or more, fifty cents a year will 
keep and care for each sheep, including taxes and other ex- 
penditures, and will also enable a man to procure and pay more 
reliable labor than we have now. 

"The business suits single men better at the present time, 
but upon the general occupation of the country, that difficulty 
will be less felt. 

"Lands for sheep have been purchased generally during the 
past year at about fifty cents per acre, but values are increasing, 

" Wool-growers may begin upon a small tract of land, but the 
time is at hand when they will be required to own or rent the 
land they graze upon. All prudent wool-growers buy lands 
adjoining to them as fast as their means will permit them to 
do so. 

" It is true that this business will be an important one in this 
country. I think it will be second only to the great cotton inter- 
ests of Texas, but it will take time to get the breeding stock to 
occupy the country. Sheep for breeding purposes can be got 
from Mexico, but they are very indifferent in quality and size, 
and wool very coarse ; otherwise they have to come from the 
Western States. 

" By selling our mutton in January or February, when animals 
for food are often on the decline in more northern counties, and 



THE KANSAS POLICY IN SHEEP-FARMING. aqj 

g-enerally so in other parts of Texas, we are enabled to get fair 
prices, which compensates us for the distance we are from our 
market ; this we will call the first crop. The second crop is the 
wool which comes into market about the first of May, and I 
regard each crop as more certain than by cultivating the soil." 

The policy of the Kansas people is, on the contrary, to encour- 
age sheep-farming on a small scale, and generally in connection 
with the culture of crops of grain, roots, etc. There are very 
few of the larger class of sheep-ranches in Kansas, no county 
in the State reporting 18,000 sheep in 1879, yet the aggregate 
of the State was about 31 2,000 that year ; and is rapidly increas- 
ing. The experience of these small sheep-farmers, most of them 
cultivating the soil also, and as their several reports show, man- 
aging their little flocks carefully and prudently, cannot fail to be 
interesting and instructive to those who wish to follow their 
example. We have selected from a mass of about 150 returns 
to the inquiries of the late excellent Secretary of the Kansas 
State Board of Agriculture, contained in his Quarterly Report 
for December 31st, 1879 (really published in February, 1880), 
six reports, one from the extreme east of the State, one from the 
West, where the sheep range is the still unbroken prairie with 
its tufts of buffalo grass, one from the Northern Central, and one 
from the Southern Central or Arkansas Valley part of the State, 
and two from the central belt of counties. Each one tells his 
own story frankly and honestly, and none of them seem to have 
invested more than from ^1,000 to 5^2,000 in their enterprise at 
first, yet their success has been very fair for the capital invested, 
and i« likely to be still better in the future, as the cultivated, or 
as they call them, "tame" grasses, take the place of the wild 
ones. 

T. Mcintosh, Oskaloosa, Jefferson County. — " Have raised sheep 
here nine years ; had some experience in Iowa. Own 200 head 
now. Original stock obtained in this State. Long-wooled 
breeds, such as Cotswolds and Leicesters, are best for both wool 
and mutton. My ewes average about a lamb a piece. Average 
weight of fleece from my sheep is a trifle less than seven pounds. 
Sell mutton at home for three cents. Sold wool in 1879 for 



.Qg OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

twenty-two cents. Long, fine wool most profitable. Wethers 
may be kept until three or four years old ; ewes until seven. 
Lose from two to three per cent, of my flock annually by natural 
causes ; dogs kill about two per cent. ; wolves this year got three 
per cent. My sheep run on prairie in summer; kept in a dog- 
oroof corral at night. Turn them on tame pasture towards fall, 
and when this begins to fail commence feeding prairie hay, millet 
or clover, increasing the hay until they have all they will eat. 
As cold weather comes on, feed a little corn, gradually increas- 
ing quantity until they get an ear apiece each day ; give corn 
morning and night, and all the hay they will eat clean ; salt twice 
a week in summer, and once in winter. Last year I had 148 
sheep, worth %lll — sold wool for $203.28; mutton, $31,501=: 
$234.78 ; and have now 208 head, worth $600. Dogs and 
wolves are great drawbacks here to success in raising sheep." 

A. y. Uhl, Douglass, Butler County. — '* Have been for thirteen 
years raising sheep in Kansas ; previously had experience in 
Illinois and Texas. Find Kansas has much drier climate, not so 
much mud ; sheep-lots and corrals can be kept in much better 
condition ; no fear of foot-rot, unless shipped in with stock from 
abroad ; much larger percentage of lambs can be raised on 
account of dry weather at dropping time, which, with me, is in 
March and April. In Texas, grass dried too soon, and winter 
feed cost too much. My flock came originally from Michigan ; 
have owned same stock for eighteen years ; in that time had 
rams from Vermont, Illinois and Missouri. All seemed to do 
well, from whatever section they came, with proper care. Many 
bring sheep to Kansas late in fall, thin in flesh, half feed them, 
then attribute failure to acclimation. I think eood feed and 
proper care all the acclimation needed in Kansas. Have at 
present 478 in my flock; 1,000 may be successfully kept in one 
flock. I consider Cotswold ewes, bred to Merino rams, best 
cross for wool ; for mutton, Southdowns preferable. My expe- 
rience is, however, that mutton alone will not pay ; for both wool 
and mutton, cross from Cotswolds and Merinos best. I raise 
eighty-five per cent, of all lambs dropped. My average weight 
of fleece, in 1879, seventeen and a quarter pounds. Sell my mut- 



A KANSAS FARMER'S FLOCK. ^q^ 

ton in Wichita at $3.40 per 100 pounds, gross. Price of ewes, 
culled, $5; wethers, ^4. My wool for 1879 brought twenty 
cents per pound. Most profitable grade of wool, in my opinion, 
cross of Merinos and Cotswolds. Six years about as long as 
profitable to keep sheep. My loss from natural causes about 
five per cent, ; none from disease, wolves or dogs ; sheep herded 
during day, at night kept in corral. Put my sheep on prairie as 
soon as grass is high enough in spring, and keep there till fall, 
then turn into corn-field; when that is eaten, feed shock-corn 
remainder of winter. Have owned sheep twenty-one years ; 
they have always been profitable ; some years have made ninety 
per cent., and with exception of one or two years, never less 
than fifty per cent, on the investment. Do not think it best to 
keep goats with sheep. Greatest drawback to success, dogs. 
They are a great nuisance, and should be heavily taxed." 

A. B. Boylan, Lakin, Kearney Countyy in the extreme west of 
the State. — "Have been in the sheep business in Kansas three 
years. My flock now numbers 500; 1,000 may be successfully 
kept in one flock. Original stock of ewes came from New 
Mexico, rams from Kansas ; rams from the East do not do well 
here first season ; Missouri ewes must be acclimated. Colorado 
half-bred ewes bred to pure Merino bucks are most profitable 
for both wool and mutton. Annual increase in my flock, seventy 
per cent. ; Mexican sheep are most prolific. Fleeces from my 
sheep average four and a quarter pounds. Kansas City is our 
market for mutton. Ewes are worth %2 ; wethers, %\."]^ to «^2. 
Sold clip of 1879 at 253^ cents. Sheep can be kept with profit 
till four years old. My losses from natural causes, about five 
percent, per annum; have lost no sheep by disease or dogs; 
wolves have killed fifteen head in three years. During summer 
my sheep range the prairie, and are corraled at night ; in winter, 
are on the prairie except during storms, when they are kept 
under sheds ; if the storm lasts more than from six to ten hours, 
they are fed with hay ; have never had grain, and at no time 
have consumed ten pounds of hay per head during winter. 
Original stock cost $350; have sold wool and mutton to the 
amount of ^530.40, and have on hand 512 sheep worth %2 each. 



410 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

or ^1,024. Goats are advantageous to lead sheep; there are 
eight in my flock, that lead the sheep out in the morning and 
back at night. I see no drawback to successful sheep culture 
here ; if sheep are sheltered from storms, and not allowed to get 
chilled, there is no fear of disease." 

y. L. Grlnnell, Peabody, Marion County. — " Have raised sheep 
here four years ; was never in the business elsewhere. Have 
500 now ; ewes from Iowa, bucks from Missouri, They do bet- 
ter second year than first. For wool, a cross of Merino and 
Cotswold is most profitable ; for mutton, Southdown, or cross of 
Southdown and Cotswold ; and this last is also preferable for 
both wool and mutton. Increase in my flock "was 108 lambs 
from 100 ewes. Cotswolds are most prolific. Average weight 
of fleece from my sheep, six and a quarter pounds. Only local 
market for mutton ; price, ^3 per head. Delaine or combing- 
wool most profitable. Pays to keep wethers until four years old 
for wool, rather than to sell younger for mutton ; good breeding 
ewes should be kept until exhausted. Losses from natural 
causes, about three per cent, per annum ; none by disease or 
wolves ; dogs killed this year about one and a half per cent. My 
flock is herded by day and corraled at night during summer; in 
winter, kept in yards with good sheds ; on fair days, allowed to 
range in stalk-fields. 

Original cost of flock $75o 

Original cost of bucks 200 

Lost by dogs 220 

Lost by other causes * 300 

Total. $1,470 

Value of wool sold {81,340 

Value of mutton sold 273 

Present value of flock 1,600 

Total $3,213 

Drawbacks are want of tame grass for fall pasture, and dogs. 

yoseph Hostetier, Glasco, Cloud Counly. — " Have been raising 
sheep for six years in Kansas ; previously handled sheep in 
Fayette county, Pennsylvania. Some of the advantages Kansas 



HOW MR. HOSTETTER SUCCEEDED. .^^ 

possesses over Pennsylvania are : less expense in handlino-, 
cheaper feed and pasture, a drier and more healthy climate, and 
shorter winters. Have now 650 ; obtained my rams in 
Pennsylvania and Wisconsin ; ewes I bought in Kansas — the 
stock coming originally from Ohio. For wool I deem the 
American Merino most profitable ; do not know what breed or 
cross would be most profitable for mutton ; have always raised 
for wool, mutton being a secondary object ; for both wool and 
mutton, should prefer a cross from Cotswold ewes with Merino 
rams. Average annual increase of my flock, about ninety per 
cent, of number of ewes. Maximum weight of fleece twenty- 
five pounds, minimum two, average eight pounds ten ounces. 
Kansas City is our market for mutton. Price of ewes ranges 
from $2.50 to $4 ; wethers, ^2 to $2.50. My clip of 1879 sold for 
twenty-two and a quarter cents per pound. Most profitable 
grade of wool, long Merino. Keep my wethers for wool till they 
are four years old ; good ewes may be kept profitably till they 
die. Losses in my flock from natural causes are about one per 
cent, annually, and some from all other causes. My sheep 
are herded through the summer; during middle of hot days, keep 
them in the shade ; allow plenty of water and salt, and corral at 
night. During winter feed all the prairie hay they will eat, and 
a bushel of corn to each 100 head per day; also range them on 
the stalk fields and on prairie, in good weather ; have good 
warm sheds in the corral, which are always open to them; never 
shut them up except during bad storms and at lambing-time. 
Sheep eat about one and a half tons of hay per 100 head 
each month. Cost and profit of my flock last season was as 
follows : 

490 head, at $3, (190 ewes) $\,/\,'jo 00 

Interest I year, at 10 per cent 147 00 

Herding 7 months, at $5 35 00 

700 bushels corn, at 15 cents 105 00 

35 tones hay, at $2 70 00 

Shearing, 5 cents per head 25 00 

Loss, 5 head, at JS3 ^5 00 

Total ;?i,867 00 



4.12 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



Spring of 1879, 650 head at ;^3 , . . ^1,950 00 

Wool, 4,191 lbs., at 22jX cents 932 50 

Total ^2,882 50 

Profit $1,015 50 



" Being too poor to buy sheep Is the only drawback I know of 
to successful sheep husbandry in Kansas. From my experience, 
I find that where a farmer takes good care of his sheep, it always 
proves a success, and I think it is to-day the best paying business 
in the country." 

H. Mathics, Halstead, Harvey County. — " Have had five years* 
experience in sheep-culture here, and some years in Central 
Iowa. Points in favor of Kansas for sheep-raising are, mild, dry 
climate, less cold rains in lambing-time, great variety of rich 
grass, longer time for grazing, and less feed required. My flock 
numbers 750; original stock came from Illinois and Missouri; 
prefer Kansas sheep. Merinos are most profitable for wool ; 
for mutton, Cotswolds crossed with Southdown; for both wool 
and mutton. Merino ewes crossed with Cotswold bucks. Fleeces 
from my flock average five pounds. Ewes are worth $2.50 to 
<^3. Sold wool of 1879 for twenty-five cents. Most profitable 
wool is from lonQf-wooled Merinos. Should never sell wethers 
before maturity. Sheep may be profitably kept till five or six 
years old. No losses from other than natural causes, about 
three per cent, annually. My flock is herded, and corraled at 
night. During summer are kept on open prairie ; watered once 
a day. Have salt in a trough in corral at all times. Have a 
good shed, open to south, in winter; feed about five bushels of 
corn a day ; sometimes feed straw, but usually hay, giving all 
they will eat ; in nice weather, often turn them on the prairie. 

"The flock has cost about ^1,068; expenses, $302; total, 
;|^i,37o; receipts to date, ^2,315 ; present value of flock, ^2,085; 
total, ^4,400. Deduct cost, $1,370 ; net income, ;^3,030. Want 
of shade in summer, and carelessness on the part of owners, 
are the drawbacks to successful sheep husbandry.. 

"A practice prevails in some parts of the State by which a 
farmer who has a flock of sheep, but who prefers to give his 



RENTING OUT SHEEP. .,. 

attention to the cultivation of the soil, rents his flock to another 
sheep-master, who manages it as skilfully as he knows how, 
selling off the older and lower grade ewes and wethers, and 
makes up their number from the increase of the flock, shears 
and sells the wool and gives to the owner of the flock one-half 
of the proceeds of the sales and wool, and one-half of the lambs 
after the losses and sales are made good. By this plan it is said 
that the owner of the flock realizes about thirty per cent, on his 
investment." 

But it is true, as Colonel James says, that the proportional 
profit from large flocks is greater than from small ones, and 
this profit increases in almost a geometrical ratio, when the flock 
reaches its tens of thousands. In illustration of this we give 
statements thoroughly verified of two sheep-ranches or farms of 
more than 2,000 sheep, the first that of Mr. G. H. Wadsworth, 
of Pawnee county, in Southwest Kansas, south of the Arkansas 
river, as furnished by him with illustrations of buildings, corrals, 
etc., to the Kansas State Board of Asfriculture ; and the other a 
sheep-farm in Colorado, started in 1875 t>y a Mr. C, formerly 
of Geneva, N. Y., as reported by Mr. W. H. Coleman in the 
Christian Union, of May 19, 1880. 

"In March, 1876, Mr. G. H. Wadsworth took up under the 
Homestead and Timber-Culture Acts 320 acres of government 
land, situated eleven miles south of the Arkansas river, in Pawnee 
county, and the same distance from Lamed, the county-seaL 
The first improvement on the land was the building of a stable, 
consisting of six posts covered with straw, sided up with rough 
lumber, with sod wall on the outside. This house was used by 
the men breaking prairie and opening up the farm, during the 
summer. In August of the same year, Mr. Wadsworth moved 
his family to his farm. In October, he brought his flock, 2,085 
head in all, and turned on the range. Before winter set in Mr. 
Wadsworth had built two sheep-sheds, each one hundred and 
twenty-eight feet long by twenty-nine feet wide, one running 
east and west, cornering with the other running north and south, 
forming two sides of a square pointing to the northwest and 
open to the southeast. A light portable fence running around 



^14 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the Open sides of this square completed the corral. A stable 
was also built, measuring fourteen by thirty-two feet, and con- 
nectine with the south end of the shed running north and south. 
At the same time a well was dug, thirty feet deep, and a wind- 
mill put up, with a capacity for raising water for 10,000 sheep. 
In 1877, Mr. Wadsworth built his present residence at a cost 
of about ^1,500; and in 1879, a granary large enough to hold 
2,500 bushels of wheat, with shed for farming implements and 
two buggies, twenty-four by thirty-two feet, at a cost of $100. 
The roof was thatched with broom-corn, and fastened with wire. 
There are no fences on the farm except the portable one around 
the corral, the herd law being in force in the county. On the 
right are two sheds, one hundred and twenty-eight by twenty- 
nine feet each, which cost, including corral, $525, the lumber 
used costing ^30 per thousand feet. On the south, and connect- 
ine with the shed runnincf north and south, is the stable, fourteen 
by thirty-two feet, which cost ^20. Next south is the sod shanty, 
the first home, which cost $75. Farther south is the granary 
and tool-shed already mentioned, while back of this is the new 
home. The wind-mill cost $50 ; the well underneath, ^20. Near 
the wind-mill is a reservoir made of two-inch plank, five by six- 
teen, and three feet deep, supplying four troughs, each sixteen 
feet long and one foot wide ; ample to water 4,000 sheep ; cost 
^35. Near the well are appliances for dipping. The boiler is . 
eighteen inches deep, thirty inches wide, and eight feet long, with 
plank sides and galvanized iron bottom, in a clay and partly 
excavated furnace; the smoke-stack is ten-inch stove-pipe — total 
cost, %']. The dipping-vat is built of two-inch pine, and is six- 
teen inches wide, five feet deep, and twelve feet long at the top. 
The end farthest from the dripping-platform is perpendicular, 
but the end nearest the platform slopes from the upper edge 
inward, for six feet, or to the middle of the vat, forming at once 
the end and the bottom of one-half of it. On this slope are 
nailed cross-slats, to give the sheep a foothold to walk out. It 
leads to the dripping-platform, an ascending inclined plane, six- 
teen feet long by ten feet wide, divided by a fence supporting a 
cut-gate at the lower end, and at the upper end a gate for each 



MR. WADSWORTH'S SHEEP-RANCHE. ^jr 

division. The floor is made of matched stuff, with half-inch 
strips covering the joints. Over these, and crossways, are nailed 
inch strips, to give the sheep a foothold. The half-inch strips 
make the floor water-tight, make a clear run-way under the 
cross-slats for the drip, and guide it back to the vat. When one 
division of the platform is filled with drying sheep, the cut-gate 
is swung so as to shut them in and open the lower end of the 
other division. When this is nearly filled, the upper gate of the 
first division is opened, and the sheep are driven out by way of 
the descending platform, making room to gather in a fresh let 
from the vat while those in the other division are dripping. 
These steps are repeated until all are dipped, thereby economiz- 
ino- time and fluid. 

" The portable corral fence is so arranged that the pen from 
which the sheep are taken to the vat holds only loo sheep at a 
time, and connects by a gate with a larger pen capable of hold- 
ing i,ooo. The liquor used for dipping is made of tobacco, fifty 
pounds, sulphur two pounds, and arsenic one pound, for each 
lOO sheep ; cost, $2.30. The liquor is prepared the day previous 
to dipping, when the large reservoir from the well is brought 
into use. The liquor is boiled and run off into this reservoir. 
On dipping-day the liquor is run back into the boiler, again 
heated, and gradually fed into the vat as needed — since it is 
much more effective when used warm. Cost of vat, ^10.50, dip- 
ping-platform, |,6, and boiler, ^7 ; cost of apparatus complete, 
^23.50, with which four men can dip 3,000 sheep in one day. 
The sub-ranche is six miles from the farm — its improvements 
consisting of shepherds' sod house, ^50 ; well, wind-mill, and 
watering-troughs, ^100; with sheds and corral for 2,000 sheep, 
$400; total, $550. 

Mr. Wadsworth furnishes the following statement of receipts 
and expenditures for the three years he has been engaged in the 
sheep business on his present farm : 

COST OF RANCHE. 

Shepherds' house ^75 00 

Sheds and corral 525 00 

Windmill, well, and watering-troughs ... 105 00 



4i6 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



Dipping-vats, boiler, etc ^23 50 

Incidentals 50 00 



Total $778 50 

The land on which the ranchc is located was homesteaded, and 
cost the usual government fees. Operations commenced Octo- 
ber I, 1876, with 1,000 ewes, 1,062 wethers and lambs, and 23 
bucks — 2,085 head in all. 

Receipts and expenses for the year ending October i, 1877: 



EXPENSES. 

Two shepherds .... $600 00 

Shearing 150 00 

Dipping 85 00 

Grain . 210 00 

Hay 200 00 

23 sheep, died 57 5° 

15 sheep, killed by wolves 

and dogs 37 50 



RECEIPTS. 

Wool sold ■ $i)95o 00 

Ewes sold ij250 00 

Wethers and bucks sold . . 225 5° 



Total ;^i,34o 00 

For year ending October i, 1878: 

EXPENSES. 



Total ^3*425 50 



Two shepherds .... $600 00 

Grain 175 00 

Hay 140 00 

Shearing 150 00 

Dipping 85 CO 

14 sheep, died 35 00 

13 sheep, killed by wolves 

and dogs 32 50 



RECEIPTS. 



Wool sold $2,150 00 

Ewes sold i>375 00 

Wethers and bucks sold . . 762 50 



Total $1,217 50 

For year ending October i, 1879 

EXPENSES. 

Two shepherds . . . 

Grain 

Hay 

Shearing, dipping, etc. . 
16 sheep, died . . . . 



Total ^$4,287 50 



$600 


00 


I 20 


00 


125 


00 


300 


00 


40 


00 



Total ^r,i8s 00 



RECEIPTS. 

Wool sold $1,800 00 

Ewes and wethers . . . 1,750 00 



Total $3,550 00 



A COLORADO SHERP FARM. .^j 

For these three years the total expenses are ^3,742.50, total 
receipts, ^i 1,263, leaving a net cash profit of ^7,420.50 on orig- 
inal investment of ^4,948.50. The original flock was worth ^2 
each, or ^4,170 in all. From this he has graded up a flock of 
2,200, all young and in fine condition, valued at ^3 each, or 
$6,600 in all. This gives an additional profit of 5^2,430. The 
entire original stock of ewes and wethers has been disposed of 
by the ordinary sales, so that only young and well-graded sheep 
now remain. 

Mr. Wadsworth combines general farming with sheep-raising. 
In addition to the 320 acres secured from the government, he 
has bought 480 more, at a cost of $1,400. 

In 1877, he had twenty acres in wheat, yielding 400 bushels; 
in 1878, he had 130 acres in wheat, yielding 3,000 bushels; in 
1879, he had 75 acres in wheat, yielding 858 bushels. And 
now he has growing seventy-five acres of wheat and forty acres 
of rye. The wheat has pastured the sheep every winter, much 
to the benefit of both. 

The items of hay and grain in the statements of expenses 
were not bought, but raised on the farm, and the charge against 
the sheep account is placed to the credit of the former account. 
Millet, rye, and wheat straw, with corn sown thick, cut green 
and cured, are used as the principal winter feed, about one ton 
of fodder being required for every 100 sheep. 

Mr, Coleman's narrative of the Colorado sheep-ranche is as 
follows : 

In the fall of 1 874, G., a young man of consumptive tendencies, 
after several years of office work in Geneva, N. Y., and elsewhere, 
found his health steadily failing, and was led to spend the winter 
in Colorado. He rapidly improved during his stay there, and by 
spring had decided to remain and engage in sheep-farming. He 
entered eighty acres under the homestead law, in El Paso county, 
about twenty- five miles from Colorado Springs, and stocked it 
with 1,250 long-wooled Mexican sheep, at $2 delivered, and 
twenty-five Merino bucks from the east at $25 each. He was 
industrious and a good manager, and now, at the end of five 
27 



4l8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

years, he has eighteen ranches,* 6,000 sheep, and occupies 100 
square miles of land. The slender, delicate young man has 
grown rugged and robust, and weighs 184 pounds. From letters 
and conversations I propose to briefly outline the character of a 
Colorado sheep-farm. 

A ranche or ranch is a definite term for a spring of water and 
some rude buildings, and an indefinite amount of grazing land. 
These springs are found at various points on the plains, mostly 
in ravines, and several miles apart, and the owner is entitled, by 
mutual consent of the farmers, to graze the land on either side 
halfway to the next spring. It is an object therefore to buy as 
many springs and as little land as possible. In securing new 
ranches, G. would enter them in his herdsmen's names, and then 
buy of them at a low figure. The spring is literally the main- 
spring of sheep-farming, as the land is valueless without water, 
and wells have been sunk 600 and 800 feet without obtaininof 
water. There is neither dew nor rain except for a brief time in^ 
spring. The water is carefully used, being pumped into reser- 
voirs, and the sheep watered from troughs. 

The native grass is thin and wiry, and grows in bunches six or 
eicht inches hieh. Once eaten off it does not renew itself in the 
same season. The sheep are pastured all the year round, and 
hay is fed only when the grass is buried in snow. The range 
needed for each sheep is five acres, as frequent shifting is neces- 
sary. 

The buildings are a pitch-pine cabin for the ranchmen, and a 
corral or sheep-pen, 100 by 150 feet square, and enclosed by a 
tight board-fence six feet high. It has no roof, as experience 
shows that sheep in covered pens are often smothered by snow- 
drifts. When exposed to a storm the sheep pack together and 
keep warm. After the pasturage at one ranche is exhausted 
the furniture of the cabin, the pump, and the troughs are carried 
to the ranche that is next used. 

The ranchmen are often intelligent Eastern men, who have 

*In most of the Western States and Territories the ranche or ranch is the name ajiplied to 
the entire sheep or cattle-farm, and these sections of it, to which the sheep are moved for new 
pasture, are called sub-ranches, or, as in Australia, statiojis. 



THE SHEPHERD'S MONOTONOUS LIFE. a\(\ 

come to Colorado for their health. They get about %20 per 
month and board. Two usually occupy the same cabin for com- 
pany, and each man is to take care of about 2,000 sheep. They 
do most of their cooking- at night, after the day's work is over, 
so as to start out at sunrise, and be with the sheep during the 
day. Contrary to the common idea, they do not ride, but o-o 
afoot, and seldom use dogs — if the owner knows it. Their pro- 
visions are brought to them at regular intervals, and are chiefly 
canned fruits and flour. They get their meat from the flock. So 
great is the consumption of baking-powder (which is a costly 
article) that G. finally bought it by the barrel, and issued regular 
(diluted) rations. 

The work of the herdmen is monotonous. The sheep are to 
be driven and watched by day, and watered and corraled at 
night, and that is about all there is to it, most of the time. 
Sundays are the same as other days, and the ranchman soon 
forgets the days of the week. At night he plays cards, or, if he 
has books and papers, which is rare, he reads. G. takes pains 
to save papers and distribute them in rotation to his men. Dur- 
ing storms the sheep are held in the corral for several days, but 
are then driven out, even if the storm has not abated, and from 
the wind-swept spots they get a bite. Every day they are counted 
in a rough way, by counting up all the black sheep, whose num- 
ber is known, and once a week they are separately counted by 
passing them through a narrow passage into the corral. By the 
use of a swing-gate the sheep can be diverted to either part of 
the corral, when it is desired to separate any grade or class of 
sheep. There is a steady leakage in a large flock, and when 
counted they are always three or four short. 

The lambing time is arranged to come in May, to avoid the 
rains of March and April. The percentage of loss is usually 
small in a well-managed herd. Two years ago 2,225 ewes raised 
2,006 lambs. One hundred and thirty-eight were dropped in one 
day, and in ten days 1,100. Up to January 13. 1878, only two 
sheep and three lambs were lost out of 4,700. But the following 
winter was very severe, and the lambing of 1879 was reduced to 
an average of fifty to fifty-five per cent. G.'s was sixty- eight per 



^20 ^^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

cent., and he lost 175 laml3S. The clip of wool was also reduced. 
When 1,000 sheep and 1,000 lambs are turned into the corral 
there is a tremendous bleating until the lambs and their mothers 
get together. A long, narrow pen, with divisions holding one sheep 
each, is used for the sheep without lambs. A motherless lamb 
is given to each one, and they are kept together until the lamb 
is owned — usually two days. The bottom boards of the pen are 
nailed on the outside of the posts, so that the lambs can slip under 
when in dancrer of beinor lain on. The lambs are weaned the 
first of October, and taken to another ranche. 

Shearing is usually done in June, but G. waits till July, both to 
gain in weight of fleece (a sheep sometimes gains a pound of 
wool-weight in a hot week), and to get help at a lower figure 
than he could when everybody was shearing. The work is don<; 
by Mexicans, who come north for the purpose. They get five 
cents per sheep, and shear fifty to one hundred per day, using 
shears with very long blades. The sheep are not washed. A 
Mexican sheep shears thirty cents' w^orth of wool, a grade sheep 
one dollar's worth. G.'s shearing is done by twelve men in two 
weeks. As fast as the fleeces are delivered to the tyer the 
shearer receives a ticket, and at the close of the shearing two or 
three men are usually found to hold all the tickets. The Mexi- 
cans are ereat ^amblers, and contrive to lose their earnino-s 
before they are in hand. Each fleece is put in a box with four 
strings, and tied, then put in large sacks holding 500 or 600 
pounds each. These are drawn to market by a "bull team;" 
either three wagons fastened together and drawn by twelve yoke 
of oxen, or one wagon drawn by seven yoke. G.'s clip of 1878 
was 18,000 pounds, which cost two cents by rail to Boston, and 
netted there twenty cents per pound. It can, however, be sold 
to good advantage at Colorado Springs, and the clip of 1879, 
20,000 pounds, G. "pooled" with a neighbor who had 30,000 
pounds, and by careful watching of the market, with weekly tele- 
grams from an Eastern wool-house, the lot was sold for twenty- 
four and a-half, when others were getting twenty and twenty-two 
cents. El Paso county wool is rated two or three cents higher 
than other wools, but the cold weather of the previous winter 
reduced the clip an average of one pound per head. 



SUCCESS OF THE COLORADO SHEEP-FARM. .^j 

Diseases do not trouble sheep as at the East. Foot-rot dis- 
appears, the dimate is so dry. Scab is cured by a strono- tobacco 
wash, made in a vat through which the sheep are driven, and up 
an incline plane, which saves the drip. Ticks are killed by it 
also. The losses in sheep-farming are caused by insufficient 
shelter, poor feeding and nursing, and the inroads of rattlesnakes 
and wolves. 

A summary of G.'s investment is as follows: 

1,250 ewes bought in iS 75 at ^2 , ^2,500 00 

Merino rams 1,000 00 

3,500 00 
Five years' sale of wool ;^i2,5oo 00 

1,000 old Mexicans and others sold 2,500 00 

15,000 00 

Value of present herd 15,000 00 

He raised 2,000 lambs in 1879, ^""^ ^'^^ have 2,500 ewes in 
1880. He proposes when his flock of 6,000 is increased to 
10,000, to send the surplus lambs in the fall to Western Kansas, 
where corn is cheapest, feed till spring, and ship to Chicago, 
where diey will bring $4.50 per head ; $2.50 will cover expenses. 
But the Leadville excitement is opening a home market, which 
may change this plan. A neighbor sold 775 wethers for $3,100 
($4 each), hay and grain being scarce this winter, and G. was 
offered the same price for 500 three-year olds, but declined it. 

We have already (in Part I.) given an account of those great 
sheep-farms where the flocks number 30,000, 50,000 or even 
80,000 head, and the profits are reckoned by tens of thousands 
of dollars annually. The men who own these great properties 
must have begun, or would now find it necessary to begin, with 
from $1 5,000 to $50,000 or more, of capital ; and many who have 
come to the West from Europe v/ith more than the latter sum 
have, after two or three years' experiments with sheep-farming, 
been sold out by the sheriff, and in some instances have been 
obliged to seek employment as shepherds, perhaps on the same 
ranche where they had once been proprietors. The counties of 
El Paso, Pueblo, Huerfano, Fremont, Las Animas and Bent, in 
Colorado, have many stories to tell of these young men who 



422 <^<^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

played the Grand Seignior on so large a scale, and would come 
into Colorado Springs or Pueblo, driving their four-in-hands and 
spending several days at a time in reckless dissipation. Neglect- 
ing their business, they were constantly fleeced by sharpers, till 
their capital was all expended, and they were often too far down 
in the scale of social demoralization, to retrace their steps and 
regain their lost manhood. No man can succeed either in stock- 
raising, sheep-farming or general agriculture, who does not give 
his whole thoughts and attention to his business. There are 
duties which must be performed by subordinates, but unless the 
eye of the master is constantly over them, and he understands 
when they perform their duties properly, and exercises proper 
discipline and authority, besides performing his own special 
duties, there will be neglect and heavy losses. One of the class 
of wealthy proprietors in Colorado, and one of the best of them, 
for he did, to some extent, superintend his sheep-farm, had 
directed, in the autumn of 1877, sheds to be built for the protec- 
tion of his sheep from the severe snow storms which once in 
eight or ten years visit that region, and also ordered the gather- 
ing of a quantity of wild hay for them. But his orders were dis- 
regarded, and in March, 1878, his flock, or at least a section of 
it, of over 1,000 sheep, were caught, and they, and the Mexican 
shepherd who tended them, followed each other over the brink 
of a deep gulch, and fell over into the gulch and were lost. 
Late in the spring the melting of the snow uncovered, in that 
Big Corral Gulch, the bodies of a thousand sheep or more, and 
among them, amid evidences of his struggle to save his sheep, 
lay also the body of the faithful Mexican shepherd. It was not 
in Palestine alone that it could be said, " the good shepherd 
giveth his life for his sheep." 

There can be no question, that to the wool-grower whose only 
object is to realize a fortune speedily in sheep-farming, New- 
Mexico offers the greatest inducements. The climate is pleasant, 
though dry ; there is not much agreeable society, and very 
little enterprise among the inhabitants, it is true, the old Spanish 
forms and formalities and the iron yoke of Jesuitism oppress 
and Impoverish the people, but emigrants from other lands and 



SHEEP-FARMING IN NEW MEXICO. 423 

from the Eastern States are cordially received, and both the 
mining and stock-raising interests are being developed with con- 
siderable rapidity. The present Chief-Justice of the Territory, 
Hon. L. Bradford Prince, says that " sheep-raising is the most 
important industry in the Territory ; the region for sheep-farms 
extends from the headwaters of the Canadian river in the ex- 
treme east to the San Juan country in the far northwest. The 
sheep of New Mexico are already counted by the million, but 
there is abundant room for new enterprises both as to number 
and quality. To commence the business properly requires a 
capital of ^5,000, which will buy 2,000 sheep and provide for all 
necessary expenses until a regular income is derived from the 
flock. No business can be safer, surer or more healthful ; but, 
like all others, it requires work and attention ; and if any one 
thinks that sheep-raising is to be conducted profitably by living 
in town and having flocks roaming the prairies under irresponsi- 
ble herdsmen, without personal attention, he had better remain 
at the East." 

The native sheep of New Mexico is a descendant of the Span- 
ish Merinos, brought there 340 years ago, and has degenerated 
from its early type, but when bred with pure improved Spanish 
Merino bucks it is capable of becoming in the third or fourth 
generation a most valuable sheep for wool, and the wool product 
is there much more valuable than the mutton product. The 
flock doubles every year under good management; it is said to 
be capable of demonstration that sheep can be well kept, through- 
out the year, at a cost not exceeding fifteen cents the head, and 
that the yield of wool, beginning with two pounds for each ewe 
and two and a half for each wether, can be increased in five 
years by careful breeding to five and six pounds per head, and 
the quality of the wool so much improved that it will bring 
from twenty to twenty-eight cents per pound. In other Territo- 
ries and States it is said, that the Mexican ewe, especially the im- 
proved ewe, which is the product of a cross with other and larger 
breeds, seldom or never bears twins ; but in New Mexico twin 
lambs are so common that their number fully makes up for any 
losses in the flock, and it is an underestimate to reckon the 



^24 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

annual increase of the flock at one hundred per cent, of the ewes. 
As the mutton Is of no particular account in New Mexico, the 
whole profit turning upon the wool, the young wethers at two 
years old are exchanged, after shearing, for more ewes to increase 
the stock of wool-producers. A sheep-farmer, in three years' 
time, beginning with a flock of 5,000 ewes and 100 bucks, will 
have 18,000 sheep and lambs, and will shear from 40,000 to 
50,000 pounds of wool, and in five years he will shear 40,000 
sheep and obtain 120,000 pounds of wool or more. In New 
Mexico, while the rainfall is scanty, the snow and rain on the 
mountains fill the streams, and the facilities for irrigation and for 
preserving the water in reservoirs are generally good. Sheep 
thrive better in a dry than in a wet country, and they require 
water but once a day, and this they can have without difficulty. 
Artesian wells generally succeed well on the plains in this Terri- 
tory. 

There are no diseases here to which sheep are liable, and the 
few destroyed by wild animals are the principal losses. The 
corrals are usually of adobe or sun-dried bricks, and can easily 
be made, where they are not already, proof against wild animals. 
Neither the jaguar nor the grizzly bear are found in New 
Mexico, and the cougar or panther and gray wolf are not 
abundant. The brown or cinnamon and the black bear seldom 
attack sheep when in care of a shepherd, and never in a corral, 
and the coyotes are too cowardly to attack any except the sick, 
lame, or wounded. No provision for sheep in the winter is 
necessary in New Mexico. There are no heavy snows there, 
except high up in the mountains, and the floods which sometimes 
pour down such torrents of water into the Rio Grande and its 
tributaries, are either skilfully turned into the reservoirs for 
irrigation, or are drank up by the thirsty sands of the river beds. 

The railways which already traverse, or will soon cross the 
Territory in different directions, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa 
Fe and its branches, the Denver and Rio Grande, the St. Louis 
and San Francisco, and perhaps also the Atlantic and Pacific, or 
a branch of the Texas Pacific, will make New Mexico convenient 
of access, and enable her to send her products to market on 
favorable terms. 



SHEEP-FARMING IN CALIFORNIA. ^25 

California is favorably situated for sheep-farming, especially 
Southern California, but the higher price of her lands, and the 
fact that so large a portion of them are arable, renders the busi- 
ness somewhat less profitable than in New Mexico, thouo-h she 
has a better market for wool in San Francisco, and more encour- 
agement to grade her flocks up to the best quality of both felt- 
ing and combing-wools, and higher inducements to raise sheep 
for mutton, as well as for wool. The California flocks number 
nearly 8,000,000 sheep, and include some of the best breeds to 
be found on this continent both for wool and mutton. In South- 
ern California the flocks are driven to the hills in the summer 
and return when the autumnal rains have started the new grass 
on the foot-hills and on the plains. Alfalfa, Hungarian grass, 
and the millets are raised largely for forage for the best breeds 
of sheep, and their use tends to produce the uniformly fine fibre 
so characteristic of the best grades of California wool. 

The sheep-farming of Montana, Idaho, Washington, and 
Oregon, as well as that of Dakota and Minnesota, difl'ers from 
that of the States and Territories farther south mainly in the 
necessity for more ample provision for shelter and fodder for 
winter, and the greater length of the winter season. The flocks 
in most of these States and Territories (Oregon only excepted) 
are seldom very large ; the aggregate sheep of the other five 
States and Territories probably aggregating not much over 
2,000,000, while Oregon alone has about 1,500,000. Eventually 
[7robably Washington, Montana, Dakota, and perhaps Idaho will 
be found to be well adapted to the raising of fine wooled sheep. 
Utah, also, is a good sheep country, though there is in some 
parts of the Territory a lack of water. 

Wyoming is better adapted to catde than sheep, and Nevada 
will probably raise a larger proportion of cattle than sheep, 
though perhaps not very large numbers of either. 

To recapitulate : we believe for the sheep-farmer who has but 
a very moderate capital, say not more than ^2,500 or ^3,000, 
New Mexico offers the best opportunity, and Kansas and Ne- 
braska the next best ; for those with somewhat larger capital, 
from $5,000 to $15,000, Colorado, Southern California or Texas, 



^26 C»^'-^'' WESTERN EMPIRE. 

if they wish to avoid buildingr shelters and gathering fodder. 
Oregon, Montana, Dakota, and perhaps Utah, if they are not 
averse to these precautions. Those having a larger amount of 
capital can do well in Texas, better, perhaps, in California, and 
still better in Colorado or New Mexico ; while, if they choose to 
make the provision for wintering their sheep, Wyoming, Mon- 
tana or Dakota afford excellent opportunities for conducting 
sheep-ranches of the largest kind and with excellent profits. 
For mutton sheep and lambs, which will, at the same time, yield 
large fleeces of combing- wools, the succulent pastures of Mon- 
tana and Dakota afford the best feeding grounds, and they also 
furnish orasses which make the fibre of the Merino wool long, 
even and fme. 

We give here a few brief descriptions of the different breeds 
of sheep most popular throughout the West, for which we are 
indebted to the late Hon. Alfred Gray, Secretary of the Kansas 
State Board of Agriculture. 

The Merino is a fine white-wool sheep, of a dark, greasy 
appearance, medium size, snug build, body shortish, round and 
thick, good quarters, legs short, stout and woolly, ears short, 
cheeks and forehead to the eyes thickly covered with wool, skin 
wrinkled or in folds, weight loo to i8o pounds, fleece twelve to 
twenty-nine pounds, wool two to three inches long. The rams 
* have curled and convoluted horns. It is classed as a wool sheep. 

Histoiy. — The Merino originated in Spain, in the first century. 
It is a cross between the Tarantine, of Southern Italy, and the 
best native sheep of Spain, and was introduced into the United 
States in 1800. In Spain, this breed was driven from the south 
northward every spring, 400 miles, and back in the fall ; each 
journey was made in six weeks. The name. Merino, is a modi- 
fied form of the name of the special officer in charge of this 
highly valued breed. 

The Southdown is a whitish, coarse, short-wool, hornless 
sheep, medium size, fine form, well-balanced proportions, hind- 
quarters square and full, thighs massive, breast broad, fore- 
quarters well developed, legs short and trim, face and legs dark- 
brown or black and without wool. Yearlings yield seventy-five 



BREEDS OF SHEEP. .27 

to eighty pounds, dressed weight. Average weight of fleece 
about six pounds. Its wool makes flannel and soft goods. It 
is classed as a mutton sheep. 

History. — 1 he Southdown is an English breed, developed by 
carefully inbreeding common sheep inhabiting the hilly portions 
of Southern England from its earliest history. The improve- 
ment began about one hundred years ago. The name of the 
breed is taken from the low chalk hills or downs of Southern 
England, where it was developed. 

The Hampsiiiredown is a whitish, coarse, medium-wool, horn- 
less sheep, good size, much resembling the Southdown, but 
larger, and with longer and coarser wool. Yearlings weigh 
eighty to a hundred pounds, and yield a fleece of six to seven 
pounds. It is a mutton sheep. 

History. — The Hampshiredown originated in England about 
seventy years ago, in a cross between a pure Southdown and a 
white-faced horned sheep of that district, from the " downs " of 
which section it derives its name. 

The Leicester is a white, medium, coarse, long-wool sheep, of 
large size, square and angular build, long, slender, clean head 
and ears. Eyes and facial bones about the eyes prominent, 
hind-quarters tapering toward the tail, legs good length, slender 
and clean. Yearlings dress loo pounds and at two years 150 
pounds. Full grown have reached 380 pounds, live weight. 
Average weight of fleece seven to eight pounds. It is a mutton 
sheep. 

History. — This breed was developed in England over 100 
years ago by a Mr. Bakewell, from the common sheep of 
Leicestershire, from which district it derives its name. The 
method of breeding was kept secret. They were introduced 
into the United States by General Washington. 

The Lincoln is a white, coarse, long-wool, hornless sheep, 
surpassing all other breeds in weight of body and length of 
wool. It has dressed ninety-six and a quarter pounds to the 
quarter. Two year-olds dress i 20 to 160 pounds, and yield a 
fleece of ten to fourteen pounds washed wool, measuring nine 
inches and over in length — used for worsteds. It is a mutton 
sheep. 



^2$ O^^ WE STERN EMPIRE. 

History. — The Lincoln originated in England less than loo 
years ago, as a cross between a Leicester and a common breed 
now extinct, but then inhabiting the low, alluvial and rich 
herbaged flats of Lincolnshire, from which it takes its name and 
where it best flourishes. 

The Cotswold is a white, coarse, long-wool, hornless sheep, 
large size, long bodied, broadening from shoulders to rump, head 
well tapered from ears to nose, finely proportioned, and covered 
to between the eyes with a thick forelock of wool, ears long and 
well formed, legs good length, well shaped and clean. Weight 
of yearlings about 120 pounds; full grown have dressed 344 
pounds. Weight of fleece about eight pounds. Wool some- 
times nine inches long, and widely used for woollens. It is a 
mutton and wool sheep. 

History. — The Cotswold originated in England less than 
100 years ago, as a cross between a Leicester and descendants 
of common sheep imported from Spain in the twelfth century. Its 
name conv-s from the cots or huts built in the hilly wolds or fields 
where it was developed and established. 

OxFORDDOWN is a whidsh, coarse, long-wool, hornless sheep of 
medium size, round bodied and short legged, face and legs 
dark, a Cotswold-shaped head and thick-set and somewhat curly 
fleece of eight to nine pounds of wool five to seven inches long, 
used for worsteds. At fourteen months it dresses eighty to 
eighty-eight pounds. A mutton and wool sheep. 

Histo7y.- — The Oxforddown originated in Oxfordshire, England, 
since 1830, whence Its name. It Is a cross between a Cotswold 
ram and a Hampshlredown ewe, followed by careful inbreeding. 

Cheviot is a white, coarse, medium-wool, hornless mountain 
sheep of medium size, long bodied, hind-quarters and saddle full 
and heavy, fore-quarters light, face strong featured and massive, 
head and legs generally white, but sometimes dun or speckled. 
At three years they dress eighty pounds. The fleece yields 
about five pounds, and is used for Scotch tweed and cheviot 
cloth. It is a mutton and wool sheep. 

History. — The Cheviot Is a cross between a Lincoln and a 
breed of common sheep found in the hilly parts of the Scottish 



BREEDS OF SHEEP-ANGORA GOAT. ^20 

lowlands, believed to be descended from common sheep of Spain, 
cast ashore here in 1588, from wrecks of the Spanish Armada, 

The Improved Kentucky is a white, coarse, long-wool, hornless 
sheep, heavy bodied and heavy fleeced, resembling the Cotswold, 
but the quality of its wool, midway between the Leicester and 
Cotswold, distinguishes it. It is a mutton and wool sheep. 

History. — The Improved Kentucky is an American breed 
originating in Frankfort, Kentucky, about forty years ago. It 
came from successful crosses, as follows : Beginning with local, 
common ewes and a Merino ram, the issue was crossed with a 
Leicester ram, this with a Southdown ram, this with a ram one- 
quarter Southdov/n and three-quarters Cotswold, this twice 
successively with Cotswold rams, this with an Oxforddown ram, 
and this with a mixed Cotswold, Oxforddown and Leicester ram, 
followed by careful inbreeding. 

The Caraman or Fat-Tailed Sheep is a white, short, soft-wool 
sheep, of different varieties and sizes, but readily identified by 
its remarkable tail, which weighs from fifteen to twenty and in 
some instances 50 pounds ; the fat being used by some in place 
of butter. 

History. — The Caraman is a native sheep, found in portions 
of Asia and Africa, and by some is regarded as a separate 
group. Those now in the United States are from recent 
importations from Karamania, in Asia Minor. 

The Angora Goat is of a grayish white, about as large as a 
medium-sized sheep, has a square build, a straight back, hog- 
shaped head, lifted ears, large, long, wavy horns rooted close 
together on top of the head, and spreading at once latterly and 
pointing a little backward, a tuft of long, coarse hair under the 
chin, clean, trim legs, and undercoat of short, coarse hair, and an 
outer one of long, curly, soft and silky hair, termed mohair. 
Both coats are used, and together weigh about two and a half 
pounds. 

History. — The Angora goat is an improved variety of a com- 
mon goat, native of the district about Angora, in Asia Minor. 
It was imported into this country about fifteen years ago. 

The Cashmere Goat is generally of a grayish white, built 



430 OUR WESTERN EM TIRE. 

much like a sheep, Is of medium size, back near the hips a little 
crowning, ears long, wide and drooping, no tuft under the chin, 
small horns, sometimes spiral, shooting out near each other from 
top of the head, erect or slightly spreading and pointing a little 
backward, a long, heavy outer coat of coarse hair and an under 
coat of soft, silky, fluffy wool, weighing about one-half pound, 
and used for Cashmere shawls. 

History. — The Cashmere goat Is a noble species of the goat, 
inhabitlno- the higrh table-lands of Cashmere, Thibet and 

fc> o ' 

Mongolia, in Central Asia. It was imported into the United 
States about fifteen years ago. 

Diseases of Sheep. — It is perhaps desirable to add here a 
brief description of the diseases to which sheep are liable, 
especially as It Is as true now as It was twenty years ago, that the 
diseases to which sheep are liable in this country are very 
different from those which affect them in Europe. The late 
Hon. Henry S. Randall, in his valuable treatise on Sheep Hus- 
bandry, published In i860, and subsequent writers on diseases 
of sheep, have called attention to this fact. It Is true, also, that 
diseases which prevail In one section may be entirely unknown 
in another. Thus the foot-rot has prevailed extensively In 
Texas, and to some extent in Southern California and Southern 
Kansas ; but is entirely unknown In the Northern States, and 
Territories of Washington, Oregon, Montana, Dakota and 
Minnesota, and very infrequent in the middle belt of States 
and Territories. The scab Is found everywhere, but Is now 
treated successfully. Worms In the head are not common In 
the West; though they kill many sheep in England and some in 
the Atlantic States. Inflammation of the lungs is less common 
than In England, but does occur. 

Mr. Frank D. Curds, of Charlton, Saratoga county. New 
York, one of the most intelligent, accomplished and successful 
of our American sheep-masters, has described so briefly and so 
well the greater part of the known American diseases of sheep, 
that we cannot do better than to give to our readers his essay, 
only supplementing it with two or three western diseases, which 
he has failed to notice. 



DISEASES OF SHEEP. 42 1 

Sheep are very delicate animals to treat when diseased. They 
are easily discouraged, and when sick lose their appetite and 
rapidly become enfeebled. It is by far the wisest course for 
every shepherd to study carefully the habits of sheep and their 
nature, and to endeavor, as far as possible, to regulate their diet 
according to their natural wants, and to do nothing to shock 
them either by terror or abrupt changes In their management. 
They will not bear sudden changes of food, sudden chills, or 
sudden changes of extreme heat and cold. Regularity in feed- 
ing and evenness In temperature are essential pre-requlsltes to 
their healthful condition. They will not endure wet, neither will 
they thrive on low, marshy ground. The different' breeds have 
somewhat different characteristics, and they are not all alike 
easily affected with the same diseases, as, for instance, fine- 
wooled sheep having flatter feet, with closer connection between 
the hoofs, are more liable to foot-rot than the coarser-wooled 
varieties, with more upright feet and wider space between the 
bisections. The latter, however, on account of their open and 
distended nostrils (they have larger lungs and require more 
space for the circulation of air into the respiratory organs), are 
much more liable to the attacks of the gad-fly {CEsirus ovis) than 
the smaller breeds with more contracted nostrils. The fine- 
wooled are much more hardy in our changeable American 
climates than the coarser-wooled breeds, hence precautionary 
manacrement in res^ard to climatic inHuences and carefulness in 
diet are not so necessary, as they are not so subject to colds and 
stomach disorders, colics, etc. There are several infectious dis- 
eases which prevail among sheep. The two oldest and most 
common in America are foot-rot and scab. There are also other 
parasitical disorders which infest the internal organs of sheep. 
The latter have been far more destructive in foreign countries 
than In this. They have prevailed disastrously in England^ 
South America, and Australia. We shall speak of internal para- 
sites {eniozoa) under the head of parasites, with such subdivisions 
of the subject as apply to the various forms and indications of 
the disorder as manifested in this country, and of external para- 
sites [epizoci) under the appropriate names of scab and ticks. 



432 O^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Parasites. — The most ancient and disastrous of the maladies 
caused by the development of worms in the body is the iivcr-rot, 
which is caused by the presence of sucking worms, like leeches, 
which are developed in the liver. These worms or flukes pos- 
sess the power of self-impregnation, and are propagated by eggs, 
of which they produce immense numbers. These eggs are car- 
ried along with the bile into the stomach, and so passed out with 
the excrement of the sheep. They are supposed to be hatched 
in stagnant water, in which they develop into a form of mullusks. 
But as the disease {liver-rot) is almost unknown in the United 
States, and especially in the West, we will not take time or space 
to fully describe it. 

There is another worm which is developed in the lungs and bron- 
chial tubes of sheep. These worms cause the " pale disease " in 
lambs, which has been so fatal in many sections of this country^ 
The worm is akin to the gape- worm in chickens, and is a species 
of Stro7igylus, a slender, thread-like worm. They are supposed 
to tje breathed into the lungs or taken into the mouth while 
feeding, from whence they make their way through the trachea 
Into the air-passages, in which they produce such derangement in 
aeration or the purification of the blood as to cause irritation 
and violent coughing. The important functions of the blood 
being Interrupted, paleness of the skin and debility of the body 
soon follow, and result in the death of the animal. The disease 
is more prevalent or fatal among lambs than among sheep. 

As soon as a lamb is attacked a poor appetite ensues, which 
helps to reduce the strength. Such penetrating medicines as 
turpentine, sulphur, and assafcetida may be given, which, through 
absorption, will reach the lungs, and in the earlier stages of the 
disease may effect a cure. In order to allow free and full 
absorption, no food should be given for several hours afterward, 
nor for a few hours before. Twenty grains of assafcetida and a 
half teaspoon of spirits of turpentine are all that should be 
administered at one dose to a lamb. One-third more may be 
given to a full-grown sheep. This may be followed by a table- 
spoonful of sulphur daily, mixed with molasses. As the appetite 
is capricious and feeble, in order to keep up the strength gruels 



THE LUNG WORM IN SHEEP. 4,^ 

should be poured down. The turpentine and assafoetida may be 
mixed with a tablespoonful of Hnseed or castor oil. Infected 
sheep should be kept by themselves, and well ones should not 
be allowed to run in the same pasture, nor upon ground where 
the manure of diseased sheep has been spread. There are. 
besides the above, parasites {^hydatids) or worms in the bladder 
and in the intestines. The latter, when prevalent among lambs, 
are fatal. The first symptoms of their prevalence is a falling 
off in condition and mild diarrhoea. The worm is a species of 
tape-worm, and is swallowed by the sheep in an embryo form, 
and may have been dropped by a dog or other animal. 
Emaciation rapidly follows. The excrement is soft and mixed 
with mucus, and by close observation worms may be observed 
in it. As soon as the presence of the disease is apparent, a dose 
of turpentine should be given, from one-half to one oun're, 
according to the size of the sheep. This may be mixed with an 
ounce or two of linseed or castor oil, and should be given ev*iry 
three days for two weeks, or until no worms are voided, Nounsh- 
ing gruels should be given during the time of treatment. The 
purgative will have better effect if the animal is required to fast 
a few hours before and after administering the dose. Copperas 
will not cure the disease. When given in small quantities it acts 
as an astringent and keeps the worms in the body, and when 
given in large quantities it is an active poison. The same dose 
of turpentine and linseed oil is the best remedy for parasites in 
the bladder and kidneys. 

Worms in the head are not so common in this country as in 
England, owing to the fact that so large a proportion of our 
sheep are of the smaller breeds. The gadfly [CEstrus ovis) in 
the summer months deposits its eggs, with a sting, in the nostrils 
of sheep. At the season of the year when this fly is active, sheep 
stand huddled together with their noses inward and close to the 
ground to avoid being stung. After being hatched the grub 
crawls up the nostrils and feeds on the mucus until it reaches 
the upper passages, where it remains until it arrives at maturity, 
and then passes out of the nostrils to the ground, where it 
ultimately develops into a fly. Sometimes they penetrate to 
28 



... OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

434 

the brain, causing the sheep to lose its appetite and die a 
hno-ering and painful death. We have known them to pine 
away, scarcely eating anything for weeks — simply breathing — 
until they die of starvation, or were killed to put them out of 
their misery. There is no remedy except in the first stages of 
the disease, when the maggots are passing up the nostrils. 
This may be known by violent shaking of the head, sneezing, 
and runnino- around. Tobacco-smoke blown up the nostrils at 
this time, or the smoke of a small quantity of burning sulphur, 
may cause them to lose their hold on the membranes, when the 
sheep will cast them out. Some people pour spirits of turpen- 
tine into the nostrils. They lay the sheep upon its back so that 
the liquid will run into the head ; but this is a dangerous and 
cruel practice. In the first stages, in the hands of a skilful 
person, it is possible to open the passages of the head and 
remove the maggots, without permanent injury to the animal. 
Smearing the noses of sheep in July and August with tar, two or 
three times a week, will, to some extent, prevent the attacks of the 
gadfly. 

Scab. — The worst form of external parasites is the Acarns 
scabiei. This insect is a mite in size and attaches itself to the 
skin, into which it burrows. It multiplies rapidly and cuts off 
the connection of the cuticle from its attachments to the body, 
when it becomes dry and hard, and the wool is loosened and falls 
out. Its presence can easily be determined, as the sheep is uneasy 
and inclined to rub itself against any convenient thing. Unless 
they are destroyed, the whole body will soon be covered, causing 
oreat distress to the sheep and entire loss of the fleece. They 
will also be conveyed to other sheep, and eventually spread 
through the whole flock. One female will produce thousands 
of insects in a few days. The proper cure is to dip the animal 
in a solution of sulphur and tobacco, in the proportions of four 
parts of tobacco and ten of sulphur to a gallon of water. The 
stems of tobacco will answer every purpose, if thoroughly steeped. 
The sulphur may be stirred in the liquid. Patches of loose skin 
and wool should be removed before the sheep are immersed. The 
liquid should be as warm as the hand will bear, and time should 



DISEASES OF SHEEP— THE FOOT- ROT. ^^c 

be given for it to penetrate every part. After dipping, the 
animal should be left in the yard until dry, when it would be well 
to smear all the raw and denuded portions of the body with coal- 
tar, heated sufficiently to flow freely. The coal-tar will assist in 
healing, and protect the sore places, adding very much to the 
comfort of the sheep. 

Sheep-ticks. — These insects [MelophagMs ovinus) prey upon 
the surface of the body and torture the sheep greatly by piercing 
the skin and sucking the blood. It propagates rapidly, and is so 
voracious that it soon depletes the sheep of needed blood and 
causes them to become poor and weak. Their presence may be 
known by the rough, loose, and dangling appearance of the 
fleece, the locks of which are torn out by rubbing in order to get 
rid of the pain caused by the bite of the ticks. The most 
effectual remedy is to dip the sheep in a strong decoction of 
tobacco. The numbers may also be reduced by dusting snuff or 
powdered tobacco in the wool. After shearing, the ticks leave 
the old sheep and fasten to the lambs. The latter should be 
dipped immediately, and again after the lapse of three weeks. 
In this way a flock may be rid of ticks, which are a costly and 
torturinof nuisance. 

Foot- ROT. — This disease is contagious, and may be produced 
by allowing sheep to run on low, wet ground. It is an ulceration 
upon the heels and between the toes, which excrete fetid matter. 
It is most common in the fore feet, and may be known by lame- 
ness. Lameness, however, does not always proceed from this 
cause, but may be produced by foul feet or from inflammation of 
the interdigital canal, which opens at the bottom of the foot. 
When this canal or duct is closed by any foreign substance, in- 
flammation will ensue. The prompt removal of the obstacle 
and the probing and cleansing of the duct will generally effect a 
cure. When there is ulceration, there must be prompt and 
effective treatment. Canker of the foot, which shows itself by 
spongy or fungous sprouts at the bottom, can be cured by the 
same treatment as for foot-rot. The hoofs should be pared away 
so as to expose the bottom of the ulcers, when the whole foot, 
and especially the ulcerous portion, should be thoroughly 



4^6 ^<^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

smeared with an ointment of powdered blue vitriol, one pound ; 
verdigris, half a pound ; linseed oil, one pint ; tar, one quart. 
This combination makes a salve which will adhere to the foot. 
Carbolic acid reduced (five parts of water to one of acid) would 
be an effective remedy, and would also be the best cure for 
canker of the foot. Healthy sheep should never be allowed in 
a pasture where those affected with foot-rot have run until a 
winter's frosts have intervened, which will destroy the virus. 
Incipient foot-root caused by feeding on wet ground may be 
checked without difficulty by prompt applications of blue vitriol 
in liquid form, or by diluted carbolic acid ; but when the disease 
becomes thoroughly ulcerous, several applications of the remedies 
recommended are necessary to effect a perfect cure. 

Constipation. — We have known fatal constipation, accorr - 
panied with fever, to prevail in the spring of the year following 
a long and severe winter, during which fodder became so scarce 
as to compel farmers to turn out their sheep before the fresh 
grass had started. The sheep ate of the dry and frost-bitten 
grass so heartily as to cause it to become clogged in the rumen, 
producing constipation in whole flocks. In some neighborhoods 
it was so general that it was supposed a contagious disorder had 
broken out among them. A number died before the cause was 
discovered. Purgatives, together with restraining the sheep 
from feeding in the fields, soon restored the flocks to their nor- 
mal condition. 

Colics. — These troubles are caused by costiveness or flatu- 
lence, which also causes stretches (lying on the ground and roll- 
ing about), the latter being more of a symptom than a disease. 
A change of food in this case, as well as in the opposite case of 
scours, is the first thing to be done. Injections of warm water 
and soap, or linseed oil, followed with an ounce of the latter or 
of castor oil, or four ounces of Epsom salts, given by the mouth, 
is the first remedy in cases of costiveness or colic. Powdered 
sulphur and salt should be frequently given as correctives and 
aids in digestion. Abrupt changes from dry to succulent food 
are dangerous, and should never be made on an empty stomach, 
as these animals, like cattle, are equally subject to bloat, and 



INFLAMMATION OF LUNGS. .,- 

437 
with them it is more rapid in its results. A change from dry 
feed to green, without an admixture of dry feed followino-, has 
produced fatal colic even when the pasture was stinted. 

Diarrhoea and Scours. — The former disorder is very common 
to lambs while sucking and during the first winter. Unless 
checked, diarrhoea will soon run into the more serious condition 
of scours, and rapidly deplete the tender animal of needed 
strength. A teaspoonful of laudanum and a tablespoonful of 
strong ginger tea will often check diarrhoea, but if it should not, 
there must be given a tablespoonful of castor oil, followed by 
astringents. 

Inflammation of the Lungs. — Sheep are not apt to be affected 
with lung diseases, as, under ordinary circumstances, nature has 
provided them with ample protection, but when exposed they 
will sometimes have severe inflammation of the luno-s. We had 
a valuable ram die within twenty-fours with pneumonia, which 
was caused by being left tied in the wind after having been 
washed for exhibition at a fair. We have had Leicester sheep 
which, for a whole year, were afflicted with consumption, and 
manifested perfect symptoms of this debilitating disorder. 
Where symptoms of inflammadon of the lungs are apparent, the 
animal should immediately be bled and given a purgative. 
After this, doses of tartar emetic may be added, one grain to 
each every few hours, with flaxseed tea. If it is possible, a 
counter-irritation should be made upon the chest. The nostrils 
must be kept clear and clean. 

Snuffles and Snoring. — The stoppage of the nostrils with 
mucous secretions, which may be caused by a slight cold, or by 
dust or some other foreio-n substance irritatinor the linine mem- 
branes, is of frequent occurrence, but may be obviated by spong- 
ing out the nostrils with some soothing lotion. Snoring may be 
produced by a more serious cause, such as tumors or abscesses 
in the throat or in the cavity of the chest. When they are dis- 
cernible, they may be treated according to their character. 
Catarrh is frequent with sheep exposed to the changes of the 
weather, or when wintered in close and badly ventilated stables. 
Local treatment, such as sponging the nostrils or inhaling the 



428 <^^'-^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

fumes of burning tar, will usually clean out the nostrils and 
afford relief. 

Poisons. — Sheep will eat almost every plant that grows, which 
makes them valuable in keeping a farm free from foul stuff. On 
this account they are often poisoned by eating laurel. Saint 
John's wort, and other poisonous herbs. The effects are some- 
times confined to the stomach, producing a derangement which 
may be corrected by mild doses of cathartics. The lips and 
mouth are often made sore by eating poisonous plants, especially 
Saint John's wort, which sometimes makes the mouth so sore 
that the sheep cannot eat. In all such cases aperient medicines 
should be administered, and the lips and mouth dressed with a 
healing ointment. A change of pasture is also essential to get 
rid of the cause. 

Abortion. — On account of the timid nature of sheep they are 
easily frightened, and when roughly handled or chased by dogs 
they are apt to abort. Dysentery and other acute derangements 
of the stomach will sometimes produce this same disorder, hence 
abrupt changes in diet should be avoided, and a mixture of dry 
and green food given through the winter. Roots are very essen- 
tial to the good health of sheep. Salt and water should always 
be accessible, as sheep desire to drink often and but little at a 
time. If these sanitary recommendations are carefully carried 
out, sickness among sheep will be very much lessened, especially 
in the severe forms of abortion or other disturbances of the 
uterus. 

The black-leg is a disease which has affected lambs in- various 
parts of the country. Its character seems uncertain, though 
generally believed to be connected with disease of the lungs. 
The legs seem to become powerless and the flesh turns black. The 
disease generally proves fatal in a short time. It may be 
the same kno>vn as lung-worm in other sections, but this is 
doubtful. 

Some attempts at medication have proved beneficial in delay- 
ing the fatal termination, while others have apparently hastened 
it. As a general rule, the administration of anti-septics and 
stimulants, such as diluted carbolic acid, powdered charcoal, 



" STRICANA IN SHEEPr .^g 

minute doses of sulphate of iron (copperas) and cayenne pepper 
seems to be indicated, though when the disease is fairly 
developed, it is doubtful whether any medicadon will prevent a 
fatal termination. The disease is not contagious, though it may 
be epidemic in certain localities. 

The disease described by Mr. W. B. Shaw, of Beverly, N. Y., 
in the following paragraph, as paper-skin, seems to be identical 
with what Mr. Curtis calls " the pale disease " in lambs. 

Lambs in this locality have been scourged for several years 
past with a disease called " paper-skin," which seems to be worse 
in wet than in dry seasons. It is not uncommon to lose an 
entire flock by the disease. It attacks the lambs at the age of 
from three to five months, and those in good flesh are as liable 
to it as those that are in poor condition. When attacked, they 
become very pale and weak, apparently almost entirely bloodless. 
The stomach contains small red worms, and frequently, in 
addition, the animal will be found to have tape-worm. 

We have no knowledge of the cause of the lung-worm — a 
name given for the want of a better, perhaps. It affects young 
sheep in a greater degree and to a greater extent than matured 
animals. The worm is a small white one, and is found in con- 
siderable numbers in the luno-s, or in the tubes connecting the 
windpipe with the lungs. The disease is less frequent than 
either of those named above, but the fatality is greater in com- 
parison with the number affected. The symptoms are weakness, 
failure to eat, loss of flesh, and a cough. This disease is but 
little understood by the wool-grower. 

Stricana or strichina is perhaps a very incorrect name for 
another disease affecting sheep. It is caused by a very small 
worm, so minute indeed, that it cannot be seen without the aid 
of a magnifying glass. It is believed to cause the sheep to pick 
or bite the wool from its sides, flank, and other parts, until the 
fleece becomes more or less ragfored and wasted. The skin 
becomes rough and shows symptoms of disease. It is not 
contagious, but attacks sheep of all ages. It is more damaging 
in flocks that have been closely bred " in and in " for many 
years; indeed, this is the case with most diseases. As both a 



. •_, OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

440 

preventative and cure, wood and cob ashes with salt are used 
with partial success. We have seen sheep in Vermont and 
Massachusetts badly affected with this disease as well as in our 
own State. 

The sheep in the more Northern States and Territories of the 
Great West, are as a rule less subject to disease than those of 
the Southern States and Territories. This is probably due to 
the absence of marshy and moist lands, the purer and more 
elevated atmosphere, the great range of pasturage and the 
absence or rarity of those insect and vegetable pests which 
produce and promote disease among these harmless animals. 



CHAPTER X. 

Other Farm Animals — Breeding Swine — Swine Husbandry less Popular 
IN THE Great West than East of the Mississippi — The States and Terri- 
tories MOST largely engaged IN IT — The Best Breeds — Modes of Man- 
agement — The Margin of Profit in the Business — Diseases to which 
Swine are Liable — Breeding of Horses, Asses, and Mules for the Mar- 
ket — This Pursuit very Profitable — Dogs — The Shepherd Dog — Dogs 
FOR Hunting — The Greyhound ; Different Varieties — Pointers, Set- 
ters, Bull-dogs, Coach-dogs, Terriers — Mongrel Hunting Dogs — Indian 
Cur-dogs — Crosses Between Dogs and Wolves — Worthless Dogs very 
Destructive of Sheep. 

The whole of " Our Western Empire" reported, at the close of 
1879, but a little more than 12,000,000 swine, only about one- 
third of the whole number in the United States. Iowa had nearly 
3,000,000, one-fourth of the whole number, and Missouri another 
fourth. Of the other half, Texas had a little more than 2,000,000, 
or one-third; Kansas and Arkansas respectively 1,300,000 and 
1,200,000, and the remainder were divided amono- the other States 
and Territories ; those on the Pacific slope having the smallest 
numbers. Beyond the Rocky Mountains, rearing swine is not a 
favorite pursuit with the farmers, partly perhaps because the 
climate and seasons are not so well adapted to the animal, and 
partly because there is more difficulty in protecting a herd of 



SWINE-BREEDING IN THE WEST. ^I 

swine from the attacks of wild animals, and from other thieves, 
than sheep or neat-cattle. Sheep are easily driven or led, but 
the swine seems to have inherited the perversity of his ancestors, 
and persistently seeks to go in the very direction that he should 
not. There are, however, hogs and hogs ; some breeds are quiet, 
gentle, and well-behaved, while others, lank, lean and long-limbed, 
will spring over a fence as nimbly as a shepherd's dog, and though 
fleet of foot, and of evil and pugnacious temper, possess few or 
no good qualities to counterbalance these objectionable ones. 
The Southern swine are not, as a rule, of the best breeds, though 
there have been great efforts made of late in Texas to improve 
the stock, and with a commendable degree of success. Iowa is, 
after Illinois, the largest raiser of swine in the Union, and in that 
State, Missouri and Kansas, which follow after in the numbers of 
their swine (the three States having about 7,000,000, worth about 
^42,000,000), great efforts have been made to raise only the best 
stock. 

In these States, long experience has led the best farmers to 
prefer two or three breeds, and their crosses. In Kansas, and 
we think in Iowa and Missouri, these breeds are the Poland- 
China, especially as improved by D. M. Megie ; the Berkshire, 
either the English or the improved large Berkshire ; various 
crosses of these two, some preferring the Berkshire and others 
the Poland-China boar with the sow of the other breed, and the 
Chester White, either pure or crossed with the Berkshire. A 
very few cling to the Essex and Suffolk breeds, but the number of 
these, as well as the advocates of the pure Chester Whites, are 
decreasing every year. The general opinion seems to be that 
the Poland-Chinas make the largest and most quiet hogs, and 
give the best return for the money expended on them, and give 
the largest litter, but are rather too large in bone, and require a 
great amount of feeding. The Berkshires have smaller bones, 
and their meat is in the right place to make fine hams and shoul- 
ders, and their flesh is very fine-grained. They are the best for 
the farmer's own packing, but do not weigh as much at a year 
or a year and a-half old as the Poland-Chinas, and do not have as 
large a litter as the Poland-Chinas. It is universally agreed that 



^^2 ^^^'^^ WESTER y EM EIRE. 

the crosses of these breeds make altogether the best animals for 
market. These crosses should weigh at one year old, when fat- 
tened, from 350 to 450 pounds, and at eighteen or twenty months 
from 650 to 700 pounds. With corn at twenty cents a bushel, and 
some pasture, and proper treatment, pork can be made in Cen- 
tral and Western Kansas at from ^2 to $2.25 per 100. pounds, 
and it will bring from $2.87 to $3.50 per hundred, live weight. 
Most of the diseases, to which swine are subject, can be pre- 
vented much more easily than they can be cured, and the sensi- 
ble and judicious swine-breeder will find that, by avoiding crowd- 
ing, damp and filthy pens or wallows, by occasional changes of 
pasture, and the use of green food, and mashes when the dry 
food is too constipating, it will be possible to ward off disease, 
and to have a perfectly healthy herd of swine. The various 
forms of worms which infest swine — the tape-worm, the trichina, 
and the round worms — are, to a considerable extent, the result 
of gross and foul feeding, and of filthy and close pens. The hog 
is not an uncleanly animal if he has the opportunity to be clean. 
The great losses sustained, for some years past, by those 
engaged in rearing swine, from the disease variously known as 
Hog-Cholera, Swine-Plague and Hog-Fever (losses amounting 
in 1877 to more than ^12,000,000), led the United States A gj'iail- 
tural Department at Washington to make, in 1878, a very 
thorough investigation of the disease, including its history, symp- 
toms, causes, diagnosis, prognosis, post-mortem appearances, 
preventive measures and treatment. The investigation was con- 
fided to four of the most eminent veterinary surgeons in the 
United States — Drs. H. J. Detmers of Chicago, James Law of 
Ithaca, N. Y., D. W. Voyles of New Albany, Ind., and D. E. 
Salmon of Swannanoa, N. C. — each of whom spent months in the 
investigation, pursuing it independently of all the others, and 
without conference with them. The results of these investiga- 
tions were published in a very valuable volume in the autumn of 
1879, with numerous colored plates of the appearances of the 
lunes, stomach and intestines, and tables and records of the con- 
elusions to which they came. These reports are so able and 
exhaustive, and of so high and conclusive authority, that we be- 



THE SWINE-PLAGUE OR HOG-CHOLERA. aa-. 

lieve we are doing a valuable service to the farmers of the United 
States, and especially of the West, in giving- a brief summary of 
the results of their researches. They will serve, at least, to show 
that the only safeguard against the disease lies in measures of 
prevention and precaution, which every farmer engaged in raising 
swine should adopt ; that great pains should be taken to keep 
swine in a perfectly healthy and vigorous condition, and that their 
pens and troughs, as well as the swine themselves, should be kept 
clean; that close inbreeding is wrong, as weakening the con- 
stitutions of the animals and rendering them more liable to dis- 
ease ; and that where the disease appears, the infected herd 
should be kept isolated, thorough disinfection practised daily, and 
all diseased hogs killed at once, and either buried very deeply 
or burned, so as to prevent the spread of the infection ; that the 
owners of the slaughtered hogs should be repaid two-thirds of 
their value, if they will report the cases immediately on the out- 
break of the disease and follow directions ; that all hauling of 
diseased or dead hogs along public roads or by railroad trains, 
or in any way exposing other herds to infection, should be pro- 
hibited under heavy penalties, and all communication of the 
infection by fodder, running water or the clothing of swineherds 
or others, should be prevented; and the lots on which these dis- 
eased herds or animals have been penned even for a single 
night, should be disinfected, and plowed deeply to prevent the 
spread of infection. 

But we can perhaps best benefit our farming friends by giving 
summaries of these reports in the very words of the veterinary 
surgeons ; and, first, of the 

DESCRIPTION OF THE DISEASE. 

The disease, though popularly called Hog- Cholera, has really 
no resemblance to cholera or to malignant pustule. It has 
somewhat more resemblance to the pleuro-pneumonia which has 
proved so destructive of catde ; but is not identical with that dis- 
ease. It is undoubtedly contagious and infectious, and the ex- 
periments and researches of these veterinary surgeons, many 
times repeated and under a great variety of circumstances, 



.^. OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

together with their post-mortem examinations, have proved that 
it can be transmitted, by inoculation and by devouring portions 
of the flesh of diseased animals, to other swine, and to rabbits, 
sheep, and dogs as well, and produces the same symptoms and 
as often the same fatal termination, as where it is communicated 
by ordinary contact. The veterinarians are agreed in these 
points, that it is produced by the transmission of a specific germ, 
a bacillus as some of them call it, into the stomach or circulation, 
and that this germ is propagated with inconceivable rapidity 
and may promote diseased action in any organ or set of organs, 
the lungs, liver, stomach, bowels, lymphatics, kidneys, muscles, 
nerves or brain, but that the lungs and the lymphatic glands are 
always affected, and the other organs and tissues, one or more 
of them often. The best name for it is Sivine-Plagiie or Hog- 
Fever. The disease does not originate from filth, crowding, and 
improper or heating food, but when it has been once communi- 
cated to any member of a herd of swine, its propagation is 
gready accelerated, and its mortality hastened and aggravated 
by impure and unwholesome surroundings. 

SYMPTOMS AND DIAGNOSIS. 

The disease is ushered in by a cold shivering, lasting from a 
few minutes to several hours, frequent sneezing and more or 
less coughing. The temperature of the body Is increased, and 
though it is a difficult matter to ascertain the exact temperature 
'without a struggle which will, of Itself, increase the temperature, 
yet enough seems to have been ascertained to make It certain 
that it ranges between two or three and ten or twelve degrees 
above the normal or healthy temperature. There Is also at first 
a partial, and soon a total loss of appetite ; a rough and some- 
what staring appearance of the coat of hair ; a drooping of the 
ears (characteristic) ; loss of vivacity ; attempts to vomit (in 
some cases) ; a tendency to root In the bedding and to lie down 
in a dark and quiet corner ; a dull look of the eyes, which not 
seldom become dim and Injected ; swelling of the head (observed 
in several cases) ; eruptions on the ears and on other parts of 
the body (quite frequent) ; bleeding from the nose (in a few 



SWINE-PLAGUE : HOW RECOGNIZED. a.^ 

cases) ; swelling of the eyelids and partial or total blindness (!n 
five or six cases) ; dizziness or apparent pressure on the brain ; 
accelerated and frequently laborious breathing ; more or less 
constipation, or in some cases, diarrhoea ; a gaunt appearance of 
the flanks ; a pumping motion of the same at each breath ; rapid 
emaciation ; a vitiated appetite for dung, dirt and saline sub- 
stances ; increased thirst (sometimes) ; accumulation of mucus in 
the corners of the eyes (very often at an early stage of the dis- 
ease) ; more or less copious discharges from the nose, etc. The 
peculiar offensive and fetid smell of the exhalations and of the 
excrements may be considered as characteristic of the disease. 
This odor is so penetrating as to announce its presence, espe- 
cially if the herd of swine is a large one, at a distance of half a 
mile, or even farther, if the wind is favorable. If the animalr 
are inclined to be costive, the dung is usually grayish or browr.- 
ish black, and hard ; if diarrhoea is present, the fseces are semi - 
fluid, and of a grayish green color, and contain in some cases an 
admixture of blood. In a larcje number of cases the more ten- 
der portions of the skin on the lower surface of the body, 
between the hind legs, behind the ears, and even on the nose 
and on the neck, exhibit numerous larger or smaller red spots, 
or (sometimes) a uniform redness (Red Soldier of the English). 
Toward a fatal termination of the disease this redness changes 
frequently to purple, A physical exploration of the thorax re- 
veals, if pleuritis is existing, frequently a plain rubbing sound. 
As the morbid process progresses the movements of the sick 
animal become weaker and slower ; the gait becomes staggering 
and undecided ; the steps made are short, as if the animal was 
unable to advance its legs without pain ; sometimes lameness, 
especially in a hind leg (not very often), and sometimes great 
weakness in the hind quarters, or partial paralysis (oftener) 
make their appearance. The head, if the animal is on its legs, 
seems to be too heavy to be carried, and is kept in a drooping 
position with the nose almost touching the ground ; but as a 
general rule the diseased animals are usually found lying down 
in a dark and quiet corner with the nose hid in the bedding. If 
a fatal terminadon is approaching, a very fetid diarrhoea (usually 



^^5 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

one or two days before death) takes the place of the previous 
costiveness ; the voice becomes very pecuHar, grows very faint 
and hoarse ; the sick animal manifests a great indifference to its 
surroundings, and to what is going on ; emaciation and general 
debility increase very fast ; the skin (especially if the disease has 
been of long duration) becomes wrinkled, hard, dry, parchment- 
like, and very unclean ; a cold, clammy sweat breaks out 
(observed several times, once as early as forty-eight hours 
before death), and death ensues either under convulsions (com- 
paratively rare), or gradually and without any struggle. A 
peculiar symptom, which, however, has been observed only once, 
in a litter of nine pigs, about a week old, at the beginning, or in 
the first stage of the disease, may here be mentioned. It con- 
sisted in a peculiar and constant twitching of all voluntary mus- 
cles. All nine pigs died, and I am sorry that I had no oppor- 
tunity to make any post-mortem examination. 

In some cases numerous eruptions (ulcerous nodules) 
appeared on the tender skin on the lower surface of the body 
between the lees and behind the ears, and in a few cases whole 
pieces of skin (in one case as large as a man's hand) were 
destroyed by the morbid process, sloughed off, and left behind a 
raw, ulcerous surface. In another case a part of the lower lip, 
of the gums, and of the lower jaw-bone had undergone ulcerous 
destruction. 

Wherever pigs or hogs had been ringed, the v/ounds thus 
made showed a great tendency to ulcerate. In several cases the 
morbid process had caused sufficient ulcerous destruction to 
form an opening directly into the nasal cavities large enough to 
enable the animal to breathe through, instead of through, the 
nostrils, which had become nearly closed by swelling and by 
exudations and morbid products adhering to their borders. 

In those few cases in which the disease has not a fatal termi- 
nation the symptoms gradually disappear, coughing becomes more 
frequent and easier; the discharges from the nose, for a da)' or 
two, become copious, but soon diminish, and finally cease alto- 
gether; appetite returns, and becomes normal; the offensive smell 
of the excrements disappears ; sores or ulcers that may happen 



DISTINCTIVE SYMPTOMS OF SWINE- PLAGUE. 447 

to exist, show a tendency to heal; the animal becomes more lively, 
and gains, though slowly, in flesh and strength ; but some diffi- 
culty of breathing, and a short, somewhat hoarse, hacking cough 
remains for a long time. 

The diagnosis, or distinctive symptoms of the disease, are thus 
detailed by Dr. Detmers : 

"The diagnosis is very easy, especially if swine-plague is known 
to be prevailing in the neighborhood, or has already made its 
appearance in the herd, and if the fact that many animals are 
attacked at once, or within a short time and in rapid succession, 
are taken Into consideration. As symptoms of special diagnostic 
value, scarcely ever absent In any case, may be mentioned the 
drooping of the ears and of the head; more or less coughing; 
the dull look of the eyes ; the staring appearance of the coat of 
hair; the partial or total want of appetite fgr food; the vitiated 
appetite for excrements ; the rapid emaciation ; the great deblHty ; 
the weak and undecided, frequently staggering, gait ; the great 
indifference to surroundings ; the tendency to lie down in a dark 
corner, and to hide the nose, or even the whole head in the bed- 
ding, and particularly the specific, offensive smell, and the peculiar 
color of the excrements. This symptom is always present, at 
least in an advanced stage of the disease, no matter whether con- 
stipation or diarrhoea is existing. As other characteristic symp- 
toms, though not present in every animal, deserve to be men- 
tioned : frequent sneezing ; bleeding from the nose ; swelling of 
the eyelids ; accumulation of mucus in the inner canthi ot the 
eyes ; attempts to vomit, or real vomiting ; accelerated and diffi- 
cult breathing ; thumping or spasmodic contraction of the ab- 
dominal muscles (flanks) at each breath, and a peculiar, faint and 
hoarse voice in the last stages of the disease." 

The PROGNOSIS or probable result of the disease is decidedly 
unfavorable, but is the more so the younger the animals or the 
larger the herd. Among pigs less than three months old the 
mortality may be set down as from ninety to one hundred per 
cent. ; among animals three to six or seven months old the same 
is from seventy-five to ninety per cent. ; while among older 
animals that have been well kept and are in good condition, and 



^3 ^<^''^' WESTERN EMPIRE. 

naturally strong- and vigorous, the mortality sometimes may not 
exceed twenty-five per cent., but may, on an average, reach forty 
to fifty per cent. The prognosis is comparatively favorable only 
in those few cases in which the morbid process is not very violent; 
in which the seat of the disease is confined to the respiratory 
organs and to the skin ; in which any thumping or pumping 
motion of the flanks is absent; and in which the patient is, 
naturally, a strong, vigorous animal, not too young and in a good 
condition ; further, in which but a few, not more than two or three, 
animals are kept in the same pen or sty, and receive nothing but 
clean, uncontaminated food and pure water for drinking, and in 
which a frequent and thorough cleaning of the sty or pen pre- 
vents any consumption of excrements. 

The duration of the disease varies according to the violence 
and the seat of the morbid process, the age and the constitution 
of the patient, and the treatment and keeping in general. Where 
the morbid process is violent, where its principal seat is in one 
of the most vital organs — in the heart, for instance — where a 
large number of animals are kept together in one sty or pen, 
where sties and pens are very dirty, or where the sick animals 
are very young, the disease frequently becomes fatal in a day or 
two, and somedmes even within twenty-four hours. On the 
other hand, where the morbid process is not very violent or ex- 
tensive, where the heart, for instance, is not seriously affected, 
and where the patients are naturally strong and vigorous, and 
well kept in every respect, it usually takes from one to three 
weeks to cause death. If the termination is not a fatal one, the 
convalescence, at any rate, requires an equal and probably a 
much longer time. A perfect recovery seldom occurs ; in most 
cases some lasting disorders — morbid changes which can be re- 
paired but slowly or not at all — remain behind, and interfere 
more or less with the growth and fattening of the animal. 

From a pecuniary standpoint, it makes but little difference to 
the owner whether a pig affected with this plague recovers or 
dies, because those which do survive usually make very poor 
returns for the food consumed, unless the attack has been a very 
mild one. 



THE GERMS WHICH PRODUCE THE DISEASE. ^g 

We have already spoken of the contagious and Infectious char- 
acter of the disease, and of its propagation by means of the diffu- 
sion of germs. These germs, though of a very low order of 
structure, are propagated in th^. stomach, intestines, or blood of 
the swine with extraordinary rapidity. They are believed to be 
a species of the Bacteria, the family name of these yeast or de- 
structive o-erms. Dr. Detmers and some others have oriven this 
particular species the name of Bacillus Suis, or " little Bactei^ia 
of the swine." How it enters the stomach, bowels, or blood of 
the swine is a question which has been very carefully investigated. 
It was at first believed that these germs (which are very minute) 
were dried and reduced to powder by the action of the sun and 
wind, and so taken up by the wind, and carried to a distance 
when they were inhaled and taken into the lungs by the swine, 
and thus affected the system of the animal. 

This theory is now exploded, for very good reasons. The 
inhalation of these germs does not seem to be attended with 
injurious effects ; and the present belief of veterinary surgeons, 
as well as of Intelligent swine-farmers, is that while these germs 
are taken up by the air and carried to a considerable distance, 
they are deposited upon the grass by the dew, or by light rains, 
or fall into streams or creeks and Impregnate the water, so that 
those swine which feed upon the grass or drink the water thus 
charged with bacilli take the germs Into their stomachs, and not 
only become infected themselves but infect others. Dr. Detmers 
says : " I have not been able to learn of any herd remaining ex- 
empted after the disease had once made its appearance In the 
immediate neighborhood, unless the animals constituting the 
herd were free from any external lesions (sores, wounds, or the 
like), were watered from a well, fed with clean food, and shut up 
during the night and in the morning till the dew had disappeared 
from the grass, either In a bare yard not containing any old 
straw stacks, or in sties or pens. Animals allowed to run out 
on a pasture, or on grass, clover, or stubble-fields at all times of 
the day, and animals that had external sores or wounds, con- 
tracted the disease sooner or later In every instance where the 
plague made its appearance in the neighborhood. Further, the 
29 



J CO OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

plague, at least during the summer or while a south wind was pre- 
vailing, seemed to have a special tendency to spread from south 
to north. If the history of swine-plague is inquired into, it will 
probably be found that that tendency has been prevailing every 
year. This year, for instance, the disease made its appearance, 
as I have been informed, for the first time, in Wisconsin. These 
facts, of course, could not fail to be suggestive. So I conceived 
the idea that the contagious or infectious principle, abundant in 
the excretions of the diseased animals, might rise in the air in 
daytime, be carried off a certain distance by winds, and come 
down again during the night with the dew. That such might be 
the case appeared to be possible, because the excrements of 
hogs, if exposed to the influence of sunlight, heat, rain, and wind, 
are soon ground to powder (partially at least), which is fine 
enough to be raised into the air and to be carried off by winds. 
Moreover, as the bacillus-germs, which, I have no doubt, must 
be looked upon as the infectious principle, are so exceedingly 
small, it appears to be possible and even probable that they are 
carried up into the air by the aqueous vapors arising from 
evaporating urine and moisture contained in the excrements, 
and from other evaporating fluids (small pools of water), which 
may have become polluted with the excretions of sick hogs. To 
ascertain the facts, I collected dew from the herbage of a hog-lot 
occupied by diseased animals, and also from the grass of an 
adjoining pasture, and on examining the same under the 
microscope I found the identical bacilli and bacillus-germs 
invariably found in the blood, other fluids, and morbid tis- 
sues of swine affected with the plague. Consequently, I 
have come to the conclusion that the bacillus-germs rise 
into the air during the day, are carried from one place to 
another by the wind, and are introduced into the organism of 
the animal either by eating herbage (grass, clover, etc.), or old 
straw covered with dew, or by entering wounds and being 
absorbed by the veins and lymphatics. There is, however, still 
another way by which the contagious or infectious principle is 
conveyed from one place to another. It is by means of running 
water. It has been observed that wherever swine-plague pre- 



HO IV THE DISEASE IS TEANSMITTED. 451 

vailed among hogs that had access to running water (as small 
creeks, streamlets, etc.), that all the hogs and pigs which had 
access to the creek or streamlet below contracted the disease, 
usually within a short time, while all the animals which had 
access above remained exempted, unless they became infected 
by other means." 

Dr. Detmers thinks that this infection is not carried through 
the air to a greater distance than a mile, and perhaps not so far, 
but that the infection travels in this way with the prevailing 
direction of the winds. 

" One thing," says Dr. Detmers, " I am sure of, and that is 
that an exclusive corn diet, as has been asserted by several 
agricultural writers, wallowing in dirt and nastiness, starvation, 
in-and-in breeding, etc., although by no means calculated to pro- 
mote health or to invigorate the animal organism, cannot con- 
stitute the cause and cannot produce a solitary case of swine- 
plague, unless the infectious principles (the bacilli and their 
germs) are present. If they are, then, of course, dirt and nasti- 
ness, consumption of unclean food and of dirty water, facilitate 
an infection, and warmth and moisture, pregnant with organic 
substances, or organic substances in a state of decay, are un- 
doubtedly well calculated to preserve the bacillus-germs and to 
develop the bacilli!' 

The propagation of these germs by inoculation in healthy pigs, 
and also in rabbits, sheep, and young dogs, and the develop- 
ment of the swine-plague with all its characteristic symptoms 
and its fatal result, tried so many times by all these veterinary 
surgeons, demonstrates conclusively that the bacilli germs were 
the specific sources of the contagion. 

PREVENTIVE MEASURES. 

Dr. Detmers expresses very clearly and forcibly the measures 
which these four veterinary surgeons agree in recommending. 
" If any transportation of, or traffic in, diseased and dead swine is 
effectually prohibited by proper laws, a spreading of the swine- 
plague on a large scale will be impossible, and its ravages will 
remain limited to localities where the disease-germs have not 



^5 2 ^UR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

been destroyed, but have been preserved till they find sufficient 
food again. In order to prevent such a local spreading, two 
remedies may be resorted to. The one is a radical one, and 
consists in destroying every sick hog or pig immediately, wher- 
ever the disease makes its appearance, and in disinfecting the 
infected premises by such means as are the most effective and 
the most practicable. If this is done, and if healthy hogs are 
kept away from such a locality, say for one month after the dis- 
eased animals have been destroyed, and the sties, pens, etc., dis- 
infected with chloride of lime or carbolic acid, and the yards 
plowed, etc., the disease will be stamped out. I know that this 
is a violent way of dealing with the plague, but in the end it may 
prove to be by far the cheapest. The other remedy is more of 
a palliative character, and may be substituted if swine-plague, as 
is now the case, is prevailing almost everywhere, or in cases in 
which the radical measures are considered as too severe and too 
sweeping. It consists in a perfect isolation of every diseased 
herd, not only during the actual existence of the plague but for 
some time, say one month, after the occurrence of the last case 
of sickness, and after the sties and pens have been thoroughly 
cleaned and disinfected with carbolic acid or other disinfectants 
of equal efficiency, and the yards, etc., plowed. Old straw-stacks, 
etc., must be burned, or rapidly converted into manure. It is 
also very essential that diseased animals are not allowed any 
access to running water, streamlets or creeks accessible to other 
healthy swine. Those healthy hogs and pigs which are w^ithin 
the possible influence of the contagious or infectious principle, 
perhaps on the same farm or in the immediate neighborhood of 
a diseased herd, must be protected by special means. For these, 
I think, it will be best to make movable pens, say eight feet 
square, of common fence-boards (eleven fence-boards will make 
a pen) ; put two animals in each pen ; place the latter, if possi- 
ble, on high and dry ground, but by no means in an old hog-lot, 
on a manure-heap, or near a slough, and move each pen every 
noon to a new place, until after all danger has passed. If this 
is done the animals will not be compelled to eat their food soiled 
with excrements, and as dry earth is a good disinfectant, an in- 



PR EVE NT! VE MEDICATION OF LITTLE USE. a-^ 

fection, very likely, will not take place. Besides this, the troughs 
must always be cleaned before water or food is put in, and the 
water for drinking must be fresh and pure, or be drawn from a 
good well immediately before it is poured into the troughs. 
Water from ponds, or that which has been exposed in any way 
or manner to a contamination with the infectious principle, must 
not be used. If all this is complied with, and the disease not- 
withstanding should make its appearance and attack one or 
another of the animals thus kept, very likely it will remain con- 
fined to that one pen. 

"If the hogs or pigs cannot be treated in that way. It will be 
advisable to keep every one shut up in its pen, or in a bare yard, 
from sundown until the dew next morning has disappeared from 
the grass, and to allow neither sick hogs nor pigs, nor other 
animals, nor even persons, who have been near or in contact 
with animals affected with swine plague, to come near the animals 
intended to be protected. That good ventilation and general 
cleanliness constitute valuable auxiliary measures of prevention 
may not need any mentioning. The worst thing that possibly 
can be done, if swine-plague is prevailing in the neighborhood, 
is to shelter the hogs and pigs under or in an old straw or hay 
stack, because nothing is more apt to absorb the contagious of 
infectious principle, and to preserve it longer or more effectively 
than old strawy hay, or manure-heaps composed mostly of hay 
or straw. It is even probable that the contagion of swine-plague, 
like that of some other contagious diseases, if absorbed by, or 
clinging to, old straw or hay, etc., will remain effective and a 
source of spreading the disease for months, and maybe for a 
year. 

"Therapeutically but little can be done to prevent an outbreak 
of swine-plague. Where it is sufficient to destroy the Infectious 
principle outside of the animal organism, carbolic acid is effec- 
tive, and, therefore, a good disinfectant ; but where the conta- 
gious or Infectious principle has already entered the animal 
organism Its value Is doubtful. Sdll, wherever there Is cause to 
suspect that the food or the water for drinking may have become 
contaminated with the contagion of swine-plague, It will be ad- 



454 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

fisable to give every morning- and evening some carbolic acid, 
Bay about ten drops for each animal weighing from 120 to 150 
pounds, in the water for drinking ; and wherever there is reason 
to suspect that the infectious principle may be floating in the air, 
it will be advisable to treat every wound or scratch a hog or pig 
may happen to have immediately with diluted carbolic acid. 
During a time, or in a neighborhood in which swine-plague is 
prevailing, care should be taken neither to ring nor to castrate 
any hog or pig, because every wound, no matter how small, is 
apt to become a port of entry for the infectious principle, and 
the very smallest amount of the latter is sufficient to produce the 
disease." 

"Still, all these minor measures and precautions will avail but 
little unless a dissemination of the infectious principle, or disease- 
germs, is made impossible, i. Any transportation of dead, sick, 
or infected swine, and even of hogs or pigs that have been the 
least exposed to the contagion, or may possibly constitute the 
bearers of the same, must be effectively prohibited. 2. Every 
one who loses a hog or pig by swine-plague must be compelled 
by law to bury the same immediately, or as soon as it is dead, at 
least four feet deep, or else to cremate the carcass at once, so 
that the contagious or infectious principle may be thoroughly 
destroyed, and not be carried by dogs, wolves, rats, crows, etc., 
to other places." 

Another thing may yet be mentioned, which, if properly exe- 
cuted, will at least aid very materially in preventing the disease-, 
that is, to give all food either in clean troughs, or if corn in the 
ear is fed, to throw it on a wooden platform which can be swept 
clean before each feeding. 

TREATMENT, 

" If the cause and the nature of the morbid process and the 
character and the importance of the morbid changes are taken 
into proper consideration, it cannot be expected that a therapeu- 
tic treatment will be of much avail in a fully developed case of 
swine-plague. ' Specific ' remedies, such as are advertised in 
column advertisements in certain newspapers, and warranted to 
be infallible, or to cure every case, can do no good whatever. 



TREATMENT OF SWINE-PLAGUE. J55 

They are a downright fraud, and serve only to draw the money 
out of the pockets of the despairing farmer, who is ready to catch 
at any straw. No cure has ever been found for glanders, anthrax, 
and cattle-plague, diseases that have been known for more than 
two thousand years, and that have been investigated again and 
again by the most learned veterinarians and the best practitioners 
of Europe, and there is to-day not even a prospect that a 
treatment will ever be discovered to which those diseases, once 
fully developed, will yield. Neither is there any prospect or 
probability that fully developed swine-plague will ever yield to 
treatment. It is true that the bacilli S2iis and their germs can be 
killed or destroyed if outside of the animal organism, or within 
reach, on the surface of the animal's body. Almost any known 
disinfectant — carbolic acid, thymic acid, chloride of lime, creosote, 
and a great many others — will destroy them. But the dacilli a.nd 
their germs are not on the surface of the body, except in such 
parts of the skin and accessible mucous membranes (conjunctiva 
and gums) as may happen to have become affected by the mor- 
bid process. They are inside of the organism, and not only in 
every part and tissue morbidly affected, in every morbid product, 
and in every lymphadc gland, but they are also in every drop of 
blood and in every pardcle of a drop of blood circulating in the 
whole organism. Who, I would like to ask, will have the audacity 
to assert that he is able to destroy those bacilli and their germs 
without disturbing the economy of the animal organism to such 
an extent as to cause the immediate death of the animal ? But 
even if means should be found by which these bacilli and their 
germs can be destroyed without serious injury to the animal, a 
destrucdon of the same will not be sufficient to effect a cure. 
Important morbid changes must be repaired ; extensive embolism 
is exisdng in some very vital organs ; a rapid, proliferous growth 
of morbid cells has set in ; some of the intestines (caecum and 
colon) may have become perforated ; exudations have been de- 
posited In the lungs, in the thoracic cavity, in the pericardium, 
and in the abdominal cavity ; the heart Itself may have been mor- 
bidly changed, and every lymphadc gland in the whole organism 
become diseased. How, I would like to know, will those quacks 



^<5 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

who advertise their 'sure cure' and their high-sounding 'spe- 
cifics " to swindle the farmer out of his hard-earned dollars and 
cents — how, I ask, will those quacks restore, repair, stop, and 
reduce all those morbid changes ? 

"Still, I do not wish to say that a rational treatm-^.nt can do no 
good ; on the contrary, it may in many cases avert the worst and 
most fatal morbid changes, and may thereby aid natui'e consider- 
ably in effecting a recovery in all those cases in which the disease 
presents itself in a mild form, and in which very dangerous or ir- 
reparable morbid changes have not yet taken place. A good 
dietetical treatment, however, including a strict observance of 
sanitary principles, is of much more importance than the use of 
medicines. In the first place, the sick animals, if possible, should 
be kept one by one in separate pens. The latter, if movable — 
movable ones, perhaps six to eight feet square and without a 
floor, are preferable — ought to be moved once a day, at noon, or 
after the dew has disappeared from the grass ; if the pens are 
not movable, they must be kept scrupulously clean, because a pig 
affected with swine-plague has a vitiated appetite, and eats its 
own excrements and those of others, and, as those excrements 
contain innumerable bacilli and their germs, will add thereby fuel 
to the flame ; in other words, will increase the extent and the 
malignancy of the morbid process by introducing into the organ- 
ism more and more of the infectious principle. The food given 
ought to be clean, of the very best quality and easy of digestion, 
and the water for drinking must be clean and fresh, be supplied 
three times a day in a clean trough, and be drawn each time, if 
possible, from a deep well. Water from ponds and water that 
has been standing in open vessels, and that may possibly have 
become contaminated with the infectious principle, should not be 
used. If the diseased animal has any wounds or lesions, they 
must be washed or dressed from one to three times a day with 
diluted carbolic acid or other equally effective disinfectants." 

Dr. Detmers experimented with carbolic acid — ten drops for 
each hundred pounds of live weight of the hogs, administered 
three times a day in the water given the hogs for drinking. Two 
pf the nine on which it was tried, survived, but did not, com- 



CARBOLIC ACID A PREVENTIVE. 45- 

pletely recover, and were not in good condition for fattening a 
month later. About this percentage recover with or without treat- 
ment. Of experiments with other medicines, he says, and his 
experience was almost exactly that of the others : 

"The principal medicines tried were carbolic acid, bisulphite of 
soda, thymol, salicylic acid, white hellebore or vcratriun album, 
as an emetic, alcohol, and sulphate of iron, and it has been found 
that neither of them possesses any special curative value. In a 
few cases in which most of the lesions were external, applications 
of very much diluted thymol or thymic acid produced apparently 
good results ; the animals recovered, but might have recovered 
at any rate. Diluted carbolic acid has been used for the same 
purpose and with the same results. An emetic of white hellebore 
or vei'atrum alburn was given to some shoats (about eight or 
nine months old, and property of Dr. Hall, at Savoy), in the first 
stage of the disease, and seems to have arrested the morbid process 
immediately ; at least the shoats recovered. In other more de- 
veloped cases, it did no good whatever. Bisulphite of soda, 
saHcylic acid, and carbolic acid were used quite extensively, but 
no good results plainly due to the influence of those drugs have 
been observed in any case in which the disease had fully 
developed, either by myself or by others. Sulphate of iron has 
proved to be decidedly injurious. Mr. Bassett used it quite 
persistently for forty-five nice shoats. Forty-three of them died, 
one recovered from a slight attack — it had external lesions, 
which were treated with carbolic acid — and one remained ex- 
empted. To bleed sick hogs, in some places a customary 
practice among farmers against all ailments of swine, has had 
invariably the very worst consequences, and accelerated a fatal 
termination. A great many farmers in the neighborhood of 
Champaign have used several kinds of ' specifics ' and ' sure 
cure ' nostrums, but none of them are inclined to talk about the 
results obtained, and so it must be supposed that the latter have 
remained invisible. \ 

"A case which I should have related, deserves to be Tiodced. 
Mr. Crews had forty-odd hogs, of which he had lost ten or 
twelve, and was losing at the rate of two to four a day. I 



.-g OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

advised him to separate those apparently yet healthy, or but 
slightly affected, from the very sick ones ; to put the former in a 
separate yard, not accessible to the others ; to feed them clean 
food ; to water them three tlme^ a day from a well, and to 
cTive to each animal, two or three times a day, about ten drops 
of carbolic acid in their drinking water. He did so, and saved 
everyone he separated (fourteen in number), while all others, 
with the exception of two animals which died later, died within 
a short time." 

Dr. Salmon had made many experiments In the treatment of 
the disease with bisulphite of soda, salicylic acid, bichromate of 
potassa, and bromide of ammonia. These were all administered 
at an early stage of the disease. The first two mitigated the 
symptoms somewhat, but in most instances the fatal result 
followed. The last two did not produce any appreciable result. 
Dr. Law recommends the following measures to arrest and 
extirpate the disease : Without entering at this time into all the 
details of the necessary restrictive measures, the following may 
be especially mentioned : i . The appointment of a local authority 
and inspector to carry out the measures for the suppression of 
the disease. 2. The injunction on all having the ownership or 
care of hogs, and upon all who may be called upon to advise 
concernlnor the same, or to treat them, to make known to such 
local authority all cases of real or suspected hog-fever, under a 
penalty for every neglect of such injunction. 3. The obligation 
of the local authority, under advice of a competent veterinary 
inspector, to see to the destruction of all pigs suffering from the 
plague, their deep burial In a secluded place, and the thorough 
disinfection of the premises, utensils, and persons. 4. The 
thorouo-h seclusion of all domestic animals that have been in 
contact with the sick pigs, and in the case of sheep and rabbits 
the destruction of the sick when this shall appear necessary. 
5. Unless, where all the pigs in the infected herd have been 
destroyed, the remainder should be placed on a register and 
examined daily by the inspector, so that the sick may be taken 
out and slaughtered on the appearance of the first signs of 
illness. 6. Sheep and rabbits that have been in contact with the 



GENERAL SANITARY MEASURES. .-^ 

459 

sick herd should also be registered, and any removal of such 
should be prohibited until one month after the last sick animal 
shall have been disposed of. 7. All animals and birds, wild and 
tame, and all persons except those employed in the work, should 
be most carefully excluded from infected premises until these 
have been disinfected and can be considered safe. 8. The losses 
sustained by the necessary slaughter of hogs should be made 
good to the owner to the extent of not more than two-thirds of 
the real value as assessed by competent and disinterested parties. 
9. Such reimbursement should be forfeited when an owner fails 
to notify the proper authorities of the existence of the disease, 
or to assist in carrying out the measures necessary for its 
suppression. 10. A register should be drawn up of all pigs 
present on farms within a given area around the infected herd — 
say, one mile — and no removal of such animals should be allowed 
until the disease has been definitely suppressed, unless such 
removal is made by special license granted by the local authority 
after they have assured themselves by the examination of an 
expert that the animals to be moved are sound and out of a 
healthy herd. 11. Railroad and shipping agents at adjoining 
stations should be forbidden to ship pigs, excepting under license 
of the local authority, until the plague has been suppressed in 
the district. 12. When infected pigs have been sent by rail, 
boat, or other mode of conveyance, measures should be taken to 
insure the thorough disinfection of such cars or conveyances, 
as well as the banks, docks, yards, and other places in or on 
which the diseased animals may have been turned. 

Other measures would be essential in particular localities. 
Thus in the many places where the hogs are turned out as street 
scavengers, and meet from all different localities, such liberty 
should be put a stop to whenever the disease appears in the 
district, and all hogs found at large should be rendered liable to 
summary seizure and destruction. 

The great difficulty of putting in practice the means necessary 
to the extirpation of the disease will be found to consist in the 
lack of veterinary experts. No one but the accomplished 
veterinarian can be relied on to distinguish between the different 



^50 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

communicable and destructive diseases of swine, and to adopt 
the measures necessary to their suppression in the different 
cases. In illustration I need only to recall the numerous reports 
in which what is supposed to be hog-cholera has been found to 
depend on lung-ivonns, on any one of the four different kinds of 
i7itestinal round-worms, on the lard-worms, on cmbiyo tapc-zvorms, 
on malignant anthrax, on pneumonia, or on erysipelas. To class 
all these as one and apply to all the same suppressive measures 
would be a simple waste of the public money, but to distinguish 
them and apply the proper antidote to each over a wide extent 
of territory would demand a number of experts whom it would 
be no easy matter to find. This state of things is the natural 
result of a persistent neglect of veterinary sanitary science and 
medicine as a factor in the national well-being, and must for a 
time prove a heavy incubus on all concerted efforts to restrict 
and stamp out our animal plagues. It will retard success under 
the best devised system, and will sometimes lead to losses that 
might have been saved, yet if an earnest and prolonged effort is 
made, the obstacle should not be an insuperable one,and the United 
States should be purged not of this plague only, but of all those 
animal pestilences which at present threaten our future well- 
being. 

The rearinof and breeding of swine is conducted in connection 
with other farming, and often, and perhaps most profitably, on 
dairy farms. Where the swine can have good pasture and plenty 
of buttermilk, or sour milk with their food, they thrive well. 
Where there are large herds of swine, if the farmer raises also 
large crops of corn, or the Egyptian rice-corn, he can fatten his 
swine very cheaply. 

The business of rearing swine either for sale or for breeding 
purposes, or for pork, is, aside from the risks of epidemic dis- 
eases, very profitable. A man with a farm of a half-section, 320 
acres, well in hand, sixty acres of it in corn, or thirty in corn and 
thirty in rice-corn, and a dairy herd of thirty to fifty cows, can 
begin operations with, say, thirty young sows of the Poland- 
China or improved Berkshire breed, and three or four boars of 
the alternate breed, a total outlay of not much over ^200; may 



REARING SIVINE PROFITABLE. 4^1 

count upon two litters a year (the best times are in March and 
September), and an increase for the two Htters of fourteen to 
each sow, and may market the next year 350 fat hogs weighing 
an average of over 400 pounds each, at $3.50 to ^4 per hundred 
pounds' Hve weight, at the lowest price netting him ^4,900, and 
have enough left to give him at the end of the ensuing year a 
herd of 800 to 1,000, and his grass and corn being consumed on 
his farm its value is enhanced thereby (if he is a good manager) 
to nearly double its previous value. 

We give a few reports of swine-farming in Kansas as a typical 
State in this industry, from the farmers themselves, as exhibiting 
their methods of breeding and the best way of making swine- 
farming profitable. 

F. D, Coburn, Pomona, Frmiklin County, Kansas. — " Thirteen 
years' experience breeding swine in Kansas; improved Berk- 
shires present stock ; a few of my reasons for preferring this 
breed are : their flesh is the highest quality of pork, they have 
great vitality, strong digestive and assimilative powers, will attain 
heavier weight, yet can be readily fattened at any age, sows are 
unequaled for prolificacy, are good sucklers and careful mothers, 
have wonderful uniformity in color, marking, and most valuable 
points of a good hog. A first-class Berkshire should be glossy 
black, white strip in face, feet and tip of tail white, body deep 
and moderately long, straight back, hams thick and full, legs straight, 
short, and strong, face short, wide between eyes, neck short 
and thick, jowl heavy, indicating quick, easy feeder, ears moder- 
ately small, slightly inclined forward, tail small, hair fine and 
thick, skin fine and pliable. Berkshire boars crossed on Poland- 
China sows make best pork hog in the world. Use my boars 
first at from seven to ten months old ; sows, at from eight to 
twelve months old ; two litters a year are not too many, with 
facilities for giving proper care ; have thern come early in April 
and early in September ; first two and a-half or three months of 
a pig's life should be in temperate weather. At one year old, 
my hogs, in good order, weigh 300 to 400 pounds. Being with- 
out pastures, I grow special green crops for them in summer, 
particularly sweet corn, to be cut and fed in stalk; use some 



462 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

milk, with ground rye, wheat bran, shorts, and other stuffs, which 
make an agreeable and healthful variety; crowding, or very warm 
sleeping-places, I avoid. Don't consider it profitable to cook 
feed, with corn at twenty cents per bushel, but with wind or 
other cheap power, it would often be profitable to grind and soak 
for forty-eight hours before feeding. Summer pasture necessary; 
the hog is emphatically a grass-eater ; red clover and blue-grass 
best. No disease among my hogs ; try to raise stock with robust 
constitutions ; don't confine to exclusive corn diet 365 days in the 
year ; don't let them crowd in large numbers ; give them my per- 
sonal attention, and have had no occasion to curse my luck or 
the hog-cholera ; principal causes of disease, mean class of hogs, 
kept in a mean way, by negligent farmers. Experience has 
proven to me that good pork, at a cost of two cents per pound, 
brings more than corn at twenty cents per bushel. Sold pork 
in 1879 for $3.25 to ^4 per 100 pounds, live weight. This State 
presents no obstacles to success in this branch of farm industry; 
lack of success and profit is with the man who practises false 
economy, by using year after year runty, ill-favored animals as 
sires, instead of pure-bred boars, of any breed, that would im- 
prove the value of their stock from fifty to 100 per cent, by the 
first cross ; lack of clover, blue-grass and artichoke pastures, 
pure water and shade; the idea prevails that 'any fool can raise 
hogs,' hence no care in studying new breeds and methods." 

Linscott Bros., Holton, yackson Coimly, Eastern Kansas. — 
"Twenty years' experience; now raising pure-bred Poland- 
China ; they are more quiet, sows make better mothers, are bet- 
ter sucklers, more prolific, pigs never get mangy, easily fattened 
at nine months old ; if desirable to keep longer, will continue 
growing till thirty months old; when fattened, have less waste, 
bring higher prices; best grass hog; will make two pounds of 
meat on grass to one of any other breed ; grass meat being 
cheapest meat made, this is a great advantage. Marks of pure- 
bred, in color, nearly black, some white, occasionally sandy spots, 
long body, deep sides, heavy hams, short legs, when fattened, 
should ' roll a cob,' rather large ears, drooped, rather short head, 
slightly dished face, has more meat back of shoulders than other 



EXPERIENCE OF KANSAS FARMERS. ^g^ 

breeds ; when well-fattened will have meat clear down to hocks. 
Poland sow with Berkshire boar, best cross for pork hog, among 
pure-bred, but we prefer pure Polands. Use boars first time not 
under eight months old, sows not sooner than eight, rather at 
twelve months old ; old sows may have two litters ; young ones, 
one litter a year, and that in May or June ; if I raised two litters, 
April one, and October one. Average increase, eight pigs per 
litter. Our hogs at one year old, in good order, weigh 350 to 
500 pounds; at two years old, 600 to 900 pounds. Have lost 
none by disease in five years. Let sows run on grass; feed 
soaked corn and slop of equal parts, bran and ship-stuff; those 
we wish to turn in fall, keep feeding on same until corn is dented 
in fall, then take off grass, put up, and feed corn ; for breeding, 
wean at eight weeks old ; let run on grass, with less amount of 
slop-feed than pork pigs ; put sows, when dry, on clover, without 
grain, until frost. Never let boar run with sows ; stand him, 
only serving once. Summer pasture absolutely necessary for 
profitable pork-raising ; clover and blue-grass best. Have had 
no prevailing disease among our hogs in Kansas — seven years. 
Sold pork in 1879 at four cents per pound, live weight. Well- 
fattened hogs should weigh 400 pounds or over, at one year old." 
E. M. Prindle, Marena, Hodgeman County, Western Kansas, — 
"Two years' experience breeding swine ; pure Berkshire present 
stock ; think they mature earlier, fatten with less feed, endure 
close confinement, or can get their own living better than any 
other breed. Best cross among pure-breds for pork, Berkshire 
with Poland. Have bred males at eight months, but it is too 
young ; sows at eight months, and not oftener than three times 
in two years ; have litters come in April and May. At one year 
old my hogs weigh 250 to 300 pounds. No disease among 
them ; too close confinement in uncleanly enclosures is likely to 
produce sickness. Don't think it profitable to grind and cook 
feed, with corn at twenty cents per bushel. Summer pasture 
good, but not necessary. Costs not over two cents per pound 
to grow pork in Kansas, with corn at twenty cents per bushel. 
In 1879 pork brought four cents per pound, live weight. For a 
fat hog, at one year old, 2)':)0 to 350 pounds is good weight." 



464 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

y. M. yohnson^ Hai^veyville, Wapaunsee County, Eastern Kansas. 
— " Twenty years' experience breeding swine; now raising pure- 
bred Poland-China : prefer diem, because of their gentle, quiet 
dispositions, large size, early fattening qualities, non-liability to 
disease, compared with a white hog ; body good length, short 
legs, broad, straight back, deep, full sides, full square hams, 
heavy shoulders, drooping ears, not too large, short head, wide 
between eyes. Best cross for pork among pure-breds, Poland 
and Berkshire. First breed boars at nine months old ; sows, at 
same age, twice a year ; have litters come in March and Septem- 
ber. In good condition, at one year old, my hogs weigh 375 to 
400 pounds. Thus far, in Kansas, have kept them confined, hav- 
ing no pasture fenced ; keep breeding sows separate from other 
hogs ; have corn and rye ground to make swill ; feed dry corn. 
One year ago quite a number of farmers tried boilers, but found 
no profit in it. Not necessary to have summer pasture to make 
a good hog, but less expensive ; red clover best. Never had any 
disease among hogs in this neighborhood. Costs about two cents 
per pound to grow pork in Kansas, counting corn at twenty cents 
per bushel. Average price received for 1879 pork, %2>'Z1 P^'' 
100 pounds, live weight. At a year old, a well-fattened hog 
ought to weigh 400 pounds. No drawbacks to success here ; 
but when corn is high, there is no money in feeding and raising 
hogs in close pens." 

A. S. Siitton, Vespei^, Lincoln Connty, Central Kansas. — " In 
1875, I raised twelve pigs from two sows, one a Poland China, 
the other a good grade ; have used pure Berkshire males on 
above sows and offspring ; have tried no other kind, having been 
very successful with these; in 1876, had the two old sows and 
six young sows of the 1875 pigs; raised and sold 100 pigs that 
summer, and increased my herd some; in 1877, sold fewer pigs, 
but began to fatten them ; sold that year, in pigs, shoats, and fat 
hogs, over 100, and had at the highest on hand 200 ; in 1878, 
fattened and sold 100; sold fifty or more young ones, and had at 
times 300; in 1879, fattened about 100; sold over 100 shoats, 
weighing over 100 pounds each, fifty or more pigs and sows; 
had as high as 400 at one time ; now have 200. Berkshire is a 



EXPERIENCE OF KANSAS FARMERS. ^gj^ 

fine-haired, black hog, some white in face, white feet, small, erect 
ears, round, symmetrical body, and short legs. Think Berkshire 
on our Western stock produces as good results as any other, 
making a beautiful, easily-kept hog. In my large herd, don't use 
boars first younger than one year, and have used same ones two 
years, biit think one year preferable ; can't keep my sows sepa- 
rate ; should be one year old at time of first litter ; breed them 
twice a year; they will begin to farrow April 15th this year, and 
continue till next November ; when I had fewer, had litters come 
in March and September ; saves labor and feed to have them 
come, as much as possible, in the growing season of the year, 
and a larger percentage of pigs can be saved. Stock hogs, at a 
year old, weigh 200 pounds; fat ones, 300 pounds and upwards. 
Have had no disease ; think close, foul pens a fruitful source of 
it. Since getting a large number, am compelled to put each sow 
in pen by herself, just before pigging time, and keep them there 
till pigs are three or four weeks old, then put several together in 
a small field or yard, with shelter and pasture ; also have a yard 
with fence open sufficiently to let pigs through, so as to feed 
them extra ; have a three-acre lot, with water and shelter, for 
fattening purposes ; balance run in a sixty-acre field of prairie 
with horses, cattle, etc.; water and straw sheds for shelter; feed 
corn twice a day; have had 400 together, but stronger ones are 
apt to cheat younger ones out of their feed. Don't think it 
necessary to grind and cook feed ; pasture is necessary for health 
as well as for feed ; have so far used only prairie grass. Pork 
at three cents per pound, live weight, will leave a margin for 
profit. Received ^2.62^/^, $3.40 and ^3.62^ per 100 pounds for 
1879 pork. I know of no drawbacks to success in this branch 
of farm production in Kansas." 

M. B. Keagy, Wellington, Suin7ier County, Southern Kansas. — 
"Ten years' experience breeding swine; pure-bred Berkshires 
present stock ; prefer them because I have had best success with 
them ; will make as much, if not more, pork, under one year old, 
as any other; think they care more for their pigs, and make bet- 
ter sucklers ; best hog to follow cattle, active when quite fat, and 
not liable to cholera. A pure-bred should be black, with white 
30 



^56 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

on face, feet, and tip of tail, very short head, good length of body, 
large hams, stand wide apart on front feet, nearly straight on 
back and belly from head to tail, short in legs. My experience 
is. that Poland-China and Berkshire make best cross among pure- 
breds for pork. Consider one year old best age to first breed 
boars ; sows, at from nine to twelve months ; have best luck with 
two litters a year, in March and September. At one year old, 
in good condidon, mine weigh about 350 pounds. Average in- 
crease, about seven pigs to a sow. Have had no disease among 
my swine ; confinement and poor treatment causes it. Have not 
bred more than five to eight sows per year, and when I find a 
good mother, think it best to keep her four or five years ; have 
fed on corn mosdy, as we have but litde tame grass here ; let 
run along creek part of time ; don't think best to confine them ; 
by all means, separate males from females as soon as weaned. 
Have ground and cooked feed, with profit, when pigs were small 
and learning to eat. Consider summer pasture necessary to 
obtain best results ; clover best of any I have tried. Think cost 
of growing pork in Kansas is about two cents per pound, count- 
ing corn at twenty cents per bushel. Sold 1879 pork at three 
and a half cents per pound, live weight. Weight of a well-fattened 
year-old hog should be about 400 pounds. Many farmers con- 
fine too much ; seem to think anything good enough for a hog ; 
I think them a nice animal, if they have an opportunity." 

The breeding- of horses, asses and mules for the market is a 
profitable business, but is not prosecuted on a large scale except 
in Texas, California, Oregon, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and, re- 
cently, Colorado. The greater number of the Texas horses are 
of two kinds, the Mustang — the wild and half wild descendants 
of Barbary horses or Spanish horses, brought over here by the 
early Spanish conquerors ; they have degenerated in size, 
and are of fitful and vicious temper, but tough, wiry and sure- 
footed, with great powers of endurance — and the Indian pony, a 
descendant from English and French horses, also half wild and 
tough, but possessing perhaps less powers of endurance, and a 
better temper than the Mustang. A cross of these gives a very 
serviceable horse, though not entirely free from vices. 



MUSTANGS AND BRONCHOS. .57 

There are, both here and in California, where the mustano- is 
very common, many horses thoroughbred and of the best blood, 
as well as grades from the most renowned English, French and 
American stocks, and there are those who are largely encrao-ed 
in rearing and breeding these very fine animals. It is claimed, 
and probably with truth, that some of the finest horses on this 
continent are owned in California, Colorado and Texas. But 
very little of these finer strains of blood is to be found in the 
droves, sometimes consisting of 10,000 or 20,000 horses, which 
are intended to supply the needs of the tens of thousands who 
want one, or a dozen, or a hundred horses for work. The 
mustangs, Indian ponies, and the cross between the two go by 
the general name of broncho throughout the West, just as the 
name of " Canuck " is given to all the Canadian horses at the 
East. Without the broncho (notwithstanding all his bad habits) 
the western settler, and especially the large farmer or the ranche- 
owner, would hardly be able to exist, and the Indian certainly 
would not. The shepherd follows his flock on foot, but the 
vaqtiero or herder, the cow-boy, as this western herdman delights 
to call himself, would be utterly bereft of all his importance if he 
could not exhibit his skill and horsemanship by careering about 
on his broncho. The stages or Concord coaches, which in such 
numbers traverse all parts of the Rocky Mountains to which the 
railways have not yet penetrated, are all drawn by bronchos, and 
all the relays are from the same stock. At every station, also, 
of all the railways, there are numerous conveyances, Concord 
coaches, buggies, lumber-wagons, buckboards, and often the 
more pretentious carriage, to which, in the absence of blooded 
stock, there are attached from one to four or six of these moun- 
tain horses. 

But while the "broncho" has great labors to perform, and 
often with scanty and indifferent fare, his humble, patient, and 
much-endurino- convener, the " burro," has a still harder time of 
it. Every sort of long-eared animal, except the mule, from the 
stately Spanish or Maltese ass down to the gentle little donkey 
bestridden by the young tyrant in knickerbockers, goes by the 
name of "burro," and its office is to bear burdens. Over the 



^58 0^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

passes of the Great Divide, nine, ten and eleven thousand feet 
above the sea, passes never tracked by a wheel, and only pene- 
trable by the sure-footed ass during the four summer months, 
the patient little donkey picks his way, bearing a heavy load of 
concentrated ore, or panniers of " canned vittles," or perhaps 
furniture or grain, which could not by any other mode reach the 
mining camps far up in the mountain gulches. 

Strange that an animal so gentle, meek and patient, should, 
by the mingling of a nobler strain of blood with its own, give 
birth to a progeny so thoroughly perverse and refractory, yet so 
indispensable on account of its hardiness and strength as the 
mule. This contrary, obstinate, sulky brute, whose intelligence 
seems to be wholly concentrated on the best mode of accom- 
plishing the greatest amount of mischief and destruction, is 
nevertheless invaluable in all the western lands. He commands 
a price at least fifty per cent, higher than that of a horse of the 
same grade ; and is universally employed in hauling ore, timber, 
miners' supplies, groceries, dry-goods, furniture, hardware, etc., 
etc. Unlike the burro, the primary function of the mule is not 
to cross the " Divides " on mountain trails, but to draw over the 
roads, good or bad (generally the latter), those huge wagons 
with their loads of from two to four tons. A mule-team may 
consist of four, six or eight mules. But there are pack-mules 
also, which bear on their backs heavy loads, fastened to them 
with all the packer's skill, and which, if well bound with the skil- 
ful but complicated diamond hitch,* will resist the determined 
and desperate efforts of the mule to rid himself of it. But woe 
to the packer who, in his zeal to display his skill, comes within 

* This is a peculiar fastening of the ropes which bind the pack on the mule's back, and the 
ability to execute it successfully is regarded as one of the highest attainments among the moun- 
taineers. It is related of one of Professor Hayden's corps, that at one time he was separated 
from his companions and fell into a camp of packers and mule-drivers. His new companions 
looked with contempt upon the delicate and apparently frail youth, and began to badger him. 
" V'ou are nothing but a tender-foot," they said; "what business have you u]i here, among men 
that have been in the mountains for years ? You had better go home to your Yankee friends and 
let them take care of you. We don't need any ' tender-feet ' up here." " I may be a tender- 
foot," replied the young man, quietly, "probably I am; but I can put the diamond hitch on a 
mule's pack with any of you." " Can you ? " asked his t^'iientors, in astonishment. " Then 
you are welcome to the best we have in camp." 



DOGS OF ALL KINDS. ^gg 

reach of the heels of this vicious brute; he will find it looking 
most demurely, but without the slightest warning those legs will 
lash out with lightning speed, and whosoever and whatsoever is 
within their reach, will feel that they possess all the hardness and 
elasticity of steel, and will not desire to repeat the experiment. 

The rearing and breeding of mules is not a very expensive 
business. It is only necessary to have the male parent of laro-e 
size and of good proportions ; the mother may be a mare of 
almost any breed ; even the Indian ponies or the mustangs 
answer the purpose. The mule colts are much hardier and 
tougher than the horse colts, and feed upon anything which 
comes in their way, shavings, sage-brush, weeds, buffalo grass 
or anything else. They bring a high price because the demand 
is always greater than the supply. There is probably no agri- 
cultural business which will return surer and more liberal profits, 
upon a moderate outlay, than this. We regret that we are un- 
able to give figures, but the horse and mule-breeders, if not a 
close corporation, are at least close-mouthed, and will not, as the 
slang phrase goes, give themselves away. 

Our record of domestic animals and their relations to the 
farmer, stock-raiser, or sheep-master would not be complete 
without a notice of the dog. Nowhere is it more true than in 
the Great West, that " there are doers and doofs." From the 
shepherd-dog or colly, which rivals man in point of intelligence, 
or the graceful and fleet grey-hound, whether of English, Danish 
or Italian breed, to the base cur-dogs which are always found 
around an Indian camp, base, sneaking, half-starved brutes, half 
wolf or coyote, the descent is almost infinite. The sheep-farmers 
complain bitterly of the ravages of these cur-dogs (and some- 
times, it is to be feared, of the better sorts) among their flocks, 
and often in their haste and anger, demand that all dogs shall be 
slaughtered or banished from the State, not even excepting the' 
collies, which, with rare exceptions, are the best friends of the 
sheep ; but while it is to be wished that th^ might succeed in 
destroying all the mongrels and curs, we cannot desire the 
destruction of the more beautiful and intelligent canines who are 
not destroyers of sheep or cattle. 



^yQ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The shepherd-dog is truly the companion of his master, Hstens 
to and understands every word spoken in his hearing, and is so 
faithful in guarding his woolly flock that he will sacrifice his own 
life for their preservation. We may be told that sometimes 
even these dogs have proved unfaithful to the trust confided to 
them, and have killed the sheep they were set to protect. This 
may be true in very rare instances, but have there been no cases 
where men, honored and trusted, have proven false to their 
trusts ? If so, why visit on a poor dog the punishment due to 
man, with his superior intelligence ? 

In those parts of the West where game is still plentiful, hunt- 
ing dogs are in great demand, and there are many kennels of 
superior breeds. The hunters in Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, 
Montana, Dakota and on the Pacific slope, have many fine dogs 
adapted to the great variety of game found there. The pointers 
and setters for feathered game, are of excellent quality, and the 
stag-hounds, employed for hunting the deer and elk, are not sur- 
passed anywhere. The fox-hounds and wolf-dogs are not always 
quite so good, but answer a tolerable purpose. Very few of the 
most plucky dogs like to attack the grizzly bear, for a single 
blow of its powerful claws kills them. They are not in so much 
fear of the black or cinnamon bears, and often render efficient 
aid to the hunters in brinoino- them down. The whole tribe of 
cur-dogs, Indian dogs, mongrels, and crosses on the coyote or 
the gray wolf are a nuisance, and kill more sheep than the 
coyotes or gray wolves, ten times over. The laws for the 
destruction of these pests are very strict and severe, but it is 
difficult to carry them into effect. Where there are Indian camps 
there are sure to be scores of these wretched dogs, mangy, ugly, 
and half-starved, but the Indian values them very highly, and 
some of the savage tribes offer them as sacrifices at the burial 
of their dead braves, while others, when hard pressed, cook and 
eat them. Most of them seem to be on excellent terms with the 
coyotes, the most despicable of all the carrion hunters of the 
wolf tribe, and it is not always easy to distinguish which is dog 
and which coyote. 

We have alluded, incidentally, more than once to the rearing 



RAISING POULTRY. .-. 

4/1 
of poultry, as a pursuit to be followed in connection with a grain- 
farm, a market-garden, or even a laborer's " little patch " of land. 
There is hardly any crop which a farmer will find more profit- 
able, in the small way, to help out his income, than a crop of 
chickens. 

We do not recommend the breeding of fancy fowls, which 
most people find unprofitable. Neither would we advise the 
establishment of a chicken factory. These are well enough in their 
way and are probably sometimes the sources of a large revenue ; 
but they require capital, experience and skill. But every farmer can 
have fifty or a hundred hens; the barn-yard variety is the best if 
crossed with Brahma, Houdan or Hamburg, Black Spanish or 
Plymouth Rock males. If the children want a brood of Ban- 
tams, indulge them. The outlay is inconsiderable, and the 
fresh eggs and the chickens pay a large profit. Take these 
examples: 

Raising Poultry in Iowa. — Mrs. D. W. Gage, near Ames, 
Iowa, raised in 1871, 600 chickens, of which about 150 were 
Brahmas and Houdans, the rest being half-blood. One Brahma 
cock, nine months old, weighed 1 1 ^ pounds. The poultry 
brought at Ames 6 cents per pound, live weight, while pork 
brought $3.20 per hundred. Mrs. Gage states that she can raise 
poultry as cheaply as she can pork, weight for weight, and gen- 
erally sell for twice as much. As to her method of rearing, for 
three or four days after hatching, the chickens were fed with 
hard-boiled eggs and cheese-curd, after which they received 
mush made from corn-meal and wheat. Mrs. Gasre recommends 
willows planted close as a shelter for fowls ; the leaves also afford 
them an agreeable food. She finds the Brahmas profitable for 
market, but for the home-table prefers Houdans. 

Mr. Arthur P. Ford, of Charleston, S. C., an experienced fowl- 
raiser, thus records his experience in the extreme South, which 
will be of interest in those States and Territories south of the 
thirty-fifth parallel : 

" Breeds. — The best breeds suitable to our climate are the 
Game, Black Hamburg, Spanish, Dominique, and the common 
Barn-yard, and also crosses between the Brahma and any of the 



472 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



foregoing. The large thoroughbred Asiatics do not thrive south 
of the thirty-fifth parallel of latitude ; the climate is too warm for 
them ; they may live two or three years, but their progeny in- 
variably degenerates. This is now a very generally accepted 
fact among those who have had experience in raising fowls in 
the South for actual profit. The dark colors are the hardiest, 
and in every way the most remunerative. Light-colored fowls 
are generally delicate, and nearly always inferior layers and set- 
ters. Persons forming a stock from any of the six varieties 
named should be careful to select the dark colors. White fowls 
are very pretty for the fancier, but they are an injudicious invest- 
ment for the ordinary poultry-raiser in the South. 

" Houses. — Fowls should in all cases, wherever practicable, be 
allowed to sleep on trees for the eight months from ist March 
to 1st November; they enjoy the privilege very much, and are 
always healthy; whereas when sleeping in houses during this 
warm period they will be constantly liable to all the diseases that 
appertain to their kind. When the cold weather comes on they 
should be put into the house at night, as they will not lay well 
during the winter if exposed to the cold rain and ice. The house 
should be placed upon the highest part of the grounds assigned 
to the fowls, in order to secure thorouorh drainage. It should 
be built of inch boards, placed two inches apart, to afford good 
ventilation ; the roof should be close, the floor covered with dry, 
loose sand, and the roost made of two-inch laths, and slipped 
between the openings, in order that they may be withdrawn fre- 
quently and cleansed with kerosene oil. The house should con- 
tain nothing whatever except the roosts ; no nests or boxes 
should be allowed in it ; and it should be whitewashed at least 
twice during the winter, and the floor frequently cleansed and 
supplied with fresh loose sand. 

"Lice. — Red lice will infest a fowl-house, even during the 
winter, in the South, and will be principally found on the under 
sides of the roosts, in small mahogany-colored patches. These 
lice infallibly cause sore heads, swelled eyes, and the dangerous 
disease known to fanciers as roup ; they are instantly killed, how- 
ever, by applications of kerosene oil ; and for this purpose the 



POULTRY RAISING IN THE SOUTH. 473 

roosts should be withdrawn and oiled at least every three weeks. 
When fowls have sore heads, caused by these lice, they will die, 
unless promptly taken in hand. A simple but infallible cure is 
to grease their heads daily for three or four days with olive-oil, 
and make them sleep on the trees in the open air. The large 
white lice will never be found on fowls that sleep on trees during 
the spring and summer months ; but if allowed to occupy a house, 
these lice cannot be escaped, and the fowls will show their pres- 
ence by appearing droopy, and having colorless combs and gills, 
and unless they are relieved they will die. 

"Water. — Pure, clean drinking-water is absolutely essential to 
the health of all poultry; impure water is a prolific source of 
cholera in summer, and of roup in winter. During the cold 
weather a little red pepper put into the drinking-water of fowls 
will be found beneficial. This is a good tonic, and warms up the 
hens and induces them to lay. Another excellent provision is 
to place at the bottom of the vessel of water a piece of assafce- 
tida, which impregnates the drink with its tonic equalities and is 
very wholesome. Fowls drink but little water at a time, but 
they drink very often ; and in the course of the day consume a 
surprisingly large quantity of it. 

" Food. — The food should be varied occasionally from hard 
grain, to flour or meal mixed with a little water, and should be 
fed to them principally in the afternoon, in order that they may 
have a supply for quiet digestion during the night. During the 
winter months fowls require more food than they do at other 
times, for they are unable to obtain insects, and the cold weather 
renders more food actually necessary. If fowls are fed well 
during the cold weather, they will lay well ; but they will not lay 
during the winter without an abundant supply of food. Chan- 
dlers' scraps, or oil-cake, that can be obtained at all soap-factories 
at two cents per pound, will be found very valuable food, given 
two or three times a week, but if fed too freely it will scour the 
fowls, as it is very greasy. An abundance of green food, fresh 
grass, etc., is absolutely indispensable during the summer, and 
should also be given the fowls during the winter whenever 
practicable. 



.y^ OUR WESTERN- EMPIRE. 

"■ Range. — A dry range is essential ; fowls will not thrive in 
damp localities or on dirty premises. They should never be 
allowed access to rotted manure heaps, as the ammonia gener- 
ated by such heaps always causes sore eyes and, if continued, 
death. There is a very great difference between an ordinary 
stable, or cow-yard, and a compost heap ; in the former the fowls 
obtain much food without risk, but in the latter the food obtained 
is always at the cost of disease. 

"Setting Hens. — Hens should never be set between ist 
May and ist September, as the small lice will become trouble- 
some during the warm weather ; and the young chicks will not 
thrive. Tliey may be set advantageously at any time between 
September and May; but the chicks will require much care 
and protection if hatched during the cold winter months. The 
hardiest chicks and most easily raised are those hatched during 
the months of February and March. Only the eggs of the finest, 
healthiest hens should be set, and particularly those from the 
best layers ; but eggs from hens that have had attacks of roup 
should never be set, as the constitutions of such hens are always 
weakened by this disease, and the chickens will be liable to 
similar attacks. It is certain that only strong, healthy hens can 
lay eggs that will produce strong, healthy chickens. The nests 
should always be made on the ground, so that the eggs can 
obtain the natural amount of moisture essential to hatching; and 
never under any circumstances should hens be allowed to set 
or even to lay in the fowl-house. They should be taken care- 
fully from the nests once daily, and given corn and water ; but 
when hatching has actually commenced they should be let most 
rigidly alone. 

" Chickens. — The young chickens should be kept in coops for 
at least one month after being hatched, or many of them will 
be lost by injuries and various accidents. A little meat, finely 
chopped up and fed to them occasionally, will be found of great 
advantage. Only the largest, best formed should be kept for 
stock, and the inferior should be sold or eaten. 

" Profits. — A stock of three cocks and twenty-seven hens will 
be found very manageable and remunerative by any family in the 



POULTR Y RAISING. . ^ - 

4/5 

country, and will yield an abundance of eggs and chickens for 
consumption and sale annually. The profits of keepino- fowls in 
a practicable, ordinary way may be demonstrated by the followino- 
statement, calculated for a period of two years : 

" Debtor. 

To 30 heads of fowls, at 75 cents per pair %\\ 2< 

To allow 8 to die in two years and be replaced at 75 cents per pair . 3 00 

To 48 bushels of feed, at 50 cents 24 00 

Fowl-house c 00 

46 dozen eggs for setting, at 15 cents 6 90 

Balance of profit in two years 88 85 

; gi39 00 

" Creditor. 

By 277 dozen eggs, at 15 cents ^41 55 

By 506 chickens hatched, less 100 died, say, 406 raised, at 20 cents . 8i 20 

By manure saved in two years 5 00 

By 30 head of fowls, at 75 cents per pair 1 1 25 

$139 00 



"Thus, thirt)^ heads of fowls will pay a clear profit of ^88.85 in 
two years, or an average of $1.48 each annually. Good speci- 
mens of the breeds named will produce annually about sixty to 
seventy eggs each. The settings should average thirteen, and 
of these about eleven will hatch. The extension of poultry-rais- 
ing should in every way be encouraged, as it increases the supply 
of good food at a very reduced cost." 

Turkeys are also a source of profit near villages and large 
towns. Where land is plenty, as at the West, it pays well to 
give poultry a tolerably wide range, accustoming them to come 
home at night to roost and be fed. They will make havoc with 
the grasshoppers and locusts, and prevent losses from these 
pests. They fatten easily, although they require care when they 
are young. They always command a good price, and as Mrs. 
Gage says of the fowls, it costs no more, pound for pound, to 
raise them than it does pork, and they will bring three or four 
times the price. 



>p,5 <^U^ WESTERN EMPIHE. 

Ducks and geese are also profitable where there is water. 
The latter especially have a triple value, for their eggs, their 
flesh and their feathers, which are plucked from the living bird, 
once or twice a year. This is a large business now in some 
parts of Texas, and is conducted on an extended scale. Pigeons 
are easily raised, especially in the vicinity of towns ; they are 
very prolific, and the young pigeons or squabs command high 
prices. 

The raising of poultry in the West is attended with some 
risks, as they have many enemies. Foxes, coyotes, raccoons, 
weasels, crround-hoCTs, and other four-footed marauders, and the 
whole tribe of hawks, owls and vultures, are ready to pounce 
upon the helpless fowls. 

But a still more formidable enemy is the so-called " chicken 
cholera," a disease which has made sad havoc in the poultry- 
yards of all parts of the country. Many farmers have lost hun- 
dreds of fowls, and' where a flock are attacked from twenty-five to 
ninety per cent. die. Ducks, geese and turkeys are as subject 
to it as hens and chickens. The disease is contagious and goes 
through an entire flock when one or two are affected. The 
symptoms are: at first, the fowl begins to mope around, some- 
times seeming to have a full crop, but oftener an empty one; it 
will not eat, but drinks often, and seems to be very thirsty; the 
comb and wattles become a dark red, nearly a black color; the 
droppings are at first of a pale green color, then dark green and 
yellow, but grow thinner, clearer and more liquid with each 
evacuation, till utterly weakened and prostrate, in the course of 
from twelve to forty-eight hours the fowl dies, usually with great 
appearance of agony. Many times they will use their last re- 
maining strength to crawl or flutter away under bushes or a 
fence to die. The liver is always found to be diseased. They 
sometimes have an appearance of fatness, but this is due to 
dropsical effusion. The discharges and the flesh of the fowls have 
a most offensive odor. 

That the cause of this disease, like that of the so-called "hog 
cholera," was a germ or organism of a contagious nature, and 
capable of the most rapid propagation, was discovered in France 



rROF. PASTEUR'S DISCOVERIES. -_«- 

■ by M. Moritz, of Upper Alsatia, and M. Toussaint, of Alfort, 
French veterinary surgeons, in 1878 and 1879. Sig. Peroncito, 
a veterinary surgeon of Turin, also corroborated their investiga- 
tions. It was reserved, however, for M. Pasteur, the eminent 
French physiologist and chemist, to apply the knowledge already 
obtained on this point to practical use. In a paper " on virulent 
diseases, and especially on the disease commonly called chicken 
cholera," read before the Academic des Sciences, February 9th, 
1880, and translated and published here by P. Casamayer, 
Ph. D., in the "Journal of the American Chemical Society," Prof. 
Pasteur details the results of his experiments carried orf for many 
months with this specific poisonous germ, by which he has dem- 
onstrated that its virulence may be gready diminished, and that 
if the chickens are inoculated with this modified germinal poison 
their sickness will be slight and they will be perfectly protected 
from the original disease. In a word he has applied Jenner's 
principle of vaccination to the chicken cholera. The processes 
by which this may be accomplished are so simple and the results 
so satisfactory that we presume it will be largely practised where 
there is danger of the prevalence of chicken cholera. 

But until this method can be more generally made known and 
adopted, it is certainly best that measures of prevention should 
be resorted to, and that the roosts and henneries should be kept 
perfectly free from vermin, by the free use of whitewash and 
kerosene oil, that no lice or other insects should infest the fowls, 
and that they should have pure water and perfectly clean feed, 
with fine gravel, red pepper, and occasionally a little assafoetida 
put in their water to act as a tonic. Their food should not be 
exclusively of corn, but meal, bran and other articles should be 
given a part of the time. They should have no access either to 
their own droppings, or any manure heaps, especially if any dis- 
ease prevails among other domestic animals, but should have 
during the day the range of a large, and if possible, gravelly lot. 

Another disease which affects fowls very often, and is con- 
siderably destructive, though less so than the chicken cholera, is 
roup. Under this name several distinct diseases, though all 
affecting the air passage, are included. It is sometimes 



.^3 (^^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

analogous to croup, and the fowls die of suffocation ; at other 
times it is only a severe catarrh, and sometimes a contagious 
one; at still other times it is an inflammation of the lungs or a 
sort of pleuro-pneumonia. These are all caused primarily by 
damp and unwholesome temperatures at the roosts, foul air, 
currents of air, etc. The symptoms are sneezing, mucous 
discharge from the nostrils, froth in the corners of the eyes, and 
a tendency to suffocation — stimulating food, red pepper, and 
bran mash, are as good as any medicines internally, and the 
external application of a wash of sulphate of iron (copperas), 
spirits of turpentine or kerosene to the head and throat (taking 
care that none of it enters the eyes), are the best external 
remedies. If the mucous discharge is copious and offensive, 
separate the sick fowls from the rest of the flock, as, at this stage, 
the disease is contagious. A lump of borax of the size of a 
chestnut dissolved in one or two quarts of their drinking water, 
is a very good remedy for the suffocating trouble of the throat. 



CHAPTER XL 



Special Crops — Rice Corn — Pearl Millet — Other Millets — Hungarian 
Grass — Sweet Potatoes — Pea-nut or Ground-nut — The Sugar 
Question once more — Is not Corn worth more than Twenty Cents a 
Bushel to Manufacture into Sugar? — The Cultivation of Textiles — 
Flax, Hemp, Ramie, Jute, Tampico, Tule, Nettle, Esparto Grass, the 
Brake or Swamp Cane — Some of the Cacti — Cultivation of Oil- 
Producing Plants — Castor Bean, Olive, Flax, Rape, Hemp and Cotton 
Seed, Tar Weed, Sesame, Peppermint, Spearmint, Bergamot — Culti- 
vation OF Nut-bearing and Fruit-bearing Trees and Shrubs — English 
Walnut, Black Walnut, Hickory-nut, Common Chestnut, Italian 
Chestnut, Almond, Filbert, Pecan, Hazel-nut, Pawpaw, Perslmmon, 
Japanese Persimmon, Pomegranate, Mandrake, Apricot, Medlar, 
Orange, Lemon, Shaddock, etc. — Ordinary Fruits, Apples, Pears, 
Quinces, Peaches, Plums, Cherries, Prunes, etc. — Small Fruits, Grapes, 
Currants, Gooseberries, Strawberries, Raspberries, Blackberries, Dew- 
berries, Partridgeberries, Whortleberries — Employment for Profes- 
sional Men, Artisans, Tradesmen, Florists, Market-Gardeners, Factory 
Operatives, etc. 

In previous chapters we have endeavored to place before the 
settler the results attained by skilful farmers and stock-raisers, 



SPECIAL CROPS. .-g 

in the ordinary crops and avocations of an agricultural or 
pastoral life. It now remains for us to show what special crops 
have proved, or are likely to prove, profitable, when their culture 
is undertaken under favorable circumstances. 

We have already said in our First Part, that above the thirty- 
second parallel of north latitude, the best first crops which a settler 
can raise, on new lands, are wheat or the root crops. But, after the 
arable land of the farm has been under the plow two or three 
times, and a rotation of crops seems desirable, it is well for him 
to turn his attention to some other crops in addition to his wheat, 
oats, barley, corn and potatoes, which with proper care he may 
find, perhaps, more profitable than the staples which he has been 
cultivating, and must still condnue to cultivate on the larger part 
of his farm. 

If he has any cows, kept for dairy purposes, any sheep or 
swine, he will do w^ell to turn his attendon first to forage plants, 
or to those which, in addition to their value for this purpose, 
yield some other important product. The different variedes of 
Sorghum, differing in their time of ripening, in their size and in the 
amount of saccharine matter they contain, answer an admirable 
purpose for both these crops. They can be sown early and cut 
just as the seed ripens, the leaves stripped for forage and the 
tops either reserved for feeding stock or for sowing, while the 
stalks can be crushed for the saccharine juice, hidian co7^7i may 
be made to furnish a triple product in the same way; the leaves 
being used for forage, the stalks for sugar and syrup, and the 
bagasse or dry crushed stalks used for fuel or for paper, the corn 
preserved for its various uses, not the least profitable of which is 
now the manufacture of glucose sugar. With such a demand as 
there now is for corn for this and other purposes, it ought to be 
worth much more than twenty cents a bushel, at which price it 
has been sold, for several years past, in Western and Central 
Kansas, and even within ten or fifteen miles of a railway. There 
is some dispute in regard to the healthful character of the glucose 
sugar and syrup, which are now made to the extent of many 
millions of pounds annually in Chicago, St. Louis, and Buffalo, some 
contending that as made, it contains free sulphuric acid and other 



480 (^UR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

substances which are very injurious ; others insisting- that it is 
perfectly devoid of any injurious quaHty, and equal in quality to 
any sugar in the market. 

These crops are both easily raised, and can be cultivated with- 
out any special instructions. Broom com is largely cultivated 
in several of the States and Territories, and is a very sure crop, 
growing and ripening wherever sorghumand Indian corn will ripen. 
In Kansas the average yield is about 580 pounds to the acre. 
It always finds a prompt and ready sale, and brings from ^20 to 
^25 per acre. Another excellent plant for both forage and grain 
is the Egyptian rice corn, or Pampas rice. It has been extensively 
tested in Kansas, and while inferior to Indian corn as a forage 
plant, its grain is richer in fattening qualities, yields on good land 
a larger crop, and stands drought better than any other grain, 
ripening its grain where Indian corn and all the cereals failed. 
It is not only excellent for fattening stock, swine and poultry, 
but when ground yields a richer, better and more appetizing food 
for family use than any of the other cereals. It yields from forty 
to sixty bushels of grain to the acre, and as it tillers very widely, 
requires less seed for sowing than other grains. 

Another of these forage plants which promises fairly, is the 
pearl millet. Its yield of forage is enormous ; it can be cut four 
or five times in a season, and will yield from fifty to eighty tons 
of green forage, or seven to ten tons of dry, to the acre. It 
stands drought much better than Indian corn, and though its 
stalks are not as sweet and somewhat more woody than those 
of the corn (it is one of the sugar-producing plants), it yields a 
much larger quantity, and in its green state is eaten with great 
avidity by cattle. The seeds or grain are excellent food for cat- 
tle or poultry, though not quite so rich in the fat-producing prin- 
ciples as the rice corn. It is sometimes confounded with the 
German millet, an inferior plant, and one of much less value for 
forage, though even this yields from five to six tons of dry 
forag-e to the acre. 

Alfalfa, a species of Lucern, long cultivated In Chili and Peru, 
has been very widely introduced into California, Arizona, Texas, 
New Mexico, Colorado and Kansas as a forage grass, and is 



HUNGARIAN GRASS— THE TEXTILES. ^•g.j 

much liked. It has a long tap-root which reaches far down 
below the surface and draws moisture from the depths of the 
soil below, so that it does best in a dry climate. The grass is 
perennial, and these tap-roots, in the course of four or five years, 
grow to the size of a carrot. It yields four or five crops, in all 
from five to eight tons of hay, in a year, which is very nutritious and 
eagerly sought for by horses and cattle. It does not flourish 
well in cold climates, and cannot be successfully cultivated north 
of 40° north latitude, 

Hungarian grass, a species of millet very nearly akin to the 
Sitaria Germariica or German millet, is also a great favorite as a 
forage plant throughout the West. It grows to the height of 
three or three and a half feet, and yields from two to four tons 
of hay per acre. It is better to cut it before it seeds, and to 
take off two or three crops a year. It is an annual, but is better 
on the plains tha^n timothy or common clover. The seed should 
not be fed to horses or cattle alone, but should be mixed with 
bran or some lighter food, as it is very rich and stimulating and 
often proves a powerful diuretic. The product of this grass in 
Kansas, in 1878, was ^1,782,000. It is said to exhaust the soil 
miore than the Alfalfa. 

Another class of special crops, which will often pay a very 
handsome profit, are the textiles. Some of these, as cotton, 
jute, ramie, and the cacti, can only be successfully cultivated in 
the southern portion of our Western Empire. All, or nearly all, 
these flourish well in Texas, Arkansas, the Indian Territory, 
Southern Kansas, New Mexico, Arizona, Southern Nevada, and 
Southern California. Cotton, Yik^^ax and hemp, is valuable not 
only for its textile product but for its seeds, which produce a 
valuable oil, and a rich oil-cake for feeding cattle, of which we 
shall have more to say by-and-by. It can be raised as far north 
as Kansas, or in the latitude of Southern Illinois, but is not a 
very profitable crop above the 35th parallel, yute is a shrub of 
the order Tiliaceae, to which the linden or basswood trees also 
belong. It is an annual, a native of the East Indies, but is easily 
cultivated in the extreme Southwestern States. The fibre has 
many uses ; though too easily affected by moisture for cordage. 



31 



^g2 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

it is largely used for gunny-bags, for paper stock, as a substitute 
for hair, for cheap carpeting, and employed in the adulteration 
of cheap silk and mohair goods, etc., etc. The settler in 
Texas, Arizona, or Southern California would hardly find any 
crop more remunerative. The ra?me or China grass, like the 
hemp and the nettle, belongs to the family of Urticaceae, or 
nettle-like plants. It yields a beautiful fibre, stronger than hemp, 
finer than flax, and of a beautiful whiteness. It will grow 
wherever cotton grows, yields three crops a year, of about 1,500 
pounds of fibre to the acre, and ought to be largely cultivated. 

The different species and genera of the cactus do not require 
cultivation. They abound in Texas, Arizona, Southern New 
Mexico, and Southern California, and especially the peninsula of 
Old California. Many of the species have an abundance of long, 
Vi^hite fibres, easily obtained by crushing them between rollers, 
and these can be used to advantage for many purposes. In 
Southern California they are curled and used for filling mat- 
tresses, for which their elasticity admirably adapts them. 

The brake, or sivamp-cane, which is our only plant akin to the 
bamboo of the eastern continent, abounds along the shores of 
the Gulf and the southern rivers. It is one of the best materials 
known for the production of paper stock, and by an ingenious 
machine is easily reduced to a tough and fibrous pulp of great 
stren^^^th. 

The tide, a rush found abundantly on the islands and shores 
of the California lakes and rivers, is also an excellent material 
for paper stock. So is the pahnetto, which will grow on the 
poorest lands in Texas, Colorado and New Mexico, as well as 
in Arkansas and the Indian Territory. 

The Agave Americana, a native of Mexico, but sufficiently 
hardy to grow anywhere south of 40° north latitude, yields a 
fibre nearly equal to hemp, and capable of being extensively 
raised on sandy and dry lands. This is good for cordage, for 
brushes, for which purpose it is sold as tanipico, and for paper 
stock. The Esparto grass, which is found in the south of Spain 
and on the coast of Algeria, Is in great demand In England and 
to some extent here for paper stock. It grows very profusely 



FLAX, HEMP AND NETTLE. ^3, 

on the poorest lands, and at the price now paid for it would be 
a very profitable crop for the poorer lands, as there is a great 
demand for paper pulp, for all descriptions of manufactures. 

Flax, Linum Usitatissinium ; hemp. Cannabis Saliva ; and the 
nettle, Urtica Dioica, and other species, and we might probably 
add the New Zealand flax, PJiormiiim tenax, which would be a 
valuable addition to our textiles, are all natives of temperate 
climates, and are cultivable in any part of " our Western Em- 
pire," except where the conditions of drought prevent. All of 
them draw very heavily for growth and nourishment upon the 
soil, and rank as exhausting crops, requiring for their best 
growth a rich and highly manured soil ; but all of them are pro- 
fitable when properly cultivated ; the flax and hemp yielding not 
only the lint, but seeds which produce valuable oils used by 
painters and artists ; and the nettle being very valuable as a 
forage plant aside from its fibres. The New Zealand flax is 
about twenty per cent, stronger than hemp, and is well adapted 
''.o the manufacture of cordage. We are not aware of any other 
economical use of its seeds or leaves except for textile purposes. 
Where the soil and rainfall are adapted to these crops, as in 
Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, Eastern Kansas, Nebraska 
and Dakota, and Western Oregon, their cultivation, though 
attended widi considerable labor, even with the present improve- 
ments, cannot fail to be profitable. The breaking of flax and 
hemp, i. e., the process of removing the woody portion from the 
fibre, was formerly a difficult and laborious process, but, thanks 
to the inventive skill of some American mechanics, it is now 
only a light amusement. The bleaching of the flax (hemp is not 
often whitened), as practised in Ireland, is a process requiring a 
peculiar climate and the constant presence of moisture. It is 
possible that Minnesota, and perhaps Oregon, might furnish the 
required conditions with their numerous lakes and their some- 
what plentiful rainfall. But the cultivation of flax and hemp, 
especially the former, for the seeds alone is very profitable. In 
Kansas, in 1879 (not a favorable year for these crops), flax was 
raised for the seed only on nearly 70,000 acres, and the net 
profit was more than ^9 per acre. Hemp was raised in that 



4^84 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

State the same year on only 606 acres, but the crop sold mainly 
for the lint for about ^56 per acre. The nettle is not yet much 
cultivated as a textile and forage plant ; but the climate is better 
adapted to it than that of Germany, where it has proved a great 
success. The netde fibre is fine and even and of great strength, 
so that it is well adapted to the manufacture of fabrics for sum- 
mer wear, as well as to fine cords, etc. For these purposes it is 
thought to surpass flax, and it grows well on a poor soil, though, 
of course, not as large as on a rich one. 

Turning now from, textiles to oil-producing plants, we notice, 
•first, after the textile seeds, cotton, flax and hemp, all of which 
yield oils of great commercial value, and which form a constantly 
increasing product both for home consumption and export, a 
very valuable though humble plant which is destined yet to be- 
come a very important product of the soil — the Arachis Hypo- 
gcsa, known as the pea-nut, ground-nut, or goober. This sin- 
gular plant possesses a variety of claims upon our consideration ; 
its straw or vines when cured make an excellent hay or forage 
which cattle eat greedily; the nuts or seeds, enclosed in a hard 
shell and spreading and ripening beneath the soil like the tubers 
of a potato, are, when baked or roasted, in great demand among 
children, and grown people also ; while they yield on pressure 
a clear, pure oil, which for salad purposes is equal to olive oil, 
and is of great value for illuminating and lubricating purposes, 
and is also used for the manufacture of the better qualities of 
soap. The nuts when powdered are, in France, largely mixed 
with cacao for the manufacture of chocolate, and in the so-called 
chocolate condiments, are substituted for the cacao. The pea- 
nut is very easily cultivated, and in a good soil yields a large 
and profitable crop. It is raised in considerable quantities in 
Tennessee and in Kansas, and to some extent in other States. 
It yields from twenty to fifty bushels to the acre, and with good 
cultivation on good land, the crop may easily be increased to 
80, TOO, or even 125 bushels. The price simply for use for 
roasting purposes varies from twenty-two cents to ^i per bushel; 
the first being an exceptionally low price caused by a sudden 
glut in the market which was unprepared for it at the time. 



OLIVES AND SESAME. .^- 

With a simple oil-mill and a sufficient local supply to keep the 
mill running, and facilities for marketing the product, we think 
the price might readily advance to ^i, or even more, per bushel. 
Hardly any crop so easily raised will pay better. 

The culture of the Olive, which is not only practicable bu$ 
lucrative in Texas (possibly in Arkansas), in the Indian Terri- 
tory, in Arizona and Southern California, is eminently desirable, 
wherever it is possible, both for the fruit and the oil. It is 
hardly necessary to go into particulars in regard to the methods 
of cultivation of this Interesting plant, as most of those who would 
be likely to cultivate it have already been engaged in its culture 
in Southern Europe, and if not, can easily learn from those 
around them the best processes of propagating and training it. 
Pure olive oil, though a little liable to become rancid from the 
vegetable mucilage it contains, is generally regarded as the best 
of the vegetable oils, though, for many purposes for which it is 
used, the oil of the seeds of the SesaDuim Indiaim, of the ground^ 
nut already described, or of the Madia Saliva, the tar-weed of 
the Pacific coast, all of which are cultivated for the oil expressed 
from their seeds, is preferable. These plants are all worthy of 
cultivation, as they yield on an av.erage about 500 pounds of oil 
from the seed produced on an acre. 

The seeds of the summer and winter rape, the coleworts, 
rocket, gold of pleasure, sunflower, white poppy, turnip cabbage 
and Swedish turnip, all of them plants which can be matured 
in any climate where Indian corn, will ripen, yield from 385 
pounds to 875 pounds of oil to the acre's product. 

There are also a few oil-producing plants whose oils have a 
medicinal, character, or perhaps have a certain value for the per- 
fumer, which may be cultivated with profit by the farmer, especially 
on the prairie lands. The most noted of these is the castor bean of 
castor oil plant, Ricinus Conmiunis or Sangtiinariits. This is cul- 
tivated somewhat largely in Kansas and other States ; fifty-five 
counties in Kansas having 68,179 acres planted with it, in 1879^ 
though only twenty-two counties raised over 1,000 bushels each ; 
and the product being valued at ^766,143, or about ^11.26 per 
acre. This is a low average, as with ordinarily good cultivation 



Ag5 OUR WESTERN' EMPIRE. 

the crop should be from twenty to twenty-five bushels per acre, 
and with special care should reach thirty bushels. In the absence 
of any oil-mills near, the price of the beans was %\ per bushel. 
Witli an oil-mill near, as they might have had in the counties 
having large crops of it, they would have been able to realize at 
least $1.50 per bushel, and still have left a large margin of profit 
to the manufacturer. The plant Is of large, rank growth, and 
matures its beans In a summer of ordinary length. It is planted 
in Kansas In March, April or May, according to the locality. 

Peppermint and spearmint are largely cultivated in some sec- 
tions mainly for the oil, though the dried herbs are sold in small 
quantities. In Illinois there are large tracts sown with them for 
this purpose, and the culture proves profitable. Bergamot is 
sown for the same purpose. These plants can be profitably 
cultivated, If there Is a distilling apparatus in the vicinity to distil 
off the oils. They are a crop easily raised, as they require 
no weeding or hoeing. If planted on clean land, and can be 
harvested with the mower or harvester. 

Among other special crops, we may notice also those of the 
nut-bearing and fruit-bearing trees and shrubs, not included in 
those of the ordinary orchard. 

Under the Timber-Culture Act, though orchard trees are not 
allowed to be reckoned among those planted for the purpose 
of holding the land, yet quite a variety of the nut or fruit-bearing 
trees are permitted. Among those which are native to our soil 
are the butternut and black walnut, three species of the hickory, 
the chestnut, of which there are two or three varieties, and its 
congener, the chinquepin, of which there are two ; the horse- 
chestnut and the buckeye, which though not edible by. man are 
prized by some animals and have an economic value for their 
starch; the pinon pine, whose edible nuts furnished food to 
Fremont's men and to many explorers since ; two or three 
species of the beech, whose three-cornered nuts are greedily 
seized by swine and squirrels ; the pecan nut, a shrub ; the 
filbert, which though not native Is naturalized; the hazel nut; 
and of imported nut-bearing trees, the English walnut, called 
also the Madeira nut, and the Italian chestnut. The last two 



NUT-BEARING TREES AND SHRUBS, ^g- 

are very valuable additions both to our shade and fruit trees. 
The nuts of the English walnut are in great demand and are 
largely imported. The Italian chestnut furnishes a flour which 
is only inferior to wheat, and which forms the only or principal 
farinaceous food of the Italian peasants of the Apennines. Its 
cultivation would therefore be the introduction of an additional 
fo>od product of great value. 

Our native chestnut is undoubtedly capable of great improve- 
ment both in size and quality of its nuts, and the wood, which 
forty or fifty years ago was regarded as only fit for rails and the 
like, is now prized as one of the best of our native woods for 
cabinet work. The emigrant farmer, who has settled on "the 
plains," when planting trees, as it is his duty and for his ad- 
vantage to do, will do well to set some of these noble, kingly 
trees. They may not grow so rapidly as ailantus, locust or 
bois d\irc, but they will be worth a great deal more when they 
are grown. 

Orchards of fruit trees, as well as fruit-bearine shrubs, are 
very desirable and profitable everywhere in the West. Our 
space does not permit us to enumerate all the varieties of apples, 
pears, peaches, plums, cherries, quinces, and other fruits very 
widely cultivated in all or nearly all these States and Territories, 
The apple and pear do well almost everywhere, though of course 
different varieties are cultivated in different regions. The apples 
of Iowa, Minnesota, Dakota, Montana, Oregon and Washington 
are of excellent quality and command high prices. Equally 
valuable, though of different varieties, are the apples and pears 
of the middle belt of Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, 
and, to some extent. New Mexico ; while Arkansas, the Indian 
Territory, Northern Texas, and those portions of Arizona where 
fruit-growing is practicable, produce excellent apples, but do not 
succeed so well with pears. The apples of Oregon are of such 
excellence that they are largely exported not only to San 
Francisco, which is an excellent fruit market, but to the cities 
and countries along the Pacific coast of South America, and to 
the Sandwich Islands. 

Quinces grow best along the banks of streams, but the New 



^^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

York market receives from California, quinces of gigantic 
growth, like all the California fruits, but also of the most ex- 
quisite and delicate flavor. Plums, apricots and nectarines, 
being all liable to the sting of the curcullo — " the little Turk," as 
the farmers call him — are more successfully cultivated by the side 
or banks of lakes or streams, where their little enemy may be 
shaken off into the water and perish. Cherries do well only in 
certain localities, but are very profitable where they can be cul- 
tivated. The peach Is successfully raised as far north as 
Iowa and Southern Dakota, and to the extreme southern limit, 
but the southern varieties ripen much earlier than those farther 
ilorth, and command the best prices In consequence of their 
early ripening. A peach orchard, well cared for and managed 
with enterprise, In Texas, Arkansas, or the Indian Territory, 
should prove a fortune to Its owner. Of shrubs or small trees, 
yielding fruit, there are the date plum, or persimmon, Diospyros, 
of which there are two American species, both very astringent 
before being touched with the frost, but pleasant afterward, and 
the Japanese persimmon, greatly superior to the American In all 
respects, and now extensively Introduced ; the fig, a favorite fruit 
in the southern and middle tier of States, where It ripens with- 
out difficulty ; the pawpaw, or custard apple, Anona, which grows 
wild, but Is easily cultivated, and a Peruvian species of very 
delicious flavor, Anona Chcrimoya ; the pomegranate. Introduced 
into California, and the mandrake, PodopJiyllmn pcltahnn, whose 
fruit, when carefully ripened. Is equal to that of the pawpaw. 
All of these, as well as other fruits which only grow wild, do not 
flourish well In the northern tier of States and Territories, but 
are In their best condition In the central or southern tier. The 
lemon, lime, orange, and shaddock will only mature with cer- 
tainty in Texas, Arizona and Southern California ; but a very 
good Chinese variety, which should be Introduced here, ripens 
and withstands frost and other changes in that country, above 
the latitude of 40° north. 

Of the smaller fruits, the grape. In different species and varie- 
ties, Is cultivated from the British boundary line to the Gulf 
Coast. The vineyards of California are of immense extent, and 



GliAPES AND SMALL FRULTS. a^^ 

every grape known to European vine-growers is cultivated 
there ; the wines of California are improving every year, and 
eventually must control the market. Missouri, Texas, New 
Mexico, Southern Arizona, and, in a less extensive sense, Kan- 
sas and Nebraska, are also noted for their vineyards. The wines 
of Missouri and Texas have a high reputation. The production 
of raisins, and especially "raisins of the sun," has been success- 
fully prosecuted in California, and might be in Arizona and 
Texas. The Zante currant or grape of Corinth, a small grape 
which is imported in immense quantities for plum-puddings and 
for the use of the Germans, might easily be raised here. 

The other small fruits, strawberries, raspberries, of two species 
and several varieties, blackberries, also of several varieties, dew- 
berries, whortleberries, currants, black, white, and especially red, 
gooseberries, and several species of mulberry, which differ from 
the others in p-rowinof on a tree instead of a shrub or vine ; the 
partridge or wintergreen berry, etc., etc., are for the most part 
cultivated, and all are cultivable, and will add a very material 
sum to the farmer's income. All of them bring good prices and 
find a ready market in their season. Their cultivation is not 
difficult, and the returns are very considerable, and come at a 
season of the year when they are particularly convenient. 

We should call attention here also to the advantages of the 
cultivation of vegetables, etc., or, what is known in the vicinity 
of our larger cities,' as "market-garden truck." A settler in the 
neighborhood of one of these western towns or villages, and 
especially the mining villages, if he has a farm of i6o acres, or 
even of eighty or forty, can make a handsome fortune in a few 
years, if he will devote ten or twenty acres to the intelligent 
cultivation of these vegetables : such as asparagus, celer}^ early 
beets, peas, string-beans, lima and kidney beans, new potatoes, 
sweet early corn, salsify, egg-plant, cauliflower, kale, cabbages, 
onions, leeks, garlics, squashes, carrots, early turnips, ruta-bagas, 
mangel-wurzel, etc., etc., adding, if he can find room and time, the 
small fruits. 

In a chapter of our First Part we have already pointed out the 
opportunities which " Our Western Empire " offers to men who 



^go ^<^'^ IVESTEKX F.Mr IRE. 

have not been accustomed to farming-, and who have no special 
adaptation to it. There are very few of them who are not too 
old for successful emigration, and who possess industry and 
energy, and a little capital, who will not find, in the course of 
five or six years, that their condition has been materially im- 
proved by their removal. All such persons should buy a little 
land, even if it be not more than forty acres ; the time will come 
within the next twenty or thirty years when land even in the 
West will be very valuable and not easily obtained ; and those 
who have trades or professions, or pursuits which yield them a 
comfortable support, though they may not desire to farm their 
lands, yet desire a good vegetable and a good flower-garden. 
They need also pasture for one or more horses, one or two 
cows, and perhaps some swine and poultry. Their land, mean- 
while is growing in value constantly, and in their declining years 
may become their most important possession. 

We would especially urge this upon professional men, clergy- 
men, lawyers, physicians, artists, etc., and also upon merchants, 
tradesmen and master-mechanics. Florists and nurserymen can 
do well with small tracts of land, and will find their business, if 
well managed, a surer road to wealth than a large farm. Even 
day-laborers, especially near the mining villages and tov^'ns, will 
be able, by raising vegetables, keeping a cow, the inevitable pig, 
and a moderate stock of poultry, to make a much better living 
than they could in " the old country." 

The concentration of a large population in these districts so 
sparsely settled hitherto, will, of necessity, bring in a great 
variety of manufactures, and thus furnish ample employment to 
many operatives ; but to each of these we would say, in all kind- 
ness : endeavor, as soon as possible, and even at considerable 
sacrifice, to become the owners of a little land, and to have a 
home of your own. It is the first step toward independence, 
and when you have 

"A little home well filled, 
A little farm well tilled, 
A little wife well willed," 

and the olive-plants begin to be numerous about your table, you 



SCHOOLS AND CHURCHES. .gj 

will not be so anxious for strikes, nor regard the behests of a 
labor union as so imperative ; if wages are too low, you can till 
your own acres and wait till they are higher — but, by all means, 
secure you a little homestead. 

To all classes of settlers we would say, farther: in your zeal 
to establish yourselves in your new homes, do not forget to rear 
the school-house within convenient distance of your dwelling. 
Whether you have children or not, the school is one of the 
strongest safeguards of free institutions. The State has gener- 
ously made ample provision, or what will be in time ample, for 
supplying it with good and efficient teachers, and what the State 
cannot now do a light tax will accomplish. If your children, and 
the children of the community, can be well educated, they will 
be the better fitted to become the rulers and leaders of a great 
State. 

And we have still another injunction for you : In all your set- 
tlements, whether large or small, give your aid freely toward the 
early establishment of Christian churches. We urge this, with- 
out reference to the question, whether you are yourselves 
believers or unbelievers in Christianity, It will not take you 
long to learn that a church will do more to preserve and main- 
tain good order and respect for law, will give you a purer and 
better social condition, and a higher standard of morals, than a 
gambling-den, a liquor-saloon, or a low varieties theatre ; as you 
love your families, as you seek after the best interests of society 
and the promotion of justice and good order, give the preference 
to the church over these institutions which are fraught with so 
much evil. 



PART III. 

THE SEVERAL STATES AND TERRITORIES 

DESCRIBED. 



CHAPTER I. 

ARIZONA. 

Its Location — Extent — Topography — Mountains, Rivers, Lakes, Canons 
— Table-lands — Its Soil, Climate, Temperature, and Rainfall — Its 
Wonders and Peculiarities — Its Minerals and Mines — Its Zoology — 
Adventures with its Wild Animals — Its Productions, Mineral, Animal, 
Vegetable — Its Population — The Indians nearly Extinct Races — 
The Ancient Province of Tusayan — White Inhabitants — Its Present 
Condition, and the Advantages and Facilities it affords to Settlers — 
Letters and Communications from Major-General J. C. Fremont, Gov- 
ernor of Arizona, and Colonel J. W. Powell, United States Army, 
Explorer of the Colorado, etc. — Its Probable Future. 

The Territory of Arizona occupies a part of the southwestern 
portion of " Our Western Empire," though separated from the 
Pacific by Southern Cahfornia and the rocky and terrible desert 
of Lower Cahfornia, above the head of the gulf; it does not 
extend so far south as Southwestern Texas, but is comprised 
between the parallels of 31° 20' and 2)7° of north latitude, and 
between the meridians of 109° and 114° 35' west longitude from 
Greenwich. But a small portion of it has been surveyed, and 
as its western boundary along the Colorado of the West is 
irregular, there is some doubt about its actual area. It is esti- 
mated, in the last Land Office Report, at 113,916 square miles, 
or 72,906,240 acres. The probability is that it will be found to 
exceed this amount by several thousand square miles. Its form is 
somewhat irregular ; on the north it is bounded by the Territory 
of Utah, the thirty-seventh parallel forming the boundary as far 
(492) 



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BOUNDARIES AND ORGANIZATION. ^g^ 

west as the 114th meridian, which forms the western boundary 
of Utah ; this meridian forms also the western boundary of 
Arizona as far south as the thirty-sixth parallel, where the Colo- 
rado of the West crosses the angle formed by the meridian and 
parallel, and proceeds northwest and then west-southwest, and 
turning sharply south at Callville, just after it emerges from the 
Grand Cailon, flows southwardly thence to the Gulf of Califor- 
nia, forming, for all this distance (about 500 miles), the western 
boundary of Arizona. The original southern boundary, acquired 
from Mexico in the Treaty of Guadaloupe-HIdalgo (February 2d, 
1848), was the river Gila, the most considerable of the lower 
affluents of the Colorado, and the only one which is navigable 
for any considerable distance. By the Gadsden Treaty, made at 
Mexico, December 30th, 1853, all the territory lying south of the 
Gila to the border of the Mexican State of Sonora, was conveyed 
to the United States. The southern boundary now runs due 
west along the parallel of 31° 20' to the iiith meridian, and 
thence west-northwest in a stralg-ht diaofonal line till it reaches 
the Colorado in about 32° 30'. The Territory is bounded on 
the east by New Mexico. 

The law authorizing the organization of the Territory was 
passed February 24th, 1863, and the Territorial Government 
inaugurated December 29th, 1863. It has never been thor- 
oughly explored, and, up to 1880, only about 6,100,000 acres 
had been surveyed, about one-twelfth of its area. Its area is 
about equal to that of all the New England States, New York 
and New Jersey. The country is mountainous in much of its 
extent, though there is but little regularity about its mountain 
ranges. In the middle and northeast there are elevated plateaux 
of vast extent having a mean altitude, varying from 3,000 to 
7,500 feet above the sea, and from these plateaux volcanic cones 
and hills rise at many points. In the north a mesa or plateau 
stretches away far into Utah Territory. South of the Gila river 
the plain sinks almost to the sea-level, but in the southeast and 
along the Sonora line, there are fourteen or fifteen detached 
ranges, and four or five isolated peaks. Many, perhaps most, 
of the mountain ranges have a general course from northwest to 



.g. OUR WESTER X EMPIRE. 

southeast, but the Mogollon Mountains, and some of the ether 
o-roups extending into New Mexico, have an east and west 
direction. The highest known elevation in the Territory is Mount 
San Francisco, at the northern end of the lofty San Francisco 
plateau, from which it rises to a height of 12,700 feet above the 
sea-level. 

Scattered among these mountain ranges, detached and isolated 
mountain summits, plateaux and mesas, are many valleys of great 
beauty and fertility, but the river valleys are generally narrow 
ravines, gorges and canons, accessible to the rays of the sun 
only at high noon, and whose precipitous and nearly perpen- 
dicular walls excite ten-or rather than pleasure. The valleys of 
the Colorado Chiquilo, or Flax river, and of the Rio Salinas, or 
Salt river, are exceptions to this, being the garden spots and 
p-ranaries of the Territory, and the bordering mountains fur- 
nishing great stock-ranges where the cattle are sometimes too 
fat to be driven. _ 

The most remarkable feature of the topography of Arizona is 
the tendency of its rivers and streams to form canons, of great 
depth and with precipitous sides. Either the strata through 
which these rivers have cut their way to the Gulf of California 
are more friable and easily eroded than the same strata else- 
where, or the great descent of the rivers and their immense 
volume when swollen by the rains and melting snows give them 
a force which is irresistible. The whole Territory is drained by 
the Colorado river and its tributaries. Most of these tributa- 
ries — all, indeed, except the Gila, which is in itself a large river — 
enter the Colorado high up in its course ; the San Juan, which 
enters the northeast corner of the Territory and receives a con- 
siderable affluent, the Rio de Chelly, there ; and the Colorado 
Chiquito, or Flax river, with Its important affluents, the Rio 
Puerco of the West, Rio Ouemado, and Chevelon's Fork, falling 
into the parent stream above the Big Canon of the river, and 
forming deep, dark and precipitous canons of their own. The 
Colorado itself, through more than 600 miles of its course through 
Arizona, flows through deep canons, and receives nearly 200 
streams, large and small, all of them coming through gorges of 



DESCENT OF THE GRAND CANON. .gc 

less depth, and falling over the as yet only partially eroded rocks 
in cataracts, into the main stream. Its descent in these 600 
miles is more than 3,000 feet. The Big or Grand Canon is one 
of the wonders of the world. Its descent has been several times 
attempted, and was accomplished, though not without loss of 
life, by a party under command of Major J. W. Powell in 1869, 
and again in 1871. 

The narrative of these descents, as given by the intrepid 
explorers, is of the most thrilling interest. Through its whole 
course, except the last 500 or 600 miles, and through the entire 
course of its principal affluents, these canons succeed one 
another, each one in the downward course of the current being 
deeper, darker and more terrible than its predecessor. At 
irregular intervals there are rapids, cataracts, and falls of great 
height, while every one of the tributary streams plunges into the 
main river through a minor canon of its own, by a cataract often 
of 150, 200, or 300 feet. The W.w stalwart men, provided with 
every necessity for their perilous journey, and stocked with 
ample supplies, who, on the 30th of May, 1869, had started from 
the Green river station, in four boats, to descend the Colorado, 
had passed through the last of the great canons, on the 29th of 
August, their numbers reduced to six, their boats to two, hatless, 
shoeless, and ragged, their provisions exhausted, their instru- 
ments broken, and they themselves battered and bruised by 
their conflicts with rapids, cataracts, whirlpools and rugged 
rocks^ The walls of their long prison house were in some 
places more than a mile in height, and in their dark gorges they 
could only catch a glimpse of the sun at high noon. Yet the 
monuments, towers, cathedrals, castles and lofty battlements of 
all conceivable colors, were grand, impressive and often beauti- 
ful beyond description ; and worn and wearied as they were, 
they were full of enthusiasm over the accomplishment of their 
perilous voyage. Three of those who had left them were slain 
by Indians ; one returned to Utah. 

The river is navigable, though with some difficulty, on account 
of its numerous rapids, from Callville, Nevada, at the terminus 
of the Grand Canon, to its mouth, a distance of 612 miles. 



4q6 our western empire. 

Neither the Colorado Chiquito nor the San Juan are navigable, 
but their canons and the rapid descent of their waters are only 
inferior to those of the parent stream. The lower waters of the 
Colorado are not much higher than the Gulf of California, and, 
indeed, flow at one point through a broad and almost stagnant 
lake. The Gila rises in the mountains of New Mexico, and for 
about one-half of its course traverses a mountainous region, 
though it does not at any point cut for itself deep or precipitous 
gorges. From the mouth of the Rio San Pedro its course is 
through a less elevated region, and a part of the distance is 
navigable and without rapids. 

These deep canons of the principal rivers drain much of the 
surrounding country of its moisture, and render large tracts unfit 
for anything but grazing, and still larger ones unfit for that, un- 
less by aqueducts, reservoirs, or artesian wells the necessary 
water can be supplied for stock. In the existing condition of 
the country, much of the rainfall which, in some seasons, is 
abundant, or sufficiently so for the country, if it could be saved, 
is wasted, runninof off from these hard-baked table-lands into the 
canons and not penetrating the soil. Yet this soil under irriga- 
tion Is wonderfully productive. The lands which can be irrigated 
yield sixty-five bushels of the finest wheat in the world to the. 
acre, and proportionate quantities of other cereals ; while Indian 
corn and the root crops are produced In almost incredible quan- 
tities. Fortunately for the Territory, very much of this land 
which once produced large crops can be reclaimed; many.of the 
gorges and ravines can, at small expense, be made reservoirs, 
and thus treasure up the water which comes down from the 
melting snows of the mountains, or that which now runs off^ Into 
the canons after heavy rains, and this can be used with great 
advantage for irrigation, for the watering of live-stock, and for 
mining purposes ; while deep plowing and the breaking up of 
the hard and dry sod will render the soil far more pervious and 
absorbent of the rains, and so capable of more easy cultivation. 
But on these mesas and high table-lands, where there are no 
streams available for purposes of irrigation, artesian wells have 
never failed to bring water, and usually with sufficient head and 



GENERAL FREMONT'S ACCOUNT OF ARIZONA. ^gy 

in sufficient quantity to flow of itself without pumping and to 
supply pools or reservoirs of great extent. 

No man living is more familiar with the physical geography 
of Arizona than Major-General John C. Fremont ; * he explored 
it thirty-six years ago in his expeditions for the discovery of 
routes for railways to the Pacific coast, made under the direction 
of the government; he traversed considerable portions of it later 
in the interest of the Pacific railways, of which he was the pro- 
jector and president, and, since 1877, as Governor of the Terri- 
tory, he has devoted much attention to its physical geography 
with a view to the development of its mining, agricultural, and 
grazing interests. His recent proposition to our government to 
restore, by a short ship-canal, the great inland sea which for- 
merly existed in Southern California, east of the San Bernardino 
Mountains, where its dry basin is now far below the sea level, 
was so full of sound sense, so broad and comprehensive in its 
spirit, and fraught with so many advantages to that whole region, 
that it should be acted upon promptly. The evaporation from 
that sea would ensure a moister atmosphere and a greater rain- 
fall to Western Arizona, and in connection with other measures 
would render that Territory the garden-spot of all the West, as 
well as its treasure-house for its mineral wealth. 

In his Report to the Department of the Interior in October, 
1878, General Fremont thus describes the topography of the 
Territory, with especial reference to its central portion along or 
near the line of the thirty-fourth parallel — a region which pretty 
fairly represents the general character of the Territory, being 
less moist and hot than that along and below the Gila, but per- 
haps somewhat hotter than that north of the Grand Canon and 
above the thirty-sixth parallel. 

" Broken ranges of mountains, swelling occasionally into lolry 
peaks and pine-covered masses, and alternating evenly with 
elevated valleys or mountain basins of greater or less size, rep- 
resent in general terms the face of the country in Arizona. Its 
water-ways are the Colorado and Gila rivers, with their tribu- 
taries, of which none enter either stream in the lower part of its 

* See biographical sketch of General Fremont at the elose of this chapter. 
32 



.q3 our western empire. 

course. The valley of the Colorado, between Its river, hills or 
bordering mountains, is dry, stony, and barren, the mountains 
naked rock. Crossing these in journeying from Ehrenberg east- 
ward, a traveller in spring would find this country covered with 
bloom, the shrubs and trees being represented mainly by acacias 
and cacti, and the ground covered with low-flowering plants 
among grass growing thinly. Except for some shrub-like trees 
and gigantic cactus [Sagua^'d), ocotillo, and yucca trees, the 
ridges here along are still of naked glistening, and black or bar- 
ren, rock, showing no signs of water. The acacias, Palo vcrdc\ 
and other trees crowd down into the dry stream-beds, reaching 
after the water below the sands, but the ocotillo and tree-cactus 
delight in the stony and dry mountain sides. In the rainy sea- 
son these stream-beds are short-lived torrents. This is the 
country traversed by the desert roads. But this character of 
desert, applied to the valleys, comes only from the heated air 
and absence of water, and not absence of vegetation. A run- 
ning stream would make anywhere here a garden. 

"After some seventy miles, as the crow flies, over such coun- 
try'-, what may be called fertile mountains are reached ; that is to 
say, mountains more or less covered with shrubs and grass, and 
having springs and running streams, and affording good cattle- 
ranges. Continuing eastward, the country in this respect 
steadily improves, until, after travelling over about a hundred 
miles of air distance from Ehrenberg, scattering junipers of very 
sturdy growth appear, several feet in diameter, with here and 
there small oaks and locust trees ; and presently the road enters 
among pines, which thenceforward generally cover the more 
upland parts of the country to the eastward. 

" The elevation here is probably 5,000 feet in the valleys, the 
surrounding mountains rising several thousand feet higher. On 
the higher ranges, such as the San Francisco and Moorollon, 
these open woodlands become extensive forests, where the pines 
reach sometimes a solid growth of six feet in diameter. From 
Prescott the San Francisco Mountains show grandly in the hori- 
zon of hills some sixty-five miles away to the northeast, and 
12,700 feet above the sea. These and the Mogollon Mountains 



scARcn^y OF ivater. .^^ 

499 

are the principal water-sheds of Arizona, rising from elevated 
plateaux of 6,000 or 7,000 feet into peaks between 9,000 and 
1 3,000 feet above the sea. They make a forest country averao"- 
ing forty miles in breadth, extending through the Territory south- 
eastwardly over the headwaters of the Gila and probably into 
Mexico. North and east of these ranges, and running up into 
the flanks of the mour^.tains, and reaching doubtless, far to the 
south, are reported to be the great coal-fields of Arizona.* 

" In contradistinction to the Eastern States, where the streams 
maintain themselves in gathering strength from mountain 
to sea, dryness is one of the striking features of this whole 
elevated region. Streams and springs are few and far 
apart. The larger streams gather no affluents, but waste them- 
selves in absorption and evaporation, and the smaller ones 
usually sink and disappear under the first valley which they 
enter, where the soil is generally light and loose enough to 
absorb them. But the water can there always be found ; in the 
lower country, at variable depths of 50 to 250 feet, and usually 
only a few feet below the surface in many of the upland valleys. 
This may give the necessary provision of water for the farms in 
the valleys, while the mountains furnish it sufficiently for stock. 
There are two seasons of falling weather : the heavy summer 
rains, when the washes and stream-beds become temporary tor- 
rents, and the winter season of rains and snow. Now, at the 
end of October, the falling weather of the winter has not yet 
commenced, except in the high mountains. The days are warm, 
the sky is uninterruptedly cloudless, but ice makes at night, and 
a light snow has just fallen in the San Francisco Mountain. The 
grass there is beginning to dry up, and the northern face of the 
mountain is probably covered with snow. 

* From Mr. A. O. Noyes, who had a saw-mill twelve miles from Prescott, and who was fur 
many years engaged here in the lumber business, I learn that the pines in the Prescott Basin 
run from an average diameter of twenty-eight inches to four feet in the largest trees. But ihiy 
do not make good lumber, because there are so many knots in the trees, caused by fires, and 
because so many trees have been struck by the lightning, which is one of the local features hero. 
There are also in this basin some very fine spruce trees, nearly four feet in diameter. In the 
large belt of forest to the north all is clear, fine timber, with an average diameter of four feet, 
reaching to five feet in largest trees. Mr. Noyes has cut here some 25,000,000 feet of lumber. 
He tells me thnt on his hooks are crosses against the names of over 300 men, with whom he 
had dealings, « lui h.ive been killed by Indians. 



.QQ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

"The Little Colorado (Colorado Chiquito) and Salt river 
(Rio Salinas) regions are reported to be the granaries of the 
Territory. Tlieir valleys are becoming garden-spots, and the 
bordering mountains great stock-ranges, where the cattle are 
sometimes too fat to be driven. Like California, the country is 
favorable to animal life. In the Salt River valley there are 
probably 100,000 acres under cultivation; in the Gila valley, 
between the Pima villages and the mouth of the canon, about 
50,000; in the Santa Cruz valley, about 25,000; and 25,000 more 
in all the southern district. In the Salt River valley the amount 
under cultivation is being rapidly augmented to the full extent 
of the water supply. On the San Pedro river the land is sparsely 
occupied, and mostly for grazing ; and farther to the eastward 
the country is better adapted to grazing than agriculture. Many 
years ago I found on the San Pedro and neighboring country 
many wild cattle which had belonged to ranches now deserted, 
where the people had been killed or driven off by Indians. So 
far as my present knowledge goes, the grazing and farming 
lands comprehend an area about equal to that of the State of 
New York." 

In his report for 1879, dated November 20, 1879, General 
Fremont gives these additional items respecting the southern 
and northern portions of the Territory : 

" Near the end of February of the present year I found fig 
trees budding and apricots in bloom at Phcenix. The cotton- 
wood trees which line the streets were in full spring foliage, and 
the fields were orreen with Alfalfa and grrain. The town is on 
the Salt river tributary of the Gila, about 1,800 feet above the 
sea. The river here runs through a broad valley plain encircled 
by mountains. It furnishes abundant water for irrigation, and 
the acequias or water-ditches are spread out over the valley in a 
space eight or ten miles broad. Streams of running water, 
which one met in every direction, gave a very grateful sense of 
freshness in this dry country of Arizona, and remains of old 
acequias used by the former Indian population show that with 
them, too, it was a favorite place. For seven or eight months of 
the year the weather is said to be pleasant, but hot for the 



CLIMATE AND SOIL OF ARIZONA. cqi 

remainder. The town is the centre of an important farming 
district, and its growing prosperity is secured and made perma- 
nent by its position, which is indicated by the country surrounding 
it. The trade of a large neighboring Indian reservation has 
been an element in its prosperity, and now the Southern Pacific 
Railway passes within thirty miles of the town. . . . Except its 
bottom lands, which are of unusual productiveness and strength, 
the valley proper of the Colorado, below the canons, that which 
lies between the bordering river hills over a space of fifty miles, 
is dry, hot and barren. All else is fertile and habitable. In its 
east and west course runninof throuofh the northern limit of 
Arizona, the Colorado borders and encloses a beautiful country. 
Here in the canons the Indians from a remote time have grown 
excellent fruit and grain, and with their produce have maintained 
a primitive trade with other tribes. In fact this whole northern 
I'egion has the resources to sustain a wealthy population, and 
create a permanent and valuable trade for the first railway which 
has the enterprise to penetrate it. The climate is healthy and 
the country fertile ; wooded and grassed from the Colorado hills 
eastward Into New Mexico. Water in abundance will undoubt- 
edly be had when adequate means are employed to get It. Its 
inexhaustible grasses will support immense herds, and its great 
coal fields and heavy forests of timber, continuous through the 
Territory, will command a ready market. It has broad valleys 
of farmlne lands, and in Its mlnlna- districts are abundance of 
copper, silver and gold." 

A correspondent of the New York Daily Times, writing from 
Tucson, May 26, 1880, complains that that region and the Globe 
mining district east of It, In fact the whole of Southeastern 
Arizona, lack water and timber. There Is, however, a con- 
siderable tract of pine of large size, the forest being twelve miles 
long and two miles wide, beside the cottonwood and mezqulte, 
which are used for fuel, and bring ^8 to $10 a cord. The Pinal 
creek, which furnishes water to this district, sinks in the sands 
once or twice in its course for a distance of ten or twelve miles, 
but water can always be found by digging In its bed. Still there 
is unquestionably a scarcity of water In this as In many other 



CQ2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

parts of Arizona, though by adopting such measures as were 
adopted by the highly civihzed Indians who had populous towns 
in all this region ages ago, and adding to these acequias and 
reservoirs, drive wells and artesian wells, this desert land may 
ao-ain be made to blossom as the rose. 

The climate of Arizona may, perhaps, be inferred from what 
has already been said. It varies in different parts of the 
Territory. The lowlands, from Fort Yuma eastward, along \\mi 
valley of the Gila and farther south between the thirty-second and 
thirty-third parallels, are extremely hot m summer. May, June. 
July, August, and September are the hottest months, and a 
record of 112*^ Fahrenheit in the shade is not very infrequent 
during those months. During the other months of the year the 
heat is not excessive, and the dry air makes it healthy. The; 
rainfall is principally in July and August in this part of tlie 
Territory, though there is occasionally a season of rain in 
Deceniber and January.'-' 

It is, however, a characteristic of the heat of Arizona, that it 
is not enfeebling or oppressive, and that there is much less 
liability to sun-stroke than in the towns and cities of the north. 
'Tn the southeastern portion of the Territory," says General 
Fremont, "the climate is especially agreeable. In the Sierra de 
Santa Caterina, the Pinalena Mountains, the Chiricahui Mountains, 
and the Peloncello Range, as well as the Cordilleras de Rio 

*Yuma (latitude 32° 43' 32'^) is probably the hottest place in the United States. Army 
ofticers assert that it has reached a temperature of 126° Fahrenheit m the shadu. In 1877-7S, 
the signal-service officers reported 106 days, between April 29 and October 3, in which the 
maximum temperature was above 100°; thirty days in which it was above io8°, and twelve 
days in which it was above 110°. On four days it stood at 112°, and on one at 113°. Tucson, 
though a little further south (latitude 32° 28^), is not so hot. Its maximum was HO°, and only 
tifty-one days, all in the summer months, exceeded 100°. Phoenix (latitude 33° 18 ), 
Wickenburg (latitude t^t^ 58'), and Maricopa Wells (latitude ■Ty'^ 10') approach Yuma in 
temperature, the temperature exceeding 100° for seventy-nine, eighty-two and eighty-six day> 
respectively, and reaching 112° more than once. P'lorence (latitude 33° 2') is very much like 
Tucson in its temperature. Prescott, the capital of the Territory (latitude 34° 29'), 5,700 feet 
above the sea, has a very fine climate. In 1878, but two days exceeded 100°. The mean of 
summer temperature did not exceed 84°. The mean of the year was 65° 49''. Camp Verde, 
in nearly the same latitude, but less elevated, had thirty-six davs in which the temperature 
exceeded 100°, and several times reached 108°. Camp Crant (l.uitude 32° 25'), on the San 
Pedro river, but above the canons of the Gila, was below Prescott in temperature, never exceeding 
95° in summer, though its winter minimum was not below 24°, while that of Prescott was I®. 



CLIMATE OF ARIZONA. cq? 

Gila, north of the river, and just on the borders of New Mexico, 
the character of the country is greatly improved. It is 
sufficiently well watered, and in greater part an exceptionally 
rich pasture ground, which the mild and even climate of all the 
year makes favorable to animal life. Its annual rainfall is 
twenty-four inches, and as this occurs mostly in the summer 
months, the grass remains fresh and green the year round. . . . 
This grazing country comprehends large tracts of agricultural 
land which will become valuable because situated in the midst of 
a rich mining region, and the railroad which is about to penetrate 
it will carry off its surplus produce." 

The northern and northwestern part of the Territory is not so 
well known, and has not been so fully explored as the central and 
southern portions. The region of the Cerbat Mountains, south of 
the Great Bend and Grand Canon of the Colorado, w^as visited by 
General Fremont in December, 1878. He represents it as a 
grass-covered country, with valjeys and mountain ranges well 
wooded with both juniper and pine. The juniper of this region 
is a laro^e forest tree often four or five feet in diameter. In the 
Wallapai Valley, just east of the Cerbat range, is Red lake, the 
largest lake in the Territory, which receives the waters of a ver)' 
considerable creek. There are numerous large springs in this 
valley ; north and east of the Colorado is a region very little 
known. It is mountainous, but the mountains so far as known 
are believed to be mesas, isolated, lofty and flat-topped table 
lands. North and northeast of the Flax river or Colorado 
Chiquito, between the thirty-fifth and thirty-sixth parallels, after 
crossing a region known as the Painted Desert, from the 
variegated colors of its rocks, lies the ancient province of Tusayan, 
with its groups of villages of the Moquis or cliff-dwellers, 
and the ruins of their ancient towns, which we will describe 
presently. 

Yet farther to the northeast, between the thirty-sixth and 
thirty-seventh parallels and the 109th and iioth meridians, just 
west of the Navajo reservation, are extensive beds of anthracite 
coal said to be of excellent quality. There are also in the Alesa 
la Vaca (Plain of the Cows) and the Calabasa Mountains, rich 



to4 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

deposits of gold, silver and copper. " The face of the country 
here," says General Fremont, "presents mountain ranges with 
broad intervening valleys running into each other by easy passes. 
The hills and lower ridges are wooded with juniper and pinon 
pine, worthy sometimes to be called forests, the higher ranges 
with yellow pine. The valleys, occasionally of several hundred 
thousand acres in extent, are covered with varieties of the most 
nutritious grass, among them bunch and gramma grass. 
This would be notably a grazing country if water could be had, 
but the scarcity of it repels settlement, and at present it is 
mostly unoccupied. The great trough of the Colorado near by 
seems to have drained it of all except what is afforded by 
occasional springs and the streams in the higher mountains. 
But no attempt to store and retain water by dams, or to obtain 
it by artesian or flowing wells, has been made." The elevation 
of this region insures for it a mild and equable temperature. 

The rainfall of Arizona is a variable quantity in the different 
sections of the Territory and at different seasons. The five years 
previous to July i, 1879, had been, throughout Arizona, years of 
drought ; the rainfall had been very slight, except in a very few 
localities, through the entire Territory, and hence the reports of 
the amount of rain during that period must be regarded as below 
the average of ten or twenty years. This long season of drought 
is now happily ended. In a private letter to the writer, dated 
December 30, 1879, General Fremont said: "The whole country 
here (Prescott) is covered with snow, and the streams are impass- 
able. We have had for a week a continued storm of rain and snow. 
Nothing like it has been known for many years past. There 
had been so little falling weather for the last five years that even 
the pine trees were beginning to die in the mountains. Now all 
vegetation will revive, and the Territory will be greatly prosperous 
during the coming year." The rainfall in Arizona is usually 
almost wholly during July and August, and so heavy a rain in 
December was without precedent. The signal-service year, July 
1, 1877, to June 30, 1878, the first in which we had any full 
meteorological reports from Arizona, gave the rainfall at the 
different stations as follows : Yuma, two inches , Wickenburg, 



GEOLOGY AND MINEROLOGY OF ARIZONA. cq? 

five inches; Tucson, 13.03 inches; Stanwix (six months), 0.65 
of an inch; Prescott, 13.81 inches; Phoenix, 5.01 ; Maricopa Wells 
(eight months), 4.89 inches ; Florence, 7.18 inches ; Camp Verde, 
10.81 ; Camp Grant, 8.96 inches; Burke's (seven months), 0.88 
inches ; Bear Springs, twenty-four inches. 

Geology and Mineralogy. — The only extensive geological ex- 
plorations which have been made in Arizona are those along the 
walls of the canons of the Colorado river. From the upper 
waters of the Green and Grand rivers, whose union forms the 
Colorado of the West, to the mouth of the Gila at Yuma, it is 
estimated that the river has cut through strata representing a 
thickness of 25,000 feet, or five miles of vertical height, and that 
there are exposed in its course every geological formation found 
in North America, from the quaternary alluvial deposits to the 
primary azoic rocks, and that at some points in its course the 
rocks have been altered by volcanic action and that vast streams 
of lava have been injected into the canons. 

Of these strata, worn through by the great volume of water 
which has thus torn for itself a passage, about 16,000 feet of 
nearly vertical descent, are within the bounds of Arizona. There 
are, of course, the superficial deposits, alluvium, and perhaps 
diluvium, and certainly loess, and the clay and sandstone detritus 
from the wearing down of the rocks, but we doubt whether there 
are many strata as high up as the tertiary among the surface- 
rocks of Arizona. The coal-beds in the northeast of the Terri- 
tory are said to be anthracite and of excellent quality; but 
whether they are from the tertiary lignites and bituminous coals 
which have been transformed into anthracite by volcanic action 
like the coal-beds in New Mexico, or whether they are true 
anthracites from the carboniferous strata, seems to be doubtful. 
If they are the latter, they are the only anthracites of that period 
between the Mississippi river and the Pacific coast. Of marbles 
of all colors and shades, of sandstones, white, pink, orange, buff, 
vermilion and brown, and granites, rose-colored, gray, slate- 
colored and blue, there is no end. 

The mineral wealth of Arizona is undoubtedly very great. Its 
veins and placers of gold, silver, copper and lead, and its car- 



co6 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

bonates and oxides of iron, platinum and quicksilver are dis- 
tributed very widely over the Territory. Gold is found free 
both in placers and in quartz lodes ; silver in galena, and com- 
bined with both lead and copper as sulphides and carbonates ; 
copper is also found alone in the form of gray sulphurets ; quick- 
silver in the form of cinnabar and perhaps other com_binations ; 
tin, platinum and nickel nearly pure; iron ores of all kinds, and 
well situated for producing the finer qualities of iron and steel ; 
besides the anthracite coal in the northeast there is bituminous 
coal adapted to smelting purposes at Camp Apache and else- 
where. Immense deposits of salt of the purest quality have been 
discovered, and there are large beds of sulphur, gypsum, 
hydraulic lime, valuable mineral springs, natural loadstones o( 
great magnetic power, and fossil woods of many varieties. There 
are also opal pebbles, garnets, red, white and yellow; azurite, 
malachite, chalcedony, sapphires, opals, and possibly some dia- 
monds. 

Gold and silver mining was prosecuted by the Spaniards and 
Mexicans for many years before the Territory came into the 
possession of the United States, and some of these mines are 
still largely productive. Among these were the Cerro Colorado, 
now known as the Heintzelman mine ; the Mowry, Santa Rita, 
Salero, Cahuabi, and San Pedro, and the quicksilver mine of La 
Paz. Many others have since been discovered, and new mines 
are being constantly opened. They are found in all the ex- 
plored portions of the Territory, and seem to indicate that the 
mineral wealth of Arizona is greater than that of any other Ter- 
ritory of the West. For mining purposes all the explored por- 
tion of the Territory below the thirty-sixth parallel has been 
divided into mining districts. These are most numerous in the 
southeast, though the new developments are to a considerable 
extent in the central and northwest portions. Those most noted 
in the southeast are the Dos Cabezas, the Sierra Bonita (north 
of the Gila), the Dragoon Range district, the Globe district, 
the Tombstone district, the Huachuca district, the Patagonia, 
the Washington and the Harshaw districts, the Santa Rita dis- 
trict, die mines of which have been worked for many years, and 



MINING DISTRICTS IN ARIZONA. -q- 

with profit, A number of new mines have been opened at the 
south end of the Santa Rita mountain, the Oro Blanco and 
the Arivaca districts, and still further west, the Baboquivari dis- 
trict, and near the Colorado the Gila City district, which, after ' 
being abandoned as a placer mine many years ago, has recently 
come to the surface as having a rich quartz ledge of great extent. 
These are all, except the Sierra Bonita, south of the Gila river. 
North of that river, and beginning at the west, is the Castle 
Dome district, the ores of which are mostly areentiferous o-alena • 
the Pioneer, Pinal, Tiger and Peck districts ; the Bradshaw, Oro 
Bonito, Gray Eagle, Silver Prince, Silver Belt and Cabinet mines, 
Ruffner's Camp (copper and silver), and the Verde mines. 
Richer than any of these is the great Mineral Park district, above 
the thirty-fifth parallel and on the meridian of 114° 20', a belt 
nearly a hundred miles long, and which General Fremont says, 
" carries between porphyry walls a mile and a half breadth of 
ore matter, which is interspersed with veins principally chlorides 
of silver. These are said to be very rich, reaching several hun- 
dred dollars the ton. The whole mass is said to carry silver." 
The Bradshaw and other districts within a circuit of thirty miles 
around Prescott, the capital of the Territory, have many rich 
mines. The great obstacles in the way of successful mining in 
Arizona have been hitherto the dangers from hostile Indians, 
the lack of capital, want of good roads or railroads, and the 
scarcity of water and timber. Some of these obstacles are now 
removed. The greater part of the Indians in the Territory (the 
Apaches in the extreme east, and the Pi-Utes in the north alone 
being somewhat uneasy) are now peaceable and friendly to the 
whites. Much of this quiet and good order is due to the skil- 
ful management of General Fremont and Major-General Willcox, 
the army officer in command of the military district of Arizona. 
The Southern Pacific Railroad traverses the southern pordon of. 
the Territory from west to east, while the Texas Pacific and the 
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe are rapidly approaching from 
the east. Toll and good wagon-roads traverse all the southern 
and central pordons of the Territory. Capital is flowing in 
rapidly, and though the vicinity of some of the mines is very bare 



co8 OUR IV E STERN EMPIRE. 

of timber, there is an ample supply in other portions of the Ter- 
ritory, which will be brouc^ht thither by some of the railways. 
The want of water is still a difficulty in some of the mines, and 
will cause the abandonment of those where it cannot be obtained, 
but the construction of acequias or water ditches, or the repair 
of those constructed many years ago by the Indians, the building 
of reservoir dams, and the boring of artesian or drive wells, will 
supply many of the mines which have hitherto lacked. Very 
many rich veins or lodes have been opened by individuals, gen- 
erally farmers or stock-raisers, which have not come upon the 
market at all. Their owners have not sufficient capital to de- 
velop them extensively, and hence there has sprung up a prac- 
tice which General Fremont denominates " gold-farming," which, 
so far as we are aware, does not prevail to any considerable ex- 
tent elsewhere, A farmer, who has discovered a gold lode or 
placer on his farm, as very many of them do, proceeds with his 
iarm-work or cattle-breeding just as the other farmers do, but 
when he has a leisure day he picks out a few bushels of ore from 
the lode, or of gravel from the placer, washes out the gold with 
the pan, or amalgamates it, if fine, and then expels the quick- 
silver by a slight roasting, puts the gold in a sack or pouch, and 
the next market-day sells it at the nearest town. He thus sup- 
plies himself with funds, and knowing his mine will not deterio- 
rate by keeping, reserves to some future day any complete de- 
velopment of it. 

The prospects for the speedy opening of the immense mineral 
wealth of Arizona to the world are now much brighter than ever 
before. But with this prospective development there are flock- 
ing into the Territory hosts of " mining sharps," as the miners 
call them, unprincipled men who will bond a mine which, while 
imperfectly opened, may prove to be either a pocket or a vein, 
,and which, until it is further developed, may be dear or cheap 
at ^5,000, but which is very probably in a district with very little 
water or timber, and providing themselves with opinions from 
some of their partners in rascality, will come East and work up 
this doubtful property into a gold mine with a capital of from 
^250,000 to ^1,000,000, and interesting a few friends in the mat- 



GOLD-FARMING— QUESTIONS TO MINE-SELLERS. eoQ 

ter, dispose of the greater part of the capital to the unwary, who 
will be very likely to find themselves swindled most egregiously. 

For the purpose of exposing these frauds we would counsel 
any one who wishes to invest in mining property in Arizona, or, 
indeed, elsewhere, before purchasing to institute the following 
inquiries: What is the exact location of your mine? How near 
is it to a permanent supply of water, sufficient for the mine? 
What is that water — a spring, creek, or river ? Is it a perpetual 
stream, or does it intermit and lose itself in the sands, reappear- 
ing, perhaps, miles below ? What timber is there near the mine, 
and at what price is it held ? What progress has been made in 
the mine by shafts, tunnel, or winze ? What amount and value 
of ore is now upon the dump ? What is the average assay, and 
what the actual practical yield per ton ? What is the estimated 
present value of the mine as appraised by skilful and honest 
experts ? 

These points being satisfactorily ascertained, the investor may 
be justified in offering about one-fifth of what is asked for the 
mine, though he would be safer if he offered only a tenth.* 

The vegetation of Arizona is peculiar. The lower valley of 
the Colorado and that of the Gila as far east as the Rio Santa 
Cruz are for the most part low and dry. In the spring, the 
cactus, which abounds in all its species here, and delights in a 
dry and desert land, is in full bloom, and pleases the eye with 
its gay and beautiful colors. 

There Is very little grass here, and that little dries up under 
the summer's Intense heat, but is renewed by the rains of July 
and August. The mountains are covered with scrubby pines 
and junipers, and along the streams there is a thin line of cotton- 
woods. In the desert lands, the mezquite and iron-wood con- 
tend with the cactus for a place in the parched soil, and these 
furnish a moderate supply of fuel, though there are bituminous 
coals in the Gila valley which supplement what is lacking. In 

* In suggesting these inquiries and urging this caution, we do not intend to imply that there 
IS any doubt that the mineral wealth of Arizona is vast, and perhaps greater than that of any 
other portion of the West; but the distance to markets is so great, the expenses so heavy, the 
obstacles so many, and the facilities for deception so numerous, that great caution on the part 
of the buyer is absolutely necessary. 



-jQ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the cas::( rn and southeastern parts of the Territory there are 
more streams, and the mountains are covered, though sparsely, 
with pine and juniper. North of the Gila there is in the east 
an extensive mass of mountains known as the Mogollon Moun- 
tains, which ?re covered with yellow pine, pinon or nut-pine, and 
juniper, while the valleys which are watered by the streams 
which unite to form the Colorado Chiquito, and the Salinas, San 
Carlos, Bonito, Prieto, and Azul, affluents of the Gila, are cov- 
ered with rich grasses and are excellent grazing and arable 
lands. A broad but elevated valley lies between the Mogollon 
and the San Francisco range, which is watered only by the San 
Francisco river and its affluents, and by one or two small lakes, 
and by one or two creeks which flow into the Salinas. This 
valley plateau is but litde known, but in its upper portion at 
least is probably very dry. The lower portion is said to be an 
excellent erain region. 

Another extensive mountain mass, extending more than 200 
miles from north to south and about 125 from east to west, of 
which the San Francisco Mountains form the eastern barrier, 
and which is traversed by many fertile valleys and some lofty 
mesas or plateaux, extends westward to the Black Mountains, 
which overlook the Colorado valley. Nearly in the centre of 
this mountain mass is situated Prescott, the capital of the Ter- 
ritory, which is 5,700 feet above the sea, and enjoys a fine climate, 
not too hot or too cold, a pure air, and freedom from m.alaria. 

The atmosphere here is very dry and highly electric, at times 
almost painfully so. Thunder-storms are very frequent in sum- 
mer, and so many of the pine trees, which are abundant here, 
have been struck by lightning that they are unfit for lumber. 
Most of these mountains are covered with yellow pine, juniper, 
and pinon pine, with some oaks, and much good lumber is fur- 
nished from those thirty or forty miles north of Prescott. In 
this reo-ion, as well as farther south, those fruits which delio;;ht 
in a hot climate and do not require too much moisture, flourish 
in perfection. The peach, apricot, fig, banana, and where they 
have been planted, the olive and pomegranate, yield abundant 
fruit. The orange, lemon, and lime probably require more 



WILD ANIMALS OF ARIZONA. ejl 

moisture. Some of the palms, particularly the date and talipot 
palms, would undoubtedly do well in the Gila, Salinas, and Santa 
Cruz valleys. 

Of the reeions north of the Colorado and the Colorado 

<z> 

Chiquito, there is hardly enough known to justify any consider- 
able description of their vegetation. Near the Colorado the 
land is so thoroughly drained of moisture as to be almost a 
desert. East of the Colorado Chiquito is a broad plateau, a por- 
tion of which is volcanic in character, and is laid down upon the 
maps as a " painted desert," probably from the color of its lime- 
stones, shales, and sandstones. North of this are the villages 
of the Moquis, where, in the past, the water has been treasured 
up in reservoirs for domestic purposes and for irrigation. On 
portions of these mesas they w^ere accustomed to cultivate their 
fields of blue, red, yellow, orange-colored and white corn, keep- 
ing each carefully in fields by itself, and garnering them in sep- 
arate granaries. Their crops of these would indicate a fertile 
soil, and the grazing was good for their goats and sheep. 

A laree mesa in the extreme northeast is called Mesa la 
Vaca, which would indicate that it had formerly been a pasture 
ground for cattle. The Navajos, who have a large reservation, 
partly in Arizona and partly in New Mexico in this northeastern 
corner, are famous for their flocks -of sheep, numbering it is said 
nearly or quite a million. 

Zoology. — Geographically, all the wild animals of the western 
slope of the Rocky Mountains, and the eastern slope of the 
Sierra Nevada, should find homes in the forests and plains of 
Arizona. Perhaps occasional specimens of nearly all of them 
may be found ; but, as a matter of fact, wild animals are not 
very numerous in Arizona. Of the larger game the elk is 
rare, but there are two species of deer, the Rocky Moun- 
tain antelope, the bighorn or mountain sheep, and the Rocky 
Mountain goat or goat antelope. Most of them were more 
abundant in the northern part of the Territory than in the south- 
ern. Of the smaller game, there are the sage hare, the jack 
rabbit, and several species of squirrels. Of the larger beasts of 
prey, the grizzly bear is very rare, if he inhabits the Territory at 



512 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

all ; the black and cinnamon bears are more numerous. The 
puma or cougar is found in the forests, though less numerous 
than in better- watered countries; the jaguar is found in the low 
lands, though less abundant than in Texas. The ocelot, the wild 
cat and the lynx are occasionally found in the forests, as well as 
the red or gray wolf, and one or two species of fox. The prairie 
wolf, usually called the coyote,* is not found in the Territory, 
though the true coyote, a miserable little cur of an animal scarcely 
larger than a fox, is occasionally seen ; but there are peccaries, 
raccoons, opossums, skunks, and the gopher or prairie dog or 
marmot. There are said to be large herds of mustangs or wild 
horses in the plains of Southern Arizona. Of birds there are a 
considerable number, many of them of gay-colored plumage. 
The Wheeler expedition sent to the Smithsonian Institution 500 
specimens, and 183 distinct species, and others have since been 
discovered. Game-birds are abundant, pheasants, partridges, 
quails and grouse, especially the sage-hen and the prairie-hen. 
The crane, ibis and flaminsfo are amono: the birds of Southern 
Arizona. Eagles, vultures, buzzards, hawks and owls are 
numerous; the king- vulture, little inferior in size to the condor 
or lammergeier, a rare bird in North America, is only found in 
the United States, in this Territory and in Texas. There are 
many varieties of fish found in the rivers, some of them edible 
fish of oreat delicacy and peculiar to this Territory. Several 
species of fish have been discovered in the mineral springs. 
There are also many species of mollusks. The reptiles and 
serpents of Arizona are formidable, and in some parts of the 
Territory numerous. There are alligators in the Gila and Lower 
Colorado, horned toads, lizards, scorpions, and centipedes in the 
chaparral and among the cacti, rattlesnakes on the mesas or 
table-lands of Central and Northern x^rizona. 

The skunk, in other sections a harmless animal, except for his 
fearfully offensive odor, is, in all the region below the fortieth par- 

* Colonel Richard Irving Dodge, United States Army, a very high authority in all hunting 
matters, insists (" The Plains of the Great West ") that the coyote is an insignificant little animal 
hardly larger than a fox, and is found only in Texas, Arizona and Mexico; and that the prairie 
wolf, so often called a coyote, and so abundant on the " plains," is really an entirely different 
and much larger specie.* of the canine family. 



ADVENTURES WITH WILD ANIMALS. ri? 

allel, very much dreaded for his carnivorous propensity. Finding 
his way into a camp, or where settlers are sleeping on. the ground 
under tents, he proceeds without any hesitation to bite and gnaw 
the face or hands or feet of the sleepers, and his appetite for 
human flesh and blood once aroused he will return to his repast 
even if driven away. These bites in very many cases produce 
hydrophobia, though the animal itself shows no signs of rabies. 
These animals are very numerous in Arizona, New Mexico, 
Colorado, Kansas, the Indian Territory and Texas, and though 
many thousands of them are killed every year for their skins, 
the fur being in great demand in the fashionable world, they do 
not seem to diminish in numbers. Colonel R. I. Dodge relates 
a case of these skunk bites, which, happily, did not prove fatal. 
It occurred in the Guadaloupe Mountains in Texas, not far from 
the southeast border of Arizona. A soldier and his comrade 
were sleeping in a common or A tent. The soldier dreamed 
that he was being eaten up by some animal, but a sort of night- 
mare prevented his moving. After some time, however, the 
pain and horror together woke him up to find a skunk eating his 
hand. With a cry and sudden efifort he threw the animal from 
him. It struck the other side of the tent and fell upon the other 
man, who, recognizing the intruder, rushed out of the tent. The 
bitten man, who had heard of the surely fatal result of skunk- 
bite, was so paralyzed with fear and horror that he made no 
effort to get up, and seeing the skunk coming towards him again 
buried himself in the blankets. The skunk walked all over 
him, apparently seeking for an opening, and finding none began 
to scratch the blankets as if trying to dig out his victim. The 
mental condition of this poor fellow can better be imagined than 
described. In the meantime the other man had loosened the 
tent pins and lifted up one side of the tent, letting in the moon- 
light; then pelting the animal with sticks, from a distance, at last 
frightened it so that it ran off into the deep, dark bank of the 
river. This skunk emitted no odor, and was undoubtedly simply 
hungry and not rabid. The man came to Colonel Dodge in the 
morning with his hand bound up, and asked if there was any 
cure for a skunk- bite. The colonel's heart sunk within him, but 



ti4 ^^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

he made lijrht of the matter and examined the wound. The 
whole ball of the right thumb was torn, lacerated and gnawed in 
a fearful manner. He had no caustics or other means of cauteri- 
zation, and so long a time had elapsed that he thought they would 
have done more harm mentally than good physically. So he had 
the wound carefully and thoroughly washed with Castile soap, cut 
off the protuberant pieces of mangled flesh, and, binding it up, 
kept on a simple water-dressing till the wound healed, which 
was in about ten days. The man was with Colonel Dodge for 
more than a year after this, but never experienced any ill effects 
except temporary pain from the wound. Colonel Dodge says 
that this was the only non-fatal case of which he knew in that 
region, though in other sections they were not often fatal. 

The gray wolves not unfrequently suffer from rabies or go 
mad, and in that condition lose all fear, and will rush into houses, 
tents, etc., biting every one whom they can reach. 

Productions of Arizona. — In 1879 there was about ^3,500,000 of 
gold, silver and copper sent to San Francisco from Arizona. In 
1880, the amount will, in all probability, be over ^8,000,000, and 
as soon as railroads, now constructing, are completed through the 
Territory, the mineral exports will be much increased, and lead, 
anthracite coal, platinum, quicksilver and other metals will be 
added to them. 

Wheat is the principal vegetable production exported. It is 
of excellent quality, fully equal to the best California, and where 
irrigation can be practised, the yield is enormous. We have no 
statistics of the vegetable crops gathered the last year, and be- 
lieve none have been collected. Fruit, of semi-tropical qualities, 
is beginning to be extensively cultivated. Lumber and timber 
can be produced in some quarters, sufficient not only to supply 
the home demand, but to have considerable quantities to export. 
The Papago Indians, in the southwest, the Pimas and Maricopas, 
in the south and central region, the Mohaves, and to some ex- 
tent, the Yumas, in the west and on the Lower Colorado, and the 
more civilized bands of the Apaches in the east, cultivate the soil 
and obtain a livelihood from it, the Maricopas and Papagos ex- 
porting considerable grain to San Francisco. In the northeast 



INDIAA'S OF ARIZONA. cje 

the Navajos are largely engaged in sheep-farming, as already 
noticed. The Hualapais and the Yavapais, as well as some of 
the Apaches, are more inclined to a nomadic life, but will make 
good herdmen. The Apaches in the southeast, and the Pah- 
Utes or Pi-Utes, in the north and northwest, are not inclined to 
any industry, and are roving, troublesome and thievish. 

The white population of Arizona is, according to the census 
just taken, almost 42,000 and rapidly increasing. In i860 there 
were 6,482, and in 1870 there were 9,658. There has been 
within the past two years, a rapid influx of persons interested 
in mines and mining, as well as some who preferred agricul- 
tural pursuits, or the rearing of cattle and sheep. In 1870 there 
were 32,052 Indians in the Territory; the number has prob- 
ably somewhat diminished since that time, as the small-pox and 
other fatal diseases have raged among them, and some of the 
tribes have scarcely escaped starvation, but they must numbei 
nearly 29,000 at the present time. 

Besides the tribes we have named, there are other smaller 
bands, such as the Suechis, Apache Mohaves, Apache Coyoteros, 
Cosninas, Chemehuevis and Wallapis. The Apaches, who num- 
ber about 5,000, and have a large reservation in the southeast, 
are divided into six bands : the Tontos, Pinals, Arivapas, Mes- 
caleros, Bonitos and Cochise's band. They are, for the most 
part, treacherous and mischievous, and have of late been raiding 
in New Mexico, but have met with summary punishment. With 
the exception of these and the Pi-Utes in the north, the Indians 
of Arizona are friendly to the whites, peaceable, and, for Indians, 
industrious. 

There are, all over Arizona, ruins of ancient dwellings, castles 
and fortified villages, together with acequias or water-conduits, 
caves and dwellings hewn out of the rocks, or built up with large 
stones and evidently formerly containing a large population. Of 
these ruins, Hon. A. P. K. Safford, formerly Governor of the 
Territory, and its Commissioner at the Centennial Exposition, 
says: 

" Many portions of the Territory are covered with ruins, which 
prove conclusively that it was once densely populated by a peo- 



ti^ OUK WESTERN EMPIRE. 

pie far in advance, in point of civilization, of most of the Indian 
tribes. There is no written record of them, and it is only a 
matter of conjecture who and what they were. Occasionally a 
deserted house is found sufficiently well preserved to ascertain 
the character of the architecture. The walls of the Casa Grande, 
situated on the Gila, near Sanford, are still two stories above the 
g-round. In size, the structure is about thirty by sixty feet; the 
walls are thick, and made of mud, which was evidently confined 
and dried as it was built. It is divided into many small rooms, 
and the partitions are also made of mud. The floors were made 
by placing sticks close together and covering them with cement. 
Around and near the Casa Grande are the ruins of many other 
buildings ; but, by the lapse of time, the decay of vegetation has 
formed earth and nearly covered them, and all that now marks 
the place where once a stately mansion stood is the elevation of 
the orround. Near the Ancha Mountains are ruins not so ex- 
tensive, but in far better preservation than the Casa Grande ; 
and near these ruins are old arastras, for the reduction of silver 
ores — which indicate that this old people were not unmindful of 
the root of all evil. On the Verde river are immense rooms dug 
in from the sides of high, perpendicular sandstone banks, that can 
only be reached with ladders. 

" Very little information is obtained by excavating these ruins. 
Pottery of an excellent quality, and ornamented with paint, is 
found everywhere, and occasionally a stone axe is unearthed, but 
nothing to indicate that they were a warlike people ; on the con- 
trary, scarcely an implement of defence can be found, though 
there are reasons to believe, from the numerous lookouts or 
places for observation to be seen on the tops of hills and moun- 
tains, and the construction of their houses, that they had enemies, 
and that they were constantly on the alert to avoid surprise; 
and also, that by the hands of these enemies they perished. It 
is not improbable that the Apaches were the enemies who caused 
their destruction. Indeed, the Apaches have a legend that such 
is the case. During the past year I opened an old ruin at Puebla 
Viejo, on the Upper Gila, and found the bones of several human 
beings within ; also the bones of a number of domestic animals. 



ANCIENT RUINS IN ARIZONA. e,- 

On the fire, an olla (crockery-ware vessel) was found with the 
bones of a fowl in it, and it appeared as though the people within 
had resisted an attack from an enemy, and had finally been mur- 
dered. Shordy after, I visited a ruin in Chino valley, twenty 
miles north of Prescott, and over three hundred miles from Puebla 
Viejo, and there found that Mr. Banghart had opened a ruin on 
his farm. In it he found the bones of several human beings — 
five adults and some children — and the evidences were unmis- 
takable that the inmates had died by violence, as the door and 
window had been walled up with stone, evidently to resist a hos- 
tile foe. The subject is an interesting one, and it is to be hoped 
that further excavations may throw more light upon the subject. 
The ruins of towns, farms and irrigating canals, that are to be 
seen on every hand through this vast Territory, give abundant 
proof that this country was once densely inhabited, and that the 
people who lived here maintained themselves by cultivadng the 
soil. Probably that is about all we shall ever know of them. 
Many hieroglyphics are to be seen on rocks in different portions 
of the Territory, but by whom made, or what they mean, no one 
knows. 

" In excavating a well between Tucson and the Gila, at the 
depth of one hundred and fifty feet, pottery and other articles, 
the same as are found in the vicinity of ruins, were taken out." 

But by far the most interesting of these ruins, inasmuch as 
they are not wholly ruins, but some of them inhabited by the 
remnant of the original tribes which built them, are those of the 
ancient province of Tusayan, in the northeastern part of the 
Territory. Seven of the sixty or more towns which constitute 
this once populous province, are still inhabited by the Moquis, 
who are undoubtedly the descendants of the original nation 
which once occupied the whole of this Territory, and who still 
adhere to the religion of their fathers. Of the sixty towns, thirty 
are still inhabited, but all except the seven are under the con- 
trol of Cathoiic priests, and the Pagan rites and ceremonies are 
prohibited ; but occasionally the inhabitants steal away from their 
villages and join with the Pagans of the " Province of Tusayan " 
in their rites and worship. There are other groups of these vil- 



-jg OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

lao-es on the San luan river in New Mexico and Southwestern 
Colorado, which have been visited by Professor J. S. Newberry 
and his companions, in i860, whose language, religion, etc., are 
identical with these. Colonel J. W. Powell, United States army, 
visited the province of Tusayan in 1871, and spent about two 
months in studying the language, manners, customs, and religion 
of these Interesting people. The narratives of Professor New- 
berry (which has not been published) and of Colonel Powell are 
both full of Interest, and from them we glean a few particulars 
in addition to those already given in Part I., chapter vi., page 6^], 
which will, we think, be of Interest to our readers. 

The villages of these Moquis are always situated on some lofty 
mesa or isolated table-land, difficult of access; their dwellings are 
of stone, usually three or four stories high, and around an inte- 
rior court, common to the village. The outer walls are blank 
and inaccessible, and the inner court is only approached by a 
covered way easily defended. Entering the village plaza or in- 
terior court-yard, the houses are joined together, forming a con- 
tinuous wall outside, and within the court they are built in 
terraces, the second story being set back upon the first, the third 
upon the second, and the fourth upon the third. There are no 
doors or low windows to the first story ; access to it is had only 
by ascending a ladder to the top of the story and then descend- 
ino- another to the floor of the first. This lower story is for the 
most part a store-house where the corn or other grain used by 
the family Is stored, each color of the corn by itself. The second 
story, or sometimes the third, contains the family room, which is 
twenty or twenty-four feet by twelve or fifteen in width, and 
about eight feet high. Usually all the rooms are plastered care- 
fully, and sometimes they are painted with rude devices. For 
doors and windows there are openings only, except that some- 
times small windows are glazed with thin sheets of selenlte, the 
transparent flat crystals of gypsum. To go up to the third or 
fourth story you climb by a stairway made in the projecting wall 
of the partition. In a corner of each principal room a little fire- 
place is seen, large enough to hold about an armful of wood; a 
stone chimney is built in the corner, and often capped outside 



THE DWELLINGS OF THE MOQUIS. cig 

with a pottery pipe. The exterior of the houses is very irreo-u- 
lar and unsightly, and the streets and courts are filthy, though 
in the centre of each court is a large, deep fountain and pool, 
which is used for bathing ; but within the houses great cleanli- 
ness is observed. Separated from the houses, indeed belonging 
to the village, is the kiva, called Estufa, " the Sweat House," by 
the Spaniards. It is a large underground room in the court- 
yard or plaza, chiefly intended for religious ceremonies, the 
church, in fact, of the village, but also used as a place of social 
resort. A deep pit is excavated in the shaly rock and covered 
with long logs, over which are placed long reeds, these, in turn, 
covered with earth, heaped in a mound above ; a hole or hatch- 
way is left, and the entrance to the kiva is by a ladder down this 
hatchway. 

The people are very hospitable and quite ceremonious ; they 
are also remarkably polite. Enter a house and you are invited 
to take a seat on a mat placed for you upon the floor, and some 
refreshment is offered, perhaps a melon with a little bread, per- 
haps peaches or apricots. After you have eaten, everything is 
carefully cleared away, and with a little broom made of feathers 
of birds,* the matron or her daughter removes any crumbs or 
seeds which may have been dropped. They are a very economi- 
cal people ; the desolate circumstances under which they live, 
the distance to the forests, and the scarcity of game, together 
with their fear of the neighboring Navajos and Apaches, which 
prevents them from making excursions to a distance, all com- 
bine to teach them the most rigid economy. Their wood is 
packed from a distant forest on the backs of mules or asses, and 
when a fire is kindled but a few small fragments are used, and 
when no longer needed the brands are extinguished, and the re- 
maining pieces preserved for future use. Their corn is raised in 
fields near by, out in the drifting sands, by digging pits eighteen 
inches to two feet deep, in which the seeds are planted early in 
the spring, while the ground is yet moist. When it has ripened 
it is gathered, brought in from the fields in baskets carried by 

* Some of these brushes or brooms are very beautiful, and are made of the feathers of hum- 
ming-birds and other birds of gny plumage found in that region. 



po O'-^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the women, and stored away in their rooms, being carefully 
corded. They take great pains to raise corn of different colors, 
and have the corn of each color stored in a separate room. This 
is ground to a fine flour in stone-mills, then made into a paste 
like a rather thick gruel. In every house there is a little oven 
made of a flat stone eighteen or twenty inches square, raised 
four or five inches from the floor, and beneath this a little fire is 
built. When the oven is hot and the dough mixed in a little 
vessel of pottery, the good woman plunges her hand in the mix- 
ture and rapidly smears the broad surface of the furnace rock 
with a thin coating of the paste. In a few moments the film of 
batter is baked ; when taken up it looks like a sheet of paper. 
This she folds and places on a tray. Having made seven sheets 
of this paper bread from the batter of one color and placed them 
on the tray, she takes batter of another color, and, in this way, 
makes seven sheets of each of the several colors of corn-batter. 

They have many curious ways of preparing their food, but 
])erhaps the daintiest dish is "virgin hash." This is made by 
i:hewinof morsels of meat and bread, rollincr them in the mouth 
into little lumps about the size of a horse-chestnut, and then 
tying them up in bits of corn-husk. When a number of these 
are made, they are thrown into a pot and boiled like dumplings. 
The most curious thing of all is, that only certain persons are 
allowed to prepare these dumplings; the tongue and palate 
kneading must be done by a virgin. An old feud is sometimes 
avenged by pretending hospitality, and giving to the enemy 
dumplings made by a lewd woman. 

In this warm and dry climate the people live principally out 
of doors or on the tops of their houses, and it is a merry sight 
to see a score or two of little naked children climbing up and 
down the stairways and ladders, and running about the tops of 
the houses engaged in some active sport. 

In every house vessels of stone and pottery are found in great 
abundance. These Indian women have great skill in ceramic 
art, decorating their vessels with picture-writings in various 
colors, but chiefly black. 

In the early history of this country, before the advent of the 




CUFF l»\vi:llkks. 



D/^ESS AND HABITS OF THE MOQUIS. 521 

Spaniards, these people raised cotton, and from it made their 
clothing; but between the years 1540 and 1600 they were sup- 
plied with sheep,, and now the greater part of their clothing is 
made of wool, though all their priestly habiliments, their wedding 
and burying garments, are still made of cotton. The weaving 
is mostly done by the men, and their woollen blankets are re- 
markable for their density and their fine texture. They are 
perfectly water-proof, as w^e have already noticed, page 67. 

Men wear moccasins, leggings, shirts and blankets ; the 
women, moccasins with long tops, short petticoats dyed black, 
sometimes with a red border below, and a small blanket or 
shawl thrown over the body so as to pass over the right shoul- 
der under the left arm. A long girdle of many bright colors is 
wound around the waist. The outer garment is also black. 
The women have beautiful, black, glossy hair, which is allowed 
to grow very long, and which they take great pains in dressing. 
Early in the morning, immediately after breakfast, if the weather 
is pleasant, the women all repair to the tops of the houses, tak- 
ing- with them little vases of water, and w^ash, comb and braid 
one another's hair. It is washed in a decoction of the soap 
plant, a species of yucca, and then allowed to dry in the open 
air. The married ladies have their hair braided and rolled In a 
knot at the back of the head, but the maidens have it parted 
along the middle line above, and each lock carefully braided or 
twisted, and rolled into a coil supported by little w^ooden pins, 
so as to cover each ear, giving them a very fantastic appearance. 

The politeness of the people is shown in their salutations. 
If you meet them in the fields they greet you with a salutation 
signifying, " May the birds sing happy songs in your fields." If 
you do one of them a favor, even though a very slight one, he 
thanks you ; if a man, he says " kwa kwa;" if a woman, "es-ka-li." 
It Is an interesting feature in their language that many words 
are used exclusively by men, others by women. " Father," as 
spoken by a girl, is one word ; spoken by a boy, it is another ; 
and nothing is considered more vulgar among these people than 
for a man to use a woman's word, or a woman a man's. 

At the dawn of day the governor of the town goes up to the 



-22 OUR WESTERN EMPTRE. 

top of his house and calls on the people to come forth. In a 
few minutes the upper story of the town is covered with men, 
women, and children. He harangues them briefly on the 
duties of the day; then, as the sun is about to rise, they all sit 
down, draw their blankets over their heads, and peer out through 
a little opening and watch for the sun. As the upper limb ap- 
pears above the horizon every person murmurs a prayer, and 
continues until the whole disk is seen, when the prayer ends and 
the people turn to their various avocations. The young men 
gather in the court about the deep fountain, stripped naked, 
except that each one has a belt to which are attached bones, 
hoofs, horns, or metallic bells, which they have been able to pro- 
cure from white men. These they lay aside for a moment, 
plunge into the water, step out, tie on their belts, and dart away 
on their morning races over the rocks, running as if for dear life. 
Then the old men collect the little boys, sometimes with little 
whips, and compel them to go through the same exercises. 
When the athletes return, each family gathers in the large room 
for breakfast. This over, the women ascend to the tops of the 
houses to dress their hair, and the men depart to the fields or 
woods, or gather in the kiva to chat or weave. 

The theology of these people seems to be complicated. They 
acknowledge a Supreme or Great Spirit, the Creator of men, 
symbolized by the sun or by fire, but consider the planets, sun, 
moon, and stars the workmanship of a beneficent spirit of miracu- 
lous power and strength and most loving disposition, who dwelt 
among men and exerted his various powers to help them. This 
beneficent divinity, who bears strong analogies to the Hercules 
of the Greeks, the Divine Emperor of the Chinese, and the Hia- 
watha of the Northern Indians, they named Ma-chi-ta, and they 
never tire of telling of his loving tenderness to complaining and 
ungrateful humanity. 

But they worshipped also the powers and forces of nature, at 
least to the extent of prayer and homage. The aridity of their 
soil made water, and especially rain, a prime necessity, and Col- 
onel Powell gives us a prayer which he heard addressed, with a 
variety of other ceremonies, to Mu-ing-wa, the rain-god, by one 



RELIGIOUS WORSHIP OF MOQUIS. 523 

of the Moqui priests : " Mu-ing-wa ! very good ; thou dost love 
us, for thou didst bring us up from the lower world.* Thou 
didst teach our fathers, and their wisdom has descended to us. 
We eat no stolen bread. No stolen sheep are found in our 
flocks. Our young men ride not on the stolen ass. We be- 
seech thee, Mu-ing-wa, that thou wouldst dip thy brush, made 
of the feathers of the birds of heaven, into the lakes of the skies 
and scatter water over the earth, even as I scatter water over 
the floor of this kiva ; Mu-ing-wa, very good." After scattering 
white sand over the floor, the old priest prayed that during the 
coming season Mu-ing-wa would break the ice in the lakes of 
heaven, and grind it into ice-dust (snow), and scatter it over the 
land so that during the coming winter the ground might be pre- 
pared for the planting of another crop. Then, after another 
ceremony with kernels of corn, he prayed that the corn might 
be impregnated with the life of the water, and made to bring 
forth an abundant harvest. After a ceremony with certain jewels 
which seemed to be a part of the sacred emblems kept in the 
kiva, he prayed that the corn might ripen and each kernel be- 
come as hard as one of the jewels. This petition would seem 
to imply the desire that it might be preserved from the insect 
pests which do not attack the corn when it has become plenty. 
There seems to be in their theology no place for the sacrifice 
of animals, much less of human beings. All their sacrifices were 
of fruits, flowers, and seeds. The villages visited by Prof New- 
berry in the San Juan region differed very little either in their 
religious w^orship, their habits and customs, or their language 
from these inhabitants of Tusayan. They cultivated only the 
blue corn, and their bread, made in the same way as that de- 
scribed by Colonel Powell, resembled nothing else so much as a 
ream of druggists' blue paper. Colonel Powell, after careful 
inquiry, estimated the inhabitants of these seven villages as 
about 2,700. The names of the villages are O-raibi, Shi-pau-i- 
luv-i, Mi-shong-i-ni-vi, Shong-a-pa-vi, Te-wa, Wol-pi, and Si- 

* This declaration would seem to identify Mu-ing-wa, the rain-god, with Ma-chita, their 
heroic deliverer and helper, for it was one of his special benefits conferred upon man that he 
brought him up from the lower world and raised for him the sky to its present altitude. 



e24 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

choam-a-vl. Prof. Newberry found a smaller number, perhaps 
not much more than 1,000, on the mesas of the San Juan region ; 
but the ruins of their towns and villages, some of them of great 
size and strength and of remarkable architectural beauty, crown 
the summits of almost every mesa and hill-top throughout Ne- 
vada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Southern Cali- 
fornia. " Not only Salt Lake City, but nearly every settlement 
in the Territory of Utah, and many in the State of Nevada," says 
Colonel Powell, " are built on the site of one of these ancient 
towns. They have been found also on the eastern slope of the 
Rocky Mountains, near Golden City, and southward from that 
point." 

Who were these people, and from whence did they come ? 
Colonel Powell, on somewhat insufficient evidence, thinks them 
related to the Shoshones, Utes, Pi-Utes, and Comanches, and 
regards the Navajos and Apaches, with some of the smaller 
tribes in California, as the intruders who have pursued them so 
mercilessly and nearly destroyed them from off the face of the 
earth. The arguments by which he supports this theory seem 
to us far from satisfactory. The erection of these massive build- 
ings, the progress in agriculture, the entire avoidance of a no- 
madic life, the proficiency in ceramic art, the ability to spin and 
weave wool and cotton so dextrously, the daily preparation of 
skilfully cooked food, the worship of the sun, the virgin priest- 
esses, and the complex system of religious belief, all indicate a 
superiority over the Utes, Shoshones, and Comanches which is 
entirely incompatible with any recent common origin with them, 
whatever may be the supposed affinities of language. It is no 
new thing for a conquered nation to force upon its conquerors 
its own lanQTuag^e. The Saxons did this with the Normans ; the 
Malays have done it with the Chinese. Their affinities of race, 
habits, and manners, as well as religion, seem to be much nearer 
to the Toltecs and Peruvians than even to the Aztecs, from 
whom they differ in language, and In the sternness and cruelty 
of their religious practices, while their difference from the Sho- 
shones, Utes, and Comanches is infinitely greater. Colonel 
Powell says that some of the inhabitants of the thirty towns 



ARIZONA AS A HOME FOR EMIGRANTS. cr>c 

which were destroyed have become nomadic, " for the Co-a-ni-nis 
and Wal-Ia-pais, who now live in the rocks and deep goro-es of 
the San Francisco Plateau, claim that they once dwelt in pueblos 
or towns near where Zuni now stands." This is possible, thouo-h 
from what little is known of these tribes, the Pimas or Maricopas 
would seem to have had stronger claims to such an origin ; but, 
if true, it is one of those cases of degeneration or moral lapse, 
which can only be accounted for on the Biblical ground of 
Adam's fall. 

That these Moquis and their kinsmen, the ancient cliff-dwellers, 
were originally of Asiatic origin, and migrated from that portion 
of Asia inhabited by the Aryan race, is too evident to need 
demonstration ; and those who are so zealous to find on this 
continent the descendants of the lost ten tribes, may find among 
them a more hopeful quest than among the Anglo-Saxons of 
Europe or America. 

Returning to the general subject of the Territory of Arizona, 
we have but litde to add. The populadon of the Territory in 
1870 was only 9,658 whites and civilized Indians, and about 
25,000 tribal Indians. The recent census (1880) makes the 
white population 40,441 and adding tribal Indians it is probably 
about 65,000. It is now divided into five counties — Yuma, Pima, 
Maricopa, Mohave and Yavapai. The last named has an area 
as large as the State of Iowa. The principal towns are Tucson, 
the former capital, which had in 1870 a population of 3,224. Its 
present population is estimated at somewhat more than 6,000 ; 
the Southern Pacific Railway now extends to it. Arizona City, 
situated at the junction of the Gila and Colorado, population in 
1870, 1,144, "ow estimated at about 1,600. Prescott, the present 
capital, which had, in 1870, 668 inhabitants, has now about 
2,000. It is, like Tucson, central to a fine mining country. 
Phoenix, on the Rio Salinas, is a thriving and growing town, 
though very hot in summer. Ehrenburg, on the Colorado, is the 
chief shipping point for Central Arizona. Florence, Sanford, 
Mineral Park, Hardyville and Wickenburg are also places of 
some importance. 

We can hardly recommend this Territory to the emigrant 



526 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

farmer, though those who take up favorably situated lands near 
the mining centres, and can have facilities for irrigation, will 
undoubtedly do well. The soil when irrigated is fertile enough 
to produce any crop. The stock-raiser and the sheep-farmer 
will find excellent irrazinij lands and a o-ood market in Arizona, 
nor except in the extreme north or the southeast need they have 
any great apprehension of Indian raids. Wild beasts certainly 
exist there, but they are less numerous than in the other new 
Territories, and the losses from them will not be large, while the 
profits of both cattle and sheep-raising are certain and speedy. 

But mining is the pursuit in which Arizona, like the adjacent 
State of Nevada, is likely to be pre-eminent. Transportation for 
mining products is now good and will soon be better; capital is 
flowing into the Territory. The Indians have ceased to be trou- 
blesome in ihe minintr districts, and wood and water, two indis- 
pensable requisites for successful mining, though not as abundant 
as desirable, are yet to be had and without excessive cost; while 
the placers, veins and lodes, already opened or now opening, indi- 
cate deposits of the precious metals, richer than those of any 
other State or Territory in the West. The future of Arizona, 
after long years of waiting, trial and disappointment, seems now 
to be assured. It has purchased this right to a future prosperity 
with the blood of some of its best citizens, slain either by the 
fierce, treacherous and bloodthirsty Apaches, or by the still more 
bloodthirsty and reckless outlaws, who, prior to its territorial 
organization, made it their refuge and planned and executed 
there the most gigantic crimes. But they have now been driven 
from the Territory, and its present citizens are quiet, peaceful 
and law-abiding. 

GENERAL JOHN C. FREMONT. 

No description of "Our Western Empire" would have any 
claims to completeness, which failed to do justice to the great ser- 
vices rendered to almost every part of that vast region by Gen- 
eral Fremont. His fame as an explorer, resolute, intrepid, yet 
thoughtful of his men, successful, notwithstandino- innumerable 
obstacles, always grappling with broad principles, yet ever mind- 
ful of die minutest details, has become world-wide, and the title 



BIOGRAPHY OF GENERAL FREMONT. 537 

of the "Pafhfi7ide)%' everywhere bestowed upon him, bears testi- 
mony to the universal recognition of his great Qierits in the way 
of discovery and exploration. But his executive services have 
not been less conspicuous, or rendered with a smaller measure 
of self-sacrifice. He has devoted his life to the Great West; in 
his eftbrts for its development, he has lost more than one colossal 
fortune, earned by the most extraordinary labors, but has never 
repined over his losses. A man of impetuous spirit, of great 
daring and unbounded energy, but sensitive and delicate as a 
woman in regard to everything which concerned his honor, he 
has made many friends whom he has bound to him as with hooks 
of steel, and has also had some enemies, the bitterness of whose 
hatred seemed almost infernal in its malignity. But he has out- 
lived the hostility of even these foes, and now in the ripeness of 
his intellectual faculties, and with a vio^or which is born of his 
long outdoor life, he is devoting his great powers to the develop- 
ment of that one of the Territories of " Our Western Empire," 
which has hitherto been considered the most hopeless, from its 
arid climate, its intense heat, and the violence and treachery of 
the Indian tribes which roam over it. And in this great effort he is 
likely to succeed. He has won the confidence of most of the tribes, 
and led them forward to an agricultural and quiet life, and even 
the savage and treacherous Apaches could not refuse to listen 
to one whom they had known for thirty-five years as the bravest 
of the brave, and as a commander who had severely punished 
their offences, but had shown a magnanimity in his treatment of 
the conquered, which far exceeded their deserts. In all the 
region south of the forty-ninth parallel, the name of John C 
Fremont is honored and reverenced. John Charles Fremont 
was born in Savannah, Ga., January 21st, 18 13. His father was 
a Frenchman, his mother a Virginian. He was educated in 
Charleston College, graduating with honor in 1830 at the age of 
seventeen. His attainments in applied mathematics gained him 
a position as instructor in mathematics in the United States 
Navy from 1833 to 1835. He accompanied Captain Williams, 
United States Army, in a survey of the Cherokee country in 
1837-8, and in 1838-9 assisted Nicollet in exploring the country 



C28 ^^^ WESTER.Y EMPIRE. 

between the Missouri river and the British line. While thus 
engaged he w^s appointed second Heutenant of topographical 
engineers, July 7th, 1838. On the 19th of October, 1841, he 
married Jessie, daughter of Hon. Thomas H. Benton, of 
Missouri. In May, 1842, he began, under the authority of the 
government, the exploration of an overland route to the Pacific; 
examined the South Pass of the Rocky Mountains, ascended in 
August the highest peak of the Wind River Mountains, now 
called Fremont's Peak, and returning late in the autumn of 
1842, published a report highly commended by Humboldt in his 
"Aspects of Nature." In the summer of 1843, in another 
expedition, he explored the Great Salt Lake, and reached Fort 
Vancouver, near the mouth of Columbia river, in November of 
that year. Attempdng to return by a more southern route, his 
progress was impeded by deep snows, and his party suffered 
severely from hunger and cold. Changing his course he returned 
through the Great Basin and the South Pass, having exhibiter! 
a fortitude and daring rarely surpassed, and was breveted cap 
tain, July 31st, 1844. In a third expedition in 1845 ^^ explored 
the Sierra Nevada, California, etc. In March, 1846, he success- 
fully repelled an attack by Mexicans near Monterey; was major 
commanding battalion of California volunteers, July to November, 
1846; was appointed lieutenant-colonel of mounted rifles, 27th 
May, 1846 ; was appointed soon after Governor of California by 
Commodore Stockton, whose authority was disputed by General 
Stephen Kearney. Arrested by the latter, he was tried by a 
court-mardal, and found guilty of mutiny and disobedience. The 
finding was disapproved by the President, who offered him a full 
pardon. This he declined, and resigned his commission. In 

1848 he undertook a new expedition across the continent. His 
guide lost his way, and, after experiencing incredible hardships, 
he returned with the loss of one-third of his party to Santa Fe. 
Renewing his efforts he successfully encountered the hostile 
Apaches, and in 100 days reached the Sacramento river. In 

1849 he settled in California, having purchased the auriferous 
Mariposa tract, which was believed to be worth many millions 
of dollars. In his efforts to develop this somewhat too rapidly, 



BIOGRAPHY OF GENERAL FREMONT. C2Q 

he fell into the hands of some sharp New York bankers, who by 
adroit management (for in financial matters he was as open- 
hearted and simple as a child) contrived to deprive him of the 
whole of this magnificent property. He had previously had six 
years' litigation in regard to it, but in 1855 the Supreme Court 
of the United States confirmed his title. But during all this 
time he was actively engaged in the service of his country. In 
1849 he was a commissioner to run the boundary line between 
the United States and Mexico, He used his great influence to 
make California a free State, when the struggle between the 
South and the North, in regard to the increase of the slave States, 
was at its height. In 1850-51 he was the first United States' 
Senator from California. In 1850 he received from the King of 
Prussia a gold medal in token of his great services to science, 
and the same year the great gold medal of the Royal Geographi- 
cal Society of London. In 1853 he led at his own expense a 
fifth expedition across the continent, and succeeded in finding a 
new route to the Pacific, about ladtude 38° north. In 1856 the 
Republican party, then recently organized, made him its nominee 
for the Presidency, and he received 1 14 electoral votes against 
I 74 for his successful competitor, Mr. Buchanan. In the fall of 
i860 he visited Europe, where he was received with great honors. 
On the 14th of May, 1861, he was appointed a major-general of 
the United States army, and placed in command of the Western 
District, with head-quarters at St. Louis. In August he issued an 
order emancipating the slaves of those who should take arms 
against the United States. This order was annulled by Presi- 
dent Lincoln as premature. He commenced a vigorous pursuit 
of the insurgents, whom he had finally overtaken at Springfield, 
Mo., when, by the intrigues of other commanders, he was re- 
moved from the command, November 2d, 1861. Three months 
later he was assigned to the command of an army, poorly 
equipped and without sufficient supplies, in the mountain dis- 
trict of Virginia, where he was directed to operate against the 
skillful rebel general, Stonewall Jackson. His operadons were 
unsuccessful, mainly from the want of efficient support. When 
General Pope was appointed to the command of the ^rmy of 
34 



530 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Northern Virginia, General Fremont declined to serve under an 
officer whom he outranked, and resigned his commission. But 
he was too pure a patriot to refuse his aid to the government, 
though he might deem them slow in their action, and his purse 
and influence were all at their command. In May, 1864, a 
portion of the Republican party, dissatisfied with the dilatoriness 
of the government, nominated General Fremont for the Presi- 
dency at the coming election in November. At first he accepted, 
but soon perceiving that his continued candidacy would injure 
the Republican cause, and might throw the power into the hands 
of its enemies, he withdrew and supported Mr. Lincoln cordially. 
For some years after the close of the war he took no part in 
public affairs, but prosecuted with great energy measures for 
the promotion of a Southern Transcontinental Railway to follow 
nearly the line of the thirty-fifth parallel. He visited Europe 
repeatedly in behalf of this railway, and urged a land-grant for 
it with every prospect of success; but the panic of 1873 crushed 
the enterprise for the time, and disheartened some of the pro- 
moters of it in France. General Fremont's health was seriously 
impaired for some years; but, on his partial recovery, he was 
appointed Governor of Arizona, where he is again exerting all 
his energies for the development of the Great West, and laying 
broad and deep plans for turning these arid deserts into a fruit- 
ful field. 

CHAPTER II. 

ARKANSAS. 

Its Situation, Area, Extent — Topography — Mountains, Rivers, Lakes, 
Valleys — Navigable Rivers and Railways — Soil — Climate — Rainfall — 
Minerals and Mineral and Hot Springs — Vegetation — Animals — Pro- 
ductions, Mineral, Vegetable and Animal — Crops — Commerce — Popu- 
lation — Origin of Population — Education — Religious Denominations — 
Manufactures — Exemptions — Donated Lands — Views of Hon. Charles 
S. Keyser, Hon. David Walker, W. A. Webber, Esq., and Hon, A, H. 
Garland, U. S. Senator, on the History and Probable Future of 
Arkansas. 

Arkansas and Louisiana form the southeastern States of 
" Our Western Empire." Arkansas is washed by the waters of 



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SURFACE AND TOPOGRAPHY OF ARKANSAS. 531 

the Mississippi along nearly all of its eastern boundary, separat- 
ing it from Tennessee, except for the space of one county, where 
it has the St. Francis river for its eastern bound, and Missouri 
claims the little peninsula between the St. Francis and the Mis- 
sissippi rivers. On the north, it is bounded by Missouri ; on the 
south, by Louisiana, and on the west by Texas and the Indian 
Territory. It lies between the parallels of 2,^° '^'^^ 3^° 30' north 
latitude, and between the meridians of 89° 40' and 94° 42' west 
longitude from Greenwich. Its area is 52,198 square miles or 
33,406,720 acres, one-sixth larger than the State of New York, 
and about the same size as England without Wales. 

SiLrface and Topography. — The eastern portion of the State, 
from 30 to 100 miles west of the Mississippi, is generally low, 
containing many lakes, bayous and swamps, and is, with the ex- 
ception of some of the more elevated bluffs, subject to occasional 
inundation from the Mississippi river. These inundations, though 
sufficiently extensive to occasion much loss, seldom or never 
cover the whole of these lowlands, which rise gradually toward 
the foot-hills of the Ozark range. 

The land rises by gradual stages from this low valley of the 
Mississippi, to the elevated plateaux of the central part of the 
State, as well as to the Black Hills in the north, and Ouachita 
Hills in the west. But the principal mountain range in the State 
is the Ozark, which, beginning in the southwest, trends north- 
eastward and northward, spreading out into broad table-lands 
with narrow and deep ravines, and occasionally rising into higher 
summits, though of no great height. The general elevation of 
these table-lands is from 1,500 to 2,000 feet, and some of the 
rounded knobs may rise from 500 to 800 feet higher. The hills 
of this range have distinct local names, such as Pea Ridge and 
Boston Mountains (both famous during the late civil war), north 
of the Arkansas river, and Massime Mountains south of that 
river. The line of the St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern 
Railway, which crosses the State diagonally from northeast to 
southwest, nearly marks the line of division of the higher forest 
and mineral lands from the plain, prairie and lowlands in the 
east and southeast of the State. Large deposits of valuable 



532 0^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

minerals are found in the northern division. The mountains, table- 
lands and valleys of this division present generally a rich surface, 
good drainage, romantic and picturesque scenery, and a produc- 
tiveness remarkable for the formations and latitude. The south- 
ern, southeastern and eastern divisions have rich tertiary, post- 
tertiary and alluvial deposits which are not excelled in fertility 
by any land on the globe. Exempt alike from the intense heat 
of the extreme south, and the severe cold of the north, the genial 
climate and fertile soil of the State yield in abundance the rich 
productions of both regions. The rich bottom-lands will pro- 
duce, under favorable conditions, from fifty to sixty bushels ot 
Indian corn, and about 450 pounds of cotton per acre, which is 
considered a fair average crop. With better and more careful 
culture, they are capable of greatly exceeding this average, and 
in some instances do exceed it. 

Rivers. — Arkansas is abundantly supplied with navigable 
rivers, so distributed as to give access interiorly to all parts oi 
the State, The great boundary on the east is formed by tlie 
mighty Mississippi, The St. Francis on the northeast, which 
rises in southeastern Missouri and flows through the low, un- 
dulating portions of the northeast, where it intermingles widi 
lakes, creeks and paludal surfaces, is a tributary of the Mississippi. 
It is navigable to and beyond the Missouri line. 

The White river rises m northwestern Arkansas, flows 
through the lower southwestern counties of Missouri, and returns 
to the State, joining its affluent, the Black river, which affords, 
from the confluence, almost at all seasons, navigation for a dis- 
tance of 350 miles. White river, with its tributaries, gives drain- 
age for a broad expanse of country from the northwestern, mid- 
dle and northeastern parts of the northern section of the State. 

The Arkansas river, one of the largest tributaries of the Mis- 
sissippi, rises in the mountains of Colorado, and flows easterly 
for a distance of 2,000 miles to join the Mississippi. White river 
is an aflluent, flowing into it near its mouth. The Arkansas 
river bisects and drains this vast country ; it is navigable entirely 
across the State, and, during high water, beyond it, far up into 
the Indian Territory. The Ouachita, with its tributaries, drains 



KJV/'IKS IN ARKANSAS. c - -^ 

almost the entire State lying south of the Arkansas river, or all 
that surface lying between it and the Red river. It is navigable 
250 miles. The Red river is the south-western channel of drain- 
age, and is navigable throughout its course in the State, a distance 
of about 100 miles. 

Black river rises in Southeastern Missouri and crosses five 
counties, discharging its waters into the White river. It is navi- 
gable from its mouth to the Missouri line. 

Saline river rises in Saline county, and, after passing through 
six counties, discharges into the Ouachita in Union county. It 
is navigable for 100 miles. 

Bayou Bartholomew, another tributary of the Ouachita, is 
navigable in the State for about 1 50 miles. 

The Little river, an affluent of the Red river, and the Little 
Red river, an affluent of the White river, are both navigable for 
from fifty to seventy-five miles for six months of the year. 

The Petit Jean, a tributary of the Arkansas, is navigable for 
about seventy-five miles. 

Several smaller streams, such as the Cache, Dorcheat, L'Aigu- 
ille and Antoine, are navigable a part of the year. 

Nearly every county in the State is traversed by one or more 
of these navigable streams, which, with their branches, torm a 
navigable highway within the State of more than 3,000 miles, 
and secure an abundant supply of water to every county. 

Most of these streams have their sources in springs in the 
hills or mountains, and furnish abundant and permanent water 
power for manufacturing purposes. Of one of these springs, the 
fountain-head of Spring river, a clear, limpid stream which flows 
through Fulton, Sharp and Randolph counties, emptying into 
Black river. Professor D. D. Owen, in his Geological Recon- 
noissance of Arkansas, thus speaks : 

"The country is well watered, and possesses many fine water- 
powers — even at the very fountain-head of some of its numerous 
limpid calcareous streams, which frequently burst forth from 
amongf the ledges of rock. One of the most remarkable of these 
forms the fountain-head of the main fork of Spring river, known 
as the ' Mammoth Spring,' in Fulton county, welling up on the 



c,^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

south side of a low, rocky ridge, from a submerged abyss 
beneath of sixty-four feet, and constituting, at its very source, a 
respectable lake of about one-sixteenth of a mile from north to 
south, and one-fifth to one-sixth of that distance from east to 
west. 

"It is said by those who have sounded the bottom, that there 
are large cavities and crevices in the rock, and that the main 
body of the water issues from a large cavernous opening, of 
some forty yards in circumference. It has been estimated that 
it boils up at the rate of about 8,000 barrels per minute ; the 
correctness of this estimate we had no means of verifying, but it 
may be safely estimated that the average constant flow would be 
at least sufficient to propel from twelve to fifteen run of stones. 

"The uniform temperature (60° Fahrenheit) and composition 
of the water is peculiarly congenial to the growth of a variety of 
cryptogamic, aquatic plants, possessing highly nutritive qualities, 
both for herbivorous animals and birds. 

"In the early settlement of the country, herds of herbivorous 
wild animals travelled from great distances to this fountain for 
both food and water, as well as flocks of wild fowl. Now the 
cattle of the neighboring farms may be seen wading in its waters 
up to their middle, and browsing on the herbage, which appears 
peculiarly congenial to their tastes ; it is, also, a general resort 
of geese, ducks and other aquatic birds. It aflbrds valuable 
water-power for general manufacturing purposes." 

In addition to her water-courses, Arkansas is reasonably well 
supplied with railways, which are being extended so as to 
embrace every section of the State. 

The St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern road runs 
diagonally across the State, a distance of 300 miles, making con- 
nections with roads east and west. This is a land-grant road, 
holding nearly a million and a quarter acres of choice lands in 
this State which it offers to immigrants at very low rates, and by 
its enterprise has attracted many immigrants to the State. As 
a general rule an immigrant, in this State particularly, will do 
better to buy of the State or United States government, the 
lands he needs ; but if, for any cause, he prefers to buy of a raih 



JtAILlVAYS IN ARKANSAS. 535 

road company, he will find die St. Louis, Iron Mountain and 
Southern Railway will treat him fairly and honorably, as will die 
other land-grant railways also. 

The Memphis and Little Rock road extends from the capital 
to Memphis. 

The Little Rock and Fort Smith road is running- a distance of 
168 miles, up the valley of Arkansas, to the Indian border. 

The Little Rock, Pine Bluft and New Orleans road is com- 
pleted and running a distance of eighty miles, from Pine Bluff to 
Arkansas City, on the Mississippi river. A survey has recently 
been made of the gap between this city and Pine Bluff, which 
will soon be built. 

The Mississippi, Ouachita and Red River road is completed, 
a distance of about thirty miles west from Chicot. 

The Arkansas Central (narrow-gauge) is completed a distance 
of about sixty miles, and runs trains regularly between Claren- 
don on White river, and Helena on the Mississippi. 

A narrow-gauge road is in operation between Malvern, a 
point on the St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern Railway, 
and the famous Hot Springs, thus giving the outside world a 
continuous line of railway to the Springs. 

Climate and Rainfall. — The climate of Arkansas, except in 
the lowlands near the Mississippi, is better entitled to be called 
temperate than perhaps any other in the United States. The 
streams are not closed by ice in the winter, nor is the earth 
parched by drought in summer. The two points most character- 
istic of the climate of the State are Litde Rock, the capital, for 
the moderately elevated table-lands, and Hopefield, opposite 
Memphis, Tennessee, for the lowlands. In Little Rock the 
mean annual temperature for a series of years is 62°. 66 Fahren- 
heit ; the highest pointy generally reached in August or Septem- 
ber, and for not more than one or two days, 96° ; the lowest, 
generally reached in December, or more rarely in January, 4°; 
the annual range, 92°. The average rainfall is from fifty-five to 
sixty inches annually. In the more mountainous region in the 
northern and northwestern part of the State the mean annual 
temperature is about 60° Fahrenheit, and the rainfall a trifle less 
than at Little Rock. 



C36 ^UR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

At Hopefield the heat of the hot months is longer continued, 
though but httle higher. 

The average maximum temperature, which is reached per- 
haps on twelve or fifteen days of the summer, is 98° Fahrenheit. 
In exceptionally hot summers it may rise to 101°. 5, but not for 
more than one or two days. The mean of the summer months 
is 81°. 4. The average minimum is 9°, rising some years to 17°, 
and at others sinking to 2°. The mean temperature of the year 
is 60°. 6. The average rainfall 63.42 inches. 

Hon. John R. Eakin, Chancellor of the Pulaski Chancery 
Court, an eminent agriculturist and author of a treatise on vini- 
culture, speaking in that work of a peculiarity in the climate of 
Central Arkansas, says : 

" In the Eastern and Northwestern States, they all try to 
avoid a northern exposure. Our country is somewhat differently 
situated, especially that portion lying west of the Ouachita and 
between the mountain ranges south of the Arkansas. It may 
be well to dwell on this a litde. This section of country, and 
also that north of the Arkansas river for a considerable distance, 
is the only part of the United States protected against violent 
winds. The mountains which shield it range east and west. 
The Blue Ridge, Allegheny, and Cumberland Mountains run in 
a north and south direction, and, except in sheltered nooks pro- 
tected by spurs, the winds rush down on each side of them from 
Labrador and Hudson's Bay. The same is the case with the 
northern portion of Missouri, with Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana, 
and on down the Mississippi and the Southern States east of 
the river. These north winds are very sudden and destructive, 
bringing, in twenty-four hours, the climate of the frigid zone — 
throwing against vegetation the identical air that was but yes- 
terday on an iceberg. This influence is greatly modified with 
us. These hills, to our north, perform the same office which the 
Alps do to Italy. This, as to climate, is the Italy of the United 
States." 

Sudden changes in the climate are less frequent than in the 
Eastern and Western States. All evidence demonstrates that 
there is not, on this continent, any locality super'ior to this region 



ARICAIVSAS AS A HEALTH RESORT. 5^7 

for the equable character of its climate and its freedom from sud- 
den changes and violent winds. 

In this connection it should be said that Arkansas, and espe- 
cially this central region, has a deservedly high reputation for 
the relief of pulmonary diseases. It strongly resembles that of 
Mentone and Pau in the south of France. The tables of vital 
statistics of the census of 1870 showed that no part of the 
United States was so favorable for consumptives as this, and 
partly no doubt for the reason which Chancellor Eakin has 
stated. The air, though mild and not subject to sudden charges, 
is not sufficiently hot to be relaxing, and respiration is not so 
difficult as in the thinner air of the elevated plateaux of Colorado 
and New Mexico. The difference may be stated in another 
way: the invalid who goes to Colorado may recover his health 
partly or wholly, but he must stay there. If he attempts to 
return East after one or two years the disease returns and 
speedily proves fatal. In Arkansas, on the contrary, the process 
of cure is radical, and the invalid, after one or two years, may 
return to the East without fear of the recurrence of the disease. 

Minerals and Mineral and Hot Spring's.— Arkansas has a 
great variety of mineral deposits, most of them of excellent 
quality and apparently of unlimited abundance. First in econ- 
omic importance are its immense beds of coal. The Arkansas 
coal-fields have an estimated area of i 2,000 square miles, wholly, 
so far as known at present, in the valley of the Arkansas river, 
though the carboniferous basin may prove to extend southward 
beyond that valley. The Arkansas river runs for more than 
150 miles through this coal formation. The counties of Wash- 
ington, Crawford, Sebastian, Franklin, Scott, Logan, Johnson, 
Yell, Pope, Perry, Conway, White, and Pulaski, are almost en- 
tirely situated in this coal basin. The veins vary from one to 
nine feet in thickness, though most of those which have been 
worked are from four to nine feet thick. It is found at from six 
to fifty feet below the surface. The coal is similar in structure 
and appearance to the Cumberland coal of Maryland, and an- 
alysis, as well as use, demonstrates its practical identity in quality 
with that well-known coal. It proves to be an excellent steam- 



C38 (^^'■^ IVES TERN EMPIRE. 

producing and manufacturing coal, and commands a high price 
for both purposes. Mines have been opened and are now in 
successful operation near Russellville and Ouita in Pope county, 
at Spadia, and at Horsehead, in Johnson county, and at several 
points in Sebastian and other counties. The coal has been used 
freely in Little Rock, St. Louis, Memphis, and New Orleans, and 
wherever tested it sells readily at a higher price than any other 
coal in the market. Inexhaustible deposits of haematite and 
other iron ores are found in close proximity to these coal-beds, 
and limestone of the best kinds for fluxing purposes and heavy 
forests of hard wood for charcoal are close by. Large and 
never-failing water-powers are contiguous to these coal and iron 
deposits. In the present demand for iron and steel, Arkansas 
offers extraordinary facilities for its successful manufacture. 

Several zinc mines have been opened in the northern part of 
the State, principally in Lawrence and Sharp counties — which 
are as rich in every respect as any in the Union. Lead and 
silver are abundant, and several mines are now being profitably 
worked. Notable among these are the Kellogg mine, eleven 
miles north of Little Rock, two mines in Sevier, one in Mont- 
gomery, another in Boone, and perhaps others. These mines 
are sufficiently rich in silver (argentiferous galena ores, yielding 
about fifty ounces of silver to the ton) to leave the lead as a clear 
profit, after paying all expenses of mining, smelting, etc. 

There are extensive caves of nitre and nitrous earth in New- 
ton and other northern counties of the State, from which large 
quantities of powder were manufactured and used by the Con- 
federates during the recent war. 

There are also numerous salt springs — some of which are 
being profitably worked, notably one near Arkadelphia, which 
supplied salt for the entire army of Arkansas during its occupa- 
tion by the Confederates in 1862-3. 

Valuable mines of copper have been discovered in Montgomery 
and other counties, though no efforts have been made to work 
them. 

The manganese deposits are of considerable extent and rich- 
ness. 



MINERALS OF ARKANSAS. 539 

The novacullte or whetstone quarries near Hot Springs furnish 
a rock which has gained almost a world-wide fame, and its supply 
is inexhaustible. 

Marble of superior quality and in exhaustless quantities has 
been discovered in Boone and Newton counties, a block of which 
has been placed in the Washington Monument. 

Gypsum, kaolin, slate, limestone, granite, marl, chrome and 
other minerals for use as mineral paints, are among the economic 
minerals found in large quantities in the State, but few of them 
are as yet mined or quarried to any great extent. 

Dr. Lawrence, of Hot Springs, contributed to the Centennial 
Exposition a collection of minerals, mostly from Magnet Cave, 
Hot Springs county, among which were manganite, or black 
oxide of manganese ; melanite, or crystallized black garnets ; 
green, yellow and black mica ; crystallized schorlamites ; quartz 
crystallized ; crystals of Perofskite, hornblende, elaeolite, epidote, 
strontianite, Shepardite, Lydian stone or touchstone, agate, hydro- 
titanite, titanic iron, sulphur from iron pyrites, talc, rutite, isolated 
and in quartz ; rose, smoky and milky quartz, chert, biirrstone ; 
the hornblendes, novaculite, quartzite, syenite and granite. 

The Hot Springs of Arkansas are situated in Hot Springs 
county, about sixty miles southwest from Little Rock. A narrow 
gauge railroad, twenty-five miles in length, now conveys passen- 
gers direcdy to the springs from Malvern Junction, on the St. 
Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern Railway. The springs, now 
sixty-six in number, are in a wild, mountainous region, issuing 
from the western slope of a spur of the Ozark range, at an eleva- 
tion of about 1,400 feet above the sea-level, and range in tem- 
perature from 93° to 150° Fahr. They discharge over 500,000 
gallons of water daily, sufficient in quantity to accommodate, with 
delightful bathing, 10,000 bathers every day in the year. These 
natural earth-heated waters hold in solution valuable mineral 
constituents. Clear, tasteless, inodorous, they pour forth from 
the novaculite ridge as pure and sparkling as the pellucid Neva. 
The various springs are qualitatively allied, not holding in solu- 
tion or freighted with too many mineral constituents, and they 
are free from all noxious gases. It is believed that the proper- 



r-Q OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

ties of the waters, especially in the treatment of chronic diseases, 
and particularly chronic rheumatism, scrofula, etc., are unequalled. 
There are no springs known of superior value, or that can com- 
pare with the Hot Springs of Arkansas, as adjuncts in the treat- 
ment of that class of chronic diseases. The advantages of the 
climate throughout the entire year, the pure, rarefied mountain 
air, the delightful waters, all make these springs one of the most 
delightful resorts for invalids in the United States. 

Within from seven to twelve miles of Hot Springs are other 
springs,- sulphurous and chalybeate, but not hot, to which many 
of the physicians order their patients after two or three courses 
of the Hot Springs treatment, and the change greatly facilitates 
their recovery. The Hot Springs waters are not only used for 
bathing and for hot vapor baths, but the water is drank in large 
quantities, as hot as it can be borne, and with great benefit. 
There are about 6,000 inhabitants in Fiot Springs City, and it is 
said that 10,000 or more invalids annually avail themselves of its 
baths and healing medicinal waters. 

Numerous analyses of the waters, which vary but slightly in 
their contents, though materially in their temperature, show that 
amongr the solid constituents of a o-allon of the water are found 
the following : 

Silicates with base^ Alumina with Oxide of Iron, 

Bicarbonate of Lime, Oxide of Manganese, 

Bicarbonate of Magnesia, Sulphate of Lime,? 

Carbonate of Soda, '''Arseniate of Lime,? 

Carbonate of Potassa, *Arseniate of L-on,? 

Carbonate of Lithia, ^Bromine, 
Sulphate of Magnesia, Iodine, a trace, 

Chloride of Magnesia, Organic matter, a trace. 

The city of Hot Springs is in a deep ravine, and the springs 
issue from the slopes of the mountains on either side — those 
on one side being of much higher temperature than those on 
the other. The city consists of one very long and not very 

* These salts and elements were in very minute quantity in any of the waters, and were nol 
found at all in some of those examined. 



FORES 7S AND VEGETATION OF ARKANSAS. 541 

wide street, with short streets running up the hills on either 
side. It has almost as many hotels, boarding-houses, hospitals 
and private dwellings, and quite as many physicians of all sorts, 
as there are patients. The hills in the vicinity are occupied 
very largely by small farmers of the class known in the South as 
" poor whites," who cultivate a little corn, a few potatoes, and 
keep a few swine, and a considerable number of fowls, and who 
in their indolent and rude way, succeed in eking out a bare 
subsistence. The whole region containing the springs has long 
been in litigation, and within one or two years has been decided 
to be the property of the United States. Provision has been 
made, in a rough way, to extend the benefits of the springs to the 
very poor without compensation, and many of these are now 
availing themselves of this privilege. 

Vegetation. — The area of woodland in Arkansas in 1877, was 
16,815,037 acres, just about one-half of its entire surface. The 
rapid progress of railroads in the State and adjacent States and 
the demands for shipment, lumber and manufactures may have 
slightly decreased this amount within the past three years, but 
Arkansas still possesses a larger proportion of timber lands than 
any other State or Territory of " Our Western Empire," And a 
very large proportion of her timber is of the very best quality, 
much of it the best of the hard woods, and pines of gigantic 
growth. At the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, fifty 
species of forest trees were exhibited (and these did not nearly 
exhaust the entire number found in her forests) ; these included 
thirteen species of oak, varying in diameter from twenty-one to 
fifty inches ; two species of pine, thirty-six inches through ; black 
walnuts, forty-two inches in diameter; hickory of three species, 
thirty-five to thirty-nine inches through ; a cottonwood, eighty- 
four inches, and sycamores, sixty inches ; red elm, sixty-three 
inches ; maple, two species, the sugar and the curled, twenty-six. 
inches ; three species of gum trees, the tupelo, black and sweet 
gum, from twenty-nine to thirty-nine inches in diameter; cypress, 
forty-eight inches ; yellow poplar, forty-five inches ; American 
elm, forty-six inches ; white ash, forty-two inches ; Bois d'Arc 
(Osage orange), twenty-two inches ; blue ash, twenty-three inches; 



C.2 ^^R WESTERN EMPIRE. 

red cedar or juniper, sixteen inches ; beech, thirty inches; persim- 
mon, twenty-four inches ; sassafras, twenty-eight inches ; honey 
locust, twenty inches, and wild cherry, nineteen inches. The 
supply of pine, cypress and oak is almost inexhaustible. The 
pines south of the Arkansas river grow to the height of 150 
feet and more, and are from six to seven feet through. 

At the same exposition thirty-five species of pasture grasses, 
many of them new and native to Arkansas, were exhibited, all 
of them yielding largely and much sought after by cattle. The 
Alfalfa and four kinds of millet were also exhibited, yielding 
from four to eiofht tons of dried forao-e to the acre. 

All the fruits are sure of luxuriant growth, including as well 
the different kinds grown in the Northern States as those which 
nearly approach the tropics. Apples, peaches,* pears, plums, 
quinces, cherries, apricots, figs,f grapes, strawberries, and other 
small fruits, grow luxuriandy in all parts of the State, and are 
noted for their size and flavor. In this climate fruit trees and 
the vine produce abundandy, and ripen their fruit in the greatest 
perfection ; and, though it may seem incredible to northern 
fruit-growers, yet we are credibly assured that the fruit crop of 
Arkansas has not been a failure but once in thirty years. 

Chancellor Eakin, in his little work on the culture of the grape, 
says : 

" This is the best region for wild grapes in America. What 
we mean to assert is, that the region between the Mississippi 
and the Staked Plains, and between the Missouri river and the 
swamp lands of the Gulf, produce more and larger and better 
wild grapes than any other portion of the known world. This 
is deliberately said, after much reading, inquiry, travel and exten- 
sive observation." 

The growing of grapes for wine is largely pracdsed in the 
State, as well as the culture of the other small fruits for northern 

* The apples of Washington and Benton counties, and of the southwestern counties generally, 
are noted for their fine flavor and are in demand in St. Louis and Memphis. The peach seems 
specially at home in this State. The fruit is large and of excellent flavor, and grovifs with very 
little care. Peaches here ripen full four weeks earlier than in the vicinity of St. Louis. 

f Figs grow as finely here as in Louisiana, and nothing better can be said of that delicious 
fruit. 



ZOOLOGY OF ARA'A.VSAS. tA'i 

markets. All kinds of fruit and vegetables mature and are ready 
for market from three to four weeks earlier than in the latitude 
of St. Louis; and hence the culture of small fruits, and of mar- 
ket garden vegetables, is as profitable a business as a settler 
can prosecute, the transportation by river or railroad being 
speedy and cheap. 

Wild Animals. — Of beasts ot prey, there are some black and 
brown bears, though a much smaller number than its exten- 
sive forests would justify, rarely cougars and other wild felines. 
The jaguar may sometimes stray up from his Texan haunts, but 
we cannot learn of any hunters who have discovered him on the 
soil of Arkansas. There are also occasionally wolves, foxes, 
raccoons, opossums, and perhaps the Texan coyotes. Peccari.es 
and wild hogs are sometimes found. The buffalo prefers the 
plains, and the wooded mountainous regions of Western Arkan- 
sas have no charms for him, but there are deer of two species ; 
rarely the elk, but not except by accident the antelope or the 
bighorn. Rabbits or hares, squirrels of several species and the 
gopher, are the principal rodents. 

Birds of prey are moderately abundant, but mostly of the 
eagle and vulture and hawk tribes. Of game birds there are 
wild turkeys, ducks, partridges, pinnated grouse or prairie hens, 
quail, etc. Of the birds of the State, there were exhibited at the 
Centennial the bald eagle and the royal eagle, as well as the 
followinof : 

Wild duck, crow, house-wren, blue bird, bobolink, sapsucker, 
red-headed woodpecker, blue jay, kingfisher, paroquet, flicker, 
bird hawk, robin, meadow lark, rhocking bird, red bird, mammoth 
woodpecker, cock of the woods and the snake-killer or water 
turkey. 

The rivers, lakes and bayous are well stocked with fish, 
among which are pickerel, black bass, buffalo-fish, cat-fish and 
shad, while the mountain streams have an abundance of perch, 
roach and trout. In the bayous, lakes and in the Red, Ouachita 
and Arkansas rivers the alligator sometimes makes his appear- 
ance, though he is less common than in Louisiana or Texas. 

The copperhead, the milk adder and other reptiles, venomous 



CAA OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

and harmless, are plentiful in the lowlands, and the rattlesnake 
and moccasin snake are found in the hills. 

The insect tribes in Arkansas are exceedingly numerous in 
the lowlands, and well deserve the name of pests. The mosquito 
of this region is renowned for his size, vigor and venom, and the 
most fabulous stories are related of his strength and audacity. 
In the hills, however, this insect is less troublesome. The bot- 
fly, the tick, the chigoe and the guinea-worm are very annoying 
to man and beast. The cotton worm, the army worm and sev- 
eral flies are destructive of vegetation. Some of the pests found 
a little farther north, such as the Colorado beetle and the Rocky 
Mountain locust, have not visited Arkansas in any considerable 
numbers. 

Archcsology. — There are no ruins of ancient cities or towns, 
indicative of its having been, in the remote past, the home of a 
semi-civilized race, in Arkansas. Neither the Aztec nor the 
Toltec race seem to have penetrated so far to the East. When 
De Soto visited what is now Eastern Arkansas in 1541, the 
Natchez, a tribe now extinct, were in possession there, and 14c 
years later de La Salle found them in possession, while the 
Quapaws were in the northeast, and the Osages in the western 
part of the State. Of one or other of these tribes, mounds and 
relics have been found in Hot Springs, Garland, Montgomery 
and Phillips counties. Some of these were exhibited at the 
Centennial, and consisted of vases, water carriers, bowls, mortars, 
pestles, rollers, discoidal stones, scrapers, skin dressers and 
polishers, axes, hatchets, lances, darts, pipes, beads, amulets, 
ponays or Indian money, hand hammers, sling balls, balls for 
games, plough points, knives and drills. 

Productions. — Until returns are had from the tenth census of 
mineral products, we cannot estimate the mineral productions 
"of Arkansas. There is a moderate but constantly increasing 
quantity of her excellent semi-anthracite coal mined each year, 
and many thousand bushels of the lignite in the southeastern part 
of the State are also furnished to the Mississippi steamers. 
There are large quarries of novaculite, the Arkansas hone or 
oil-stone, in Hot Springs and Grant counties ; of brimstone in 



A GRICUL 7 URAL PR OD UCTS. 



545 



the Ozark Mountains ; of slate of excellent quality in Pulaski, 
Polk, Pike, and Sevier counties ; and of pink and gray marbles 
in Madison and other counties. Of agricultural products, the 
latest full returns (and even these are partly estimated) are for 
the year 1875. They are as follows: 



Articles, 


Amount of Crop. 


Average 

Yield Per 

Acre. 


Market Value. 


Cotton, pounds 


442,258,400 

33,601,200 

3,598,200 

4,328,800 

522,500 

2,778,600 

6,693,000 

76,242 

Total value 


356 

27>^ 

14 
26 

105 

139 

I 86 


^55,282,300 
1 1,760,420 
3.797.146 
2,380,840 
391.875 
3.820,775 
9,202,875 
1,524,840 : 

...^88,161,071 


Corn, bushels 


Wheat, " 


Oats, " 


Rye, " 


Irish potatoes, bus 


Sweet " " 


Hay, tons 




of crops 



Remarks. — There were, of course, a number of minor crops, such as sor- 
ghum, melons, squashes, cucumbers, market garden products, small fruits, 
grapes and wine, not included here, which would very probably bring the 
aggregate up to $100,000,000; but 1875 ^^^s a year of exceptional productive- 
ness which has not on these crops been equalled before or since, and we are 
inclined to believe that $88,000,000 will cover the entire value of the average 
agricultural products. The Agricultural Department's estimate in 1878 wa.s 
less than half that sum. 

Live-Stock in January, 1879. (Agricultural Department Estimate.) 



Animals. 



Horses 

Mules and asses 

Milch cows 

Oxen and other cattle 

Sheep 

Swine 



Number. 



180,300 
89,300 
187,700 
357.000 
293.500 
1,123,500 



Value. 



$7,347,225 
4,606,987* 

2,490, 779t 
3.430,770 

437.315 
2,696,400 



Total value $20,999,476 



* Probably an under-estimate. 

f Probably an over-estimate. Cattle, horses, mules, and sheep thrive and keep fat the year 
through, without feeding, in the central and southern portions of the State, where, in addition 
to the native grasses, they feed and do remarkably well on small cane, which, in many locali- 
35 



C ^5 O^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Manufactures, in Arkansas, are yet in their infancy, but have 
made considerable progress since 1870, when there were only 
1,364 manufacturing establishments, great and small, in the State, 
employing 4,452 hands of all ages, using $2,137,738 of capital 
and $4,823,651 in value of materials; paying $754,950 in wages 
and producing goods and wares of the value of $7,699,676. 
There were also home manufactures of the value of $807,573. 
Of the whole number of manufacturing establishments, 283 were 
cotton gins, 272 flour and meal mills, mostly small grist-mills, 
the average capital being only $1,750, and 212 saw-mills. There 
were two cotton and thirteen woollen manufactories. There 
are now numerous large flouring mills, and the Arkansas brand 
commands a high price in the St. Louis markets. The cotton 
and the woollen mills have greatly increased, and a new manu- 
facture, that of oil from cotton seed, has been built up within the 
past seven or eight years. Arkansas has now the largest cotton 
seed oil mills in the world. There are also factories for wagons, 
tobacco and cigars, stoneware, brooms, doors, sash, blinds, leather, 
etc. The magnificent water-powers in the State and the cheap- 
ness of fuel for the production of steam, as well as the liberal 
encouragement given by the State to manufacturing and mining 
establishments in exempting them from taxation, the large pro- 
duct of cotton and wool, the extensive forests of hard woods, and 
the valuable deposits of iron, coal, and lime in close proximity, 
offer the best inducements for the development of manufactures 
on the largest scale. 

Population. — The population of the State in 1870 was 484,471, 
an increase of only 49,021 over the population of i860. Several 
causes had conspired to produce this result, among others the civil 
war, the emancipation and escape of many of the slaves, the 



ties, grows luxuriantly the entire year through, affording a nutritious range during the winter. 
Fat cattle from this State find a ready market at St. Louis and Memphis. Prairie and Lonoke 
counties do a considerable iiusiness in this line. They shipped last year several hundred car- 
loads of cattle raised on the prairie. This business has been found, by those who have tried it, 
more profitable even than farming. Hogs can be raised here without cost. They fatten readily 
in the fall from the abundance of mast in the woods. Large numbers of hogs are driven to 
Little Rock, Memphis, and other markets during the fall and winter from the northwestern 
counties. 



POPULATION OF ARKANSAS. C47 

depression in business, and die hopelessness of the inhabitants 
in regard to their future. Since 1870, great changes have taken 
place in the State. The construction of railroads, the introduc- 
tion of new branches of industry, the improvement in the means 
of education, a good market for all agricultural products, and 
the development of the resources of the State through the infu- 
sion of new blood by immigration has greatly promoted its 
growth, and the census of 1880 shows a population of the large 
number of 802,564, an increase of 318,093 from 1870. It is 
fair to say, however, that the accuracy of the enumeration is 
doubted in some quarters. 

The change in the character of the populadon is also marked. 
In its early days, both as a Territory and a State, it had within 
its borders a great number of outlaws — ruffians, gamblers, high- 
way robbers, murderers, horse-thieves and brigands. Human 
life was not safe, and crime was rife. Every man went armed, 
and the " soft notes of the pistol " were heard everywhere day 
and night ; while a man was made an offender for a word, and 
was often shot down in sheer wantonness. The natural conse- 
quence of this state of things was that the better disposed part 
ot the community were compelled to take the law into their own 
hands. Vigilance committees were appointed, and when the 
outlaws found their occupation gone, they retaliated by banding 
themselves together as " Regulators " and raiding the settlements. 
For some years a desperate warfare was waged between these 
outlaws and the rest of the community, and the services of Judge 
Lynch were often called for. 

At length law and order triumphed ; the outlaws were driven 
out, and peace and quiet were established. It was time. Busi- 
ness was paralyzed ; and ignorance and brutishness prevailed. 
In this partial restoration to order, some attention was paid to 
education, and from 1850 to i860 there was a rapid growth, the 
population doubling, and a decided advance being made in the 
fiocial condition of the people. The number of slaves was very 
large, and some of the worst evils of slavery were rife there. 
With the commencement of the war, the old outlaw spirit revived, 
and for some years there was anarchy again. But the friends 



c ^3 <5^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of law and order were, after a time, in a majority, and they have 
succeeded in putting down ruffianism completely. The era of 
railroads was late in opening in Arkansas, but it helped materially 
in producing order, enterprise and development in the State, 
The people are now law-abiding and orderly ; the carrying of 
fire-arms is prohibited, and the prohibition pretty well enforced. 
The people are industrious and desirous of improvement ; 
strangers who come into the State to settle are cordially welcomed 
and protected ; and all things being taken into account, the State 
is a desirable one for immigrants to settle in. Great efforts are 
now making to improve the system of public school and higher 
education, and an advance on this subject is perceptible. 

If the emigrant from the busy States of the East or Europe 
find the citizens a little slow or apathetic, in regard to progress, 
it is to be attributed to the influence of their early history. There 
is a most commendable desire for improvement manifested, and 
if an intellieent class of emio-rants come into the State and 
endeavor to promote its interests, the State will become in a few 
years one of the best in "Our Western Empire," in all the elements 
which conduce to a permanent prosperity. 

Religious Denominations. — The Methodists are the leading 
religious denomination in the State, but are divided into the 
adherents of the " Methodist Episcopal Church, South," and those 
of the " Methodist Episcopal Church," as the northern body is 
called. The next denomination, and but little inferior in num- 
bers, are the Baptists, with whom may also be numbered in this 
general estimate, the Christians, Disciples or Campbellites. 
After these come the Presbyterians, in several divisions, such as 
the Southern Presbyterian Church, the Cumberland Presbyterian, 
Presbyterian Church (north), etc 

There is a Roman Catholic diocese and a few churches, per- 
haps fifteen or twenty ; an Episcopal diocese with about the same 
number ; a few Lutherans, etc. 

Education. — One of the best indications of progress in the 
State is the advance which it is making in education. In 1870 
two-fifths of the population above ten years of age could not 
read or write, and of these 133,339 illiterates, 64,095 were whites 



EDUCATION IN ARKANSAS. r^g 

and 69,222 colored. There are still not over one-fifth of the 
school population (between the ages of six and twenty-one) in 
attendance upon the schools, but there are better and more effi- 
cient teachers, and the schools are held for a greater number of 
weeks in the year. The schools assisted by the Peabody fund 
are also improving, and those in the larger towns are up to the 
grade of similar schools in other States. The half dozen colleges 
in the State are doing well and advancing their requirements for 
admission. The Industrial University, at Fayetteville, is doing a 
good work, but there is great need of more thorough agricultural 
education. The farming is, much of it, slovenly, and calculated 
merely to skim the surface of the soil and thus render it barren, 
than to improve it. When on excellent cotton lands the average 
crop is but 273 pounds to the acre, but little more than half a 
bale ; when the average wheat crop, in a good year, is but six 
bushels to the acre, of Indian corn but twenty-four bushels, of 
oats the same, and of potatoes but 121 bushels, the fault is not 
in the land but in the cultivator, and there should be some force 
somewhere to stir up such indolent and inefficient farmers. 

There are a few men of force in the State, men who have the in- 
terests of the State at heart, and are ready to do all they can to 
promote its prosperity ; among them we may name the present 
Governor, Hon. W. R. Miller; Hon. A. H. H. Garland, United 
States Senator; Hon. David Walker, Hon. Charles S. Keyser. 
Dr. G. W. Lawrence, late United States Centennial Commis- 
sioner, Hon. W. A. Webber, and others. These gentlemen may 
be too sanguine in regard to the rapidity of the future growth 
and prosperity of the State ; but they are well versed in its his- 
tory, and -they have proved their faith by their works and the 
zeal with which they have labored for its interests. We should 
not do justice to the State, and to those who are so desirous of 
its growth and prosperity, if we neglected to state the special 
advantages which are offered by the State government to im- 
migrants. The exemption laws of the State are singularly favor- 
able to the settler. 

The homestead law ot the State is more liberal than that of 
any other State in the Union ; the homestead of any married 



550 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



man or head of a family, to the value of ^2,500, or 1 60 acres of 
land outside of a city or village, and the homestead in any city 
or village, not over one acre of land and improvements of that 
value, and one-quarter of an acre and improvements, without 
regard to value, are exempted from execution. The benefits of 
this exemption, should the head of the family be removed by 
death, inure to his widow while she remains unmarried ; also to 
his children during their minority. In addition to his wearing*- 
apparel, the personal property of any resident citizen of the 
State, to the value of $500, to be selected by such resident, is 
exempted from sale or execution, or other final process of any 
court issued for the collection of any debt. No taxation for State 
purposes is allowed beyond one per cent. 

All capital invested in the manufacture of cotton and woollen 
goods and yarns, agricultural implements and machinery, in tan- 
neries, in the manufacture of cotton-seed oil, in minine and in 
smelting furnaces, shall be exempt from taxation for a period of 
seven years from and after the thirtieth day of October, 1874, 
the date of the ratification of said Constitution : provided, that 
the capital invested in such manufacturing establishments shall ex- 
ceed ^2,000 ; and, provided further, that no person, corporation or 
company having, prior to the passage of this act, invested capital 
in any such manufacturing establishment in this State sh.all be 
entitled to the exemption herein provided for, unless the capital 
stock so invested shall be increased twenty-five per centum of 
its value as determined by the last annual assessment. 

The United States lands in tlie State exceed in quantity 
7,500,000 acres, all of which are for sale at ^^1.25 and $2.50 per 
acre. Some of these lands are excellent, and some not' so good. 
The homestead law of the United States applies to them. 

The State has also about 3,000,000 acres of land subject to 
entry and sale, besides nearly 1,000,000 acres of swamp lands, 
not yet approved to the State by the General Government, and 
about 681,000 acres of forfeited lands for non-payment of taxes. 
Of these the internal improvement, seminary, saline, and swamp 
lands, amounting to about 70,000 acres, are for sale at from ^2 
to ;^3 per acre, and small fees. The school lands, of which there 



• SITUATION OF CALIFORNIA. 55 1 

are over 1,000,000 acres, are for sale at ^1.25 to ^2 per acre, and 
the forfeited and unconfirmed swamp lands, about i ,600,000 acres, 
are for sale at fifty cents per acre and fees, or are donated to the 
settler in quantities of 160 acres on proof of residence and cul- 
tivation and improvement of five acres, and the fees, which are 
about six dollars. 

The railways in the State have lands to the amount of about 
2,600,000 acres for sale on several years' time at $2.50 per acre. 

With these facilities for purchase and settlement, the lands of 
Arkansas offer to the immigrant homes which are within the 
reach of all. The land may not all of it be of the highest qual- 
ity, though there is much excellent land there, but there is none 
of it from which an industrious man cannot make a comfortable 
living. 



CHAPTER III. 

CALIFORNIA. 

Its Situation — Topography — Mountains, Valleys, Lakes, Rivers, Harbors, 
Islands — Geology and Mineralogy — Soils and Vegetation — Zoology — 
Wonders — Prof. E. W. Hilgard on Climates of the State — Agricul- 
tural Products — Manufactures, Mines and Mining Industry — Rail- 
roads — Steamers — Its Commerce and Navigation, Imports and Exports, 
Banks, etc. — California as a Health Resort — Population, how Classi- 
fied — Education — Churches — Counties and Principal Towns — Its His- 
tory AND Probable Future. 

California is one of the largest States of "Our Western 
Empire," and stretches for 700 miles along the Pacific coast. It 
is between the parallels of 32° 28' and 42° north latitude, and 
between the meridians of 114° 30' and 124° 45' of west longitude 
from Greenwich. It formed a part of the territory ceded by 
Mexico to the United States at the close of the Mexican war, 
and is bounded north by Oregon, east by Nevada and Arizona, 
south by Lower California, and west by the Pacific Ocean. The 
Pacific coast of California trends southward from the Oregon line 



S-2 <^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

to Cape Mendocino in latitude 40°, and thence in a nearly south- 
easterly direction to the coast of Lower California. The area 
of the State is 188,981 square miles, or 1 20,947,840 acres, or 
about the combined areas of New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio and Michigan. Its length is 700 statute miles, and 
its averaee breadth more than 200 miles. 

Topography. — The mountain systems of California are vast 
in extent, diversified in character, rich in mineral wealth, and 
unsurpassed in beauty and grandeur of scenery. They may be 
considered under two great divisions: the Sierra Nevada or 
Snowy Mountains, on the eastern border, stretching with its 
spurs over a breadth of about seventy miles in a series of 
ranges ; and the Coast Range, which, in its several chains, in- 
cludes about forty miles in breadth, extends near the coast the 
whole leneth of the State and into Lower California. These 
two ranges unite near Fort Tejon in latitude 35° and again in 
latitude 40° 35', and separating again form the extensive and 
fertile valleys of the San Joaquin and Sacramento. The two 
lines of ranges of the Sierra Nevada may be traced in regular 
order for a distance of nearly seven degrees by their two lines 
ef culminating crests, which rise in varying heights from 10,000 
to 1 5,000 feet above the sea. There does not seem to be as 
much order in the position and direction of the summits of the 
Coast Range, peaks of widely varying heights and entirely 
different mineral constitution being found in close proximity. 
The summits of the Coast Range vary in altitude from 1,500 to 
8,000 feet. The highest peaks of the Sierra Nevada are Mount 
Shasta, Lassens Butte, Spanish Peak, Pyramid Peak, Mounts 
Dana, Lyell, Brewer, Tyndal, Whitney, and several others of 
less note. Those of the Coast Range, though richer in minerals, 
are less lofty and less noted. 

On the eastern side of the crest line of the Sierra Nevada are 
a chain of lakes, including the Klamath lakes. Pyramid, Mono 
and Owen lakes, lying wholly east of the range, and Lake Tahoe, 
a gem of the purest crystal water, far up in the mountains, 
occupying a depression between two summits. The depression, 
in which most of these lakes are situated, continues southward 





I in 



K ^0; 











TOPOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA. BC^ 

to the entrance of the Gila river into the Colorado. For a con- 
siderable distance northward from the southern limit of the State 
it is many feet below the ocean level, and creoloeical investi<^>'a- 
tions show that it was once the bed of a large lake or estuary 
communicating with the ocean by a somewhat narrow strait. It 
has recently been proposed to reopen this strait as a ship canal, 
which could be done at a very moderate expense, and thus re- 
store this ancient land-locked sea, to modify the climate, and 
remove the drought from a region once populous, but now exces- 
sively arid. 

A similar depression, though not quite so extensive, exists on 
the western slope of these mountains for a width of about fifty 
miles, and contains several lakes. 

The region lying east of the Sierra Nevada is called the east- 
ern slope ; that between the foot-hills of the Sierras and the 
Coast Range is known as the California Valley, and that west 
of the Coast Range is called the Coast Valley, or simply the 
Coast. Another geographical division is made by drawing an 
east and west line across the State in the latitude of Fort Tejon, 
that part of the State lying south of this line being called South- 
ern California. The country between this line and one extend- 
ing east and west through Trinity, Humboldt, Tehama and 
Plumas counties is called Central California ; all north of this 
is known as Northern California. Central California contains 
about three-fourths of the known wealth and population of the 
State. 

The Monte Diablo division of the Coast Range, about 150 
miles long by 50 miles wide, is a striking landmark of the State 
when approached by sea, and from its summit may be obtained 
the finest views of the varied scenery and landscapes of Cali- 
fornia which can be found anywhere. 

The valleys of the Sacramento and the St. Joaquin, though 
the largest, are by no means the only valleys of California. 
There are hundreds of them of greater or less extent, and many 
of them remarkable for fertility and beauty. East of the Sierras, 
in Southern California, some of these valleys, the deepest por- 
tions of a former extensive inland sea, are now salt lakes and 



^54 OUR WESTERN- EMPIRE. 

are surrounded by most forbidding and unpleasant scenery. In 
Mono, Fresno and Kern, Inyo and San Bernardino counties 
tliere are several of these salt lakes, and in the last-named 
county, among the other evidences of volcanic action, is that 
combination of horrors known as the sink of the Amargoza 
river or "Death Valley." It is 150 feet and probably more 
below the level of the sea, intensely hot, dry, and sulphurous. 

California is, for the most part, well watered, but the Coast 
Range limits the length of its navigable rivers except in two or 
three instances. The Rio Salinas is the only navigable river on 
the coast which discharges directly into the Pacific below Cape 
Mendocino, but the Sacramento river from the north and the 
San Joaquin from the south, large and navigable rivers, both 
discharge into the beautiful Bay of San Francisco. The Klamath 
river at the north, rising in the Klamath lake, flows through 2. 
crooked valley to the ocean, but is not navigable for any con- 
siderable distance. This is also true of the other rivers north 
of the Golden Gate. Most of the rivers east of the Sierras, in 
the long, depressed basin already described, discharge into lakes 
in the basin, and have no connection, direct or indirect, with the 
ocean. 

The harbor of San Francisco is the finest on the whole Pacific 
coast, fifty miles in length by nine in width, landlocked and ap- 
proached by the Golden Gate, five miles in length with a width 
of one mile, and having nowhere less than thirty feet of water. 
That of San Diego, at the southern extremity of the State, is 
next in importance, and, with its railway connections soon to be 
completed, will prove a formidable rival to that of San Francisco. 
The other harbors, ten or twelve in number, are either shallow 
or not well protected from violent winds, and need breakwaters 
or other improvements. There are many islands along the 
coast, some of them small and rocky, like the Farallones off the 
Golden Gate, and inhabited only by seals, sea-lions, and aquatic 
birds ; others are large and adapted to grazing or cultivation. 

The amount of arable lands in California, including those 
which only require irrigation to make them productive, and are 
so situated that they can be irrigated, and the swamp or iuU 



GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 555 

lands which, when reclaimed and protected from overflow, yield 
the largest crops in the world, is estimated at not less than 
60,000,000 acres, or about one-half the area of the State ; the 
erazincr lands on the mountain slopes and on the sides of the 
valleys are estimated at 40,000,000 acres more, and the forest 
areas, much of them too steep for cultivation, were officially 
stated at 9,604,607 acres in 1872, but have been considerably 
diminished since that time. There are then somewhat more 
than 10,000,000 acres which, from one cause or other — some 
being under water, some volcanic and barren, or arid and not 
irrigable, or bald and bare mountain peaks — are worthless. 
This is, however, but one-twelfth of the area of the State. 

Geology and Mineralogy. — The Coast Range and its foot-hills 
generally belong to the tertiary system, but at San Pedro bay 
(about latitude 34°) the cretaceous rocks come to the coast, to 
be replaced at the mouth of the Margarita river (about -x,?)^ 10') 
by quaternary or recent alluvial deposits which extend to the 
southern line of the State. It is these alluvial deposits which 
General Fremont believes have filled up the ancient strait or 
estuary which led to the now dry and desert site of the inland 
sea, which formerly occupied a large part of Southeastern Cali- 
fornia, and which he urofes our orovernment to re-onen and thus 
render an extensive portion of Western Arizona and South- 
eastern California again habitable. 

At two points of the Coast Range, viz.: at the Monte Diablo 
mines, in Contra Costa county, nearly east of San Francisco, and 
in Mendocino county (about latitude 39° 30'), the tertiary coal 
or lignite crops out in extensive beds. The first of these has 
been worked for many years, and produces a fair burning coal, 
of which about 150,000 tons are annually sent to market. 

The valleys lying between the Coast Range and the Sierras 
belong mostly to the cretaceous formation, though in the extreme 
south they are overlaid by alluvial sands. There is very little 
gold in these valleys except in placers which have been washed 
down from the mountains, though occasionally pockets, and pos- 
sibly true veins, have been found in metamorphic rocks belong- 
ing as high up in the series as the cretaceous. This may be 
due to volcanic action in ages long past. 



ee5 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The greater part of the auriferous and argentiferous rocks of 
the State belongs to the triassic and Jurassic strata, which form 
the surface rocks of the Sierra Nevada from the Columbia river 
nearly to the head of the Gulf of California. It is in these 
triassic and Jurassic strata that most of the gold and silver 
deposits from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific occur. South 
and west of the sierras, and in the vicinity of the upper waters 
of Kern river and its tributaries, is an extensive volcanic region, 
where basaltic and porphyritic rocks, sulphurous and chalybeate 
springs, deposits of sulphur and large tracts of lava and lava 
ashes are found. A somewhat similar though much smaller 
tract exists in Sonoma county, between two spurs of the Coast 
Range. There are geysers here, and other indications of former 
volcanic action. Much of the region east of the sierras is of 
recent formations, though modified by former volcanic action, and 
is forbiddincr to the last deo:ree. The lakes or sinks, often 
very deep, are always salt and bitter, and often without water 
most of the year. The beds of the lakes are covered with 
alkaline deposits. The famous Death Valley, the Dry Lakes, of 
which there are at least a dozen, Dry Salt Lake, Owen's Lake 
and other sinks of this region giwQ striking evidence of its former 
volcanic character, and of the great changes which have taken 
place, some of them within modern times in this part of the 
State. The earthquakes of 187 1 were most violent in this 
section, especially in Kern, Inyo, and San Bernardino counties. 

Mineralogy. — Gold is found pure, in scales, fine dust, in 
nuggets and in crystals, and in combination with copper, silver, 
lead, zinc, cinnabar, arsenic, iron, sulphur, tellurium, iridosmine, 
etc. Silver is found native, though very rarely, as a chloride 
(horn-silver), in combination with lead as argentiferous galena, 
sulphurets and carbonates of silver and lead, with copper as 
copper glance, red silver ore, etc., and with several of the rarer 
metals as well as with sulphur, iron, etc. Copper exists in the 
form of native copper, and as malachite, copper glance, rubescite, 
azurite, chalcopyrite and chrysocolla, in combination with sulphur, 
etc. Mercury or quicksilver appears as cinnabar very abun- 
dantly throughout the Coast Range, as coccinite in Santa Barbara, 



GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 557 

and native in the Pioneer claim and elsewhere. There are now 
about sixty mines of quicksilver in the State, and the supply- 
increases with the ever increasing demand. 

Platinum has only been found in California in placers, thoucrh 
its occurrence in veins with gold or silver is not improbable. 
Tin is found as cassiterite or binoxide of tin in the Temiscal 
range about sixty miles from Los Angeles, and in grains else- 
where. Lead is abundant as galena all over the State, and in 
many cases carries a considerable percentage of silver. The 
molybdate of lead (Wulfenite) occurs in one or two localities. 
Arsenic occurs pure in Monterey county, and as arsenilite in 
one or two counties, and is extracted as white oxide in smeltino- 
several ores. Iron exists in various forms, as chromic iron, as 
haematite, as magnetic and specular ores, and as oxide or bog 
iron ore In several localities. Tellurium occurs native and in 
combination with gold and silver and copper, and forms one of 
the most refractory of ores. Diamonds (so called) are found in 
several localities, but are not probably the genuine article, though 
they possess many of the properties of the diamond. Graphite 
occurs in Tuolumne county and elsewhere ; borax and boracic 
acid in one or more lakes and in the marshes adjacent ; salt as 
rock-salt, as brine, and evaporated from the sea water and from 
the numerous salt lakes ; soda, both as caustic soda in deposits 
of a hundred feet or more in thickness and of great extent, and 
as carbonate of soda around some of the alkaline lakes, and in 
the volcanic valleys ; sulphur, pure, and in sulphurets and 
sulphates; gypsum, barytes, antimony, ochre, alabaster, fluorspar, 
corundum, and cobalt in the form of erythrine, abound in various 
parts of the State. Magnesite, iridosmine, magnetite, limonite, 
tourmaline, pyrolusite (binoxide of manganese), zircon, garnets, 
chrysolite and haysine are the other principal minerals. Coal, 
as already stated, occurs in several localities. Petroleum and 
bitumen are found in several of the coast counties, and the 
former, after many mishaps and failures, has become one of the 
standard products of the State, and is now supplying a con- 
siderable part of the local demand. 

Mines and Mining. — California is one of the great mining 



.rg OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

States. Her production of the precious metals has been larger 
than that of any other State or Territory, though Nevada has 
approached it, and amid all changes, and with the exhaustion of 
the ordinary placer-mining, the State has still maintained a very 
large yield, and is likely to increase rather than diminish it. 
Gold or silver or both have been discovered in paying quantities 
in eighteen counties of the State and possibly more. Of these 
coundes all (except Humboldt, Klamath and Del Norte, which 
have deposits only in the shore and beach sands, being all coast 
counties, and Los Angeles, in which silver mines have recendy 
been discovered) are situated along the eastern or western slopes 
of the Sierra Nevada; some of them extending also across the 
valley to the eastern foot-hills of the Coast Range. These 
counties, with the character of their product and the processes 
used in obtaining it, are as follows, beginning with the southern- 
most: I. Inyo — silver mines in veins or lodes, mostly in Owen's 
valley and on the western slope of the Inyo or Buena Vista 
Mountains, one of the parallel ranges of the Sierra Nevada, 
Irom twelve to thirty miles southeast of the head of Owen's Lake. 
There are 700 or 800 claims here, and many of them are worked 
successfully. 

2. Mariposa county, lying on the western slope of the main 
range of the Sierras, and having the famous valley of the 
Yosemite within its borders. The mines are mosdy in the west 
and southwest part of the county, and the greater part of them, 
on the Mariposa estate, were once the property of General 
Fremont. Besides these there are the Oaks and Reese mines, 
which are largely productive. These are gold only, and in quartz 
veins. 

3. Tuolumne county, lying immediately north of Mariposa on 
the western slope and foot-hills of the Sierra. The mines, mostly 
gold, though there are a few silver, and all in veins or lodes, are 
in the west and southwest pordon of the county. There are 
somewhat more than fifty mines. 

4. Calaveras county, situated northwest of Tuolumne, but on 
the same range. The mines are scattered throughout the 
county. There are many gold mines in quartz veins, and exten- 
sive placers (of gold), but they are very nearly exhausted. 



MINING IN THE COUNTIES. ccq 

5. Amadoy county, immediately north of Calaveras, a small 
county, but rich in gold deposits. It has twelve or fifteen mines, 
mostly in the Mrestern part of the county, gold in quartz veins, 
and yielding well, 

6. Eldoi^ado county, the county in which gold was first discov- 
ered. This county is partly in the Sacramento valley, and is 
drained by one of the affluents of the Sacramento river. The 
mines (gold in quartz veins), which have always been produc- 
tive, though the placers have long since given out, are situated 
mostly in the western part of the county. There are a dozen or 
more large stamp mills and a greater number of mines. 

7. Placer county, north and northwest of Eldorado. Lake 
Tahoe is mostly in this county, and the Central Pacific Railway 
traverses the entire length of the county from southwest to 
northeast. There are many placers and large deposits in the 
former beds of what are known as "dead rivers," which are 
being worked by the process of hydraulic mining. There are 
also some quartz veins which yield liberally. The product is 
gold exclusively. There are about forty mines and placers now 
worked. 

8. Nevada county, north of Placer county, is probably the richest 
of all the counties of California in mineral wealth. Its gold mines 
and placers, many of them very rich, are scattered all over the 
county. Its placer gold is nearer to absolute purity than that 
of any other mines or placers in the State. Of the 1 30 placers 
recorded, the gold product in most ranged from 900 to 976 
(absolutely pure gold being 1,000), and the "You Bet" claim 
gold assayed 994. The gold from the thirty-seven quartz veins 
of the county did not assay quite so high, but ranged from 798 
to 875. 

9. Sierra comity, north of Nevada county, is noted for its 
hydraulic mining. Through this county, on a ridge one or two 
hundred feet above the adjacent lands, is the ancient bed of a 
river, which the miners know as the Big Blue Lead, whose sands, 
for a depth of five or six feet or more, and for a distance of 
probably a hundred and ten miles, were rich with gold. It had 
been upheaved in the volcanic changes through which the Sierras 



r5o OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

have passed, and wherever Hving streams cross its ancient bed 
with their deep canons, they wash down rich masses of gold dust. 
The miners have been breaking down the blue gravel of this 
"dead river" bed by tunnels, blasting, and the hydraulic pro- 
cess, for the past twelve or thirteen years, and have reaped a 
rich harvest. In this county was found, in August, 1869, a nugget 
of gold weighing 95^ pounds, worth ^21,156.52. 

10. Yuba county, southwest of Sierra, is also a famous county 
for hydraulic mining, having five or six large deposits of gold. 

1 1. Butte county, west of Yuba, has many quartz veins rich in 
CTold. Seven or eio^ht larcre mines are worked. 

12. Plumas county, north of Sierra, has in the eastern and cen- 
tral portions of the county fifteen or twenty gold mines, some of 
them hydraulic, others quartz mines. 

1 3. Alpine county, situated on the extreme eastern border of 
the State, on the crest of the Sierras, between latitude 38° 20' an;,! 
38° 50'. The ores here are sulphuretsand antimonial sulphurets 
in all of them silver predominates, in some with a liberal per 
centage of gold, in others with considerable copper. The claims, 
which are very numerous, are all of them worked by opening- 
adits or tunnels. This requires more capital at first, but is 
necessary in so mountainous a region. The mines, so far as 
developed, yield very well, — from $40 to ^75 per ton of ore, — 
thouofh there are difficulties in the reduction. 

14. Shasta county, in the northern part of the State, the forty- 
iirst parallel passing through it, has deposits and quartz veins of 
gold and copper. The gold mines yield either free-milling gold 
or gold combined with sulphurets of copper, lead or zinc. The 
mines, eight or ten in number, which are worked, are in the 
western part of the county. 

15. It has generally been supposed that the western slope of 
the Coast Range was barren of ores of the precious metals, but 
recent developments show that the silver-bearing ledges are 
found there .as well as on the eastern slope of the same range, 
or on both slopes of the Sierra Nevada. Los Angeles county, 
in the southern part of the State, on the coast, has hitherto been 
regarded as the finest agricultural county in the State, but 



TERRACE-MINING.. rgj 

recently there have been discovered extensive veins of silver 
there, and numerous mines are clustering around Silverado in 
the southern part of the county. The ore is argentiferous 
galena (sulphurets of silver and lead), and the assays range from 
^i8 to $200 per ton. 

The beach deposits of Del Norte, Klamath and Humboldt 
counties of gold in iron sands are not simply those found in the 
sands washed by the tides, and which are common to all coasts 
which have rivers discharcringr into a sea or ocean from sfold- 
bearing mountains ; these sands, though extending ten miles out 
from die coast, contain gold in such small quantities, as hardly 
to repay the labor of collection ; but they occur in terraces or old 
beaches and bluffs, sometimes two or three miles back from high- 
water mark, and from 250 to 1,200 feet above the sea. In thes? 
bluffs or terraced beaches are extensive layers of iron sand, rich 
in gold, and varying in thickness from a few inches to three or 
four feet. The miners call this terrace-mininor. Several of thes.e 

o 

strata have been discovered, one at five miles below Trinidad, in 
Klamath county, one at Crescent City, in Del Norte county, one 
in Humboldt county, and one at Randolph, Curry county, 
Oregon. These terraces indicate either an upheaval of the 
coast or a retrograding of the ocean. 

The falling off in the production of silver in the Comstock 
lodes of Nevada has produced a reaction in favor of the gold 
placer and quartz mines of Cahfornia, and there is at the present 
time (August, i85o) a greater activity in gold mining in Cali- 
fornia, than at any time for the last fifteen years. All the gold 
mines in the counties named above have been reopened, and are 
now actively worked with a greatly increased production ; more 
than a hundred new quartz mills have been erected within the 
past year and a half, and are now actively at work, and many 
new mines and placers have been opened and developed in the 
counties which have previously yielded gold, while Trinity, 
Klamath, Fresno, San Bernardino, and Mendocino counties are 
added to the list of mining counties. It is confidently predicted 
that the gold yield of California, in 1880, will be much greater 
than in any year since 1866. 
36 



c62 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Soils and Vegetation. — " In a region of such vast extent," says 
Professor E. W. Hilgard, "traversed by mountain ranges formed 
of rocks of all kinds and ages, there is, of course, an endless 
variety of soils, to describe all of which would exceed our limits, 
even if the data were available. Unfortunately this is far from 
being the case, the geological survey" (of which Professor Hil- 
gard was the chief) "having paid but little attention to the ex- 
amination of soils, which, it is true, is a subject requiring special 
qualifications and care on the part of the observer to insure use- 
ful results. There are, however, some general features devel- 
oped on a large scale in the more thickly settled parts of the 
State, a brief summary of which may find an appropriate place 
here." 

" It is well known that the main axis of the Sierra Nevada is 
formed by granitic rocks, which in the northern portion of the 
range, as well as on the slopes, are usually overlaid by clay 
slates and shales, forming the proverbial ' bed-rock ' of the gold- 
placers and gravel-beds. The soil derived either directly from 
the granites or from the older portion of the slate-s — in other 
words, the gold-bearing soil of the Sierra slope — is an orange- 
colored (commonly called ' red ') loam, more or less clayey or 
sandy according to location, and greatly resembles, on the whole, 
the older portion of the 'yellow loam' subsoil of the Gulf States. 
Of course it contains much more of coarse materials in the shape 
of undecomposed rock, and its sand-grains are sharp instead of 
rounded. It is the predominant soil of ' the foot-hills,' and 
where ridges extend from these out into the Great Valley, they 
are usually characterized by the red tint, which gradually fades 
out as the ridges flatten into swales in their approach to the San 
Joaquin and Sacramento rivers, being lost in the gray or black 
of the ' adobe,' or the buff of the river-sediment soils. Its admix- 
ture is everywhere, I believe, found to be advantageous to the 
other soils ; and in the foot-hills themselves it proves to be 
highly productive, as well as durable, easy of tillage, and what 
is termed a ' warm ' soil. The rocks of the lower slope of the 
Sierra, but more especially those of the Coast Range opposite, 
are predominantly of a very clayey character, soft gray clay 



THE SOIL OF THE VALLEYS. 563 

shales and laminated clays alternating with ledges of soft clay 
sandstone and brittle hornstone. Their mechanical and chemi- 
cal decomposition results, therefore, in the formation of gray, 
buff, or sometimes almost white clay soils, which occupy the hill- 
sides and higher portions of the valleys, while in the lower por- 
tions the admixture of vegetable matter, especially in the pres- 
ence of a comparatively large amount of lime, causes them to 
appear dark, and often coal-black. These soils constitute the 
' adobe,' so often mentioned in connection with California agri- 
culture. They are substantially the same, both as to tilling 
qualities and chemical composition, as the prairie soils of the 
Western and Southern States. Like these, they are rich in 
plant food, durable and strong, yielding the highest returns of 
field crops in favorable seasons and under good culture, but 
sensitive to extremes of wet or dry seasons, and of course more 
in cultivation, as well as more liable to crop failures, than lighter 
soils. 

" During the dry season the adobe soil, unless it has been very 
deeply and thoroughly tilled, becomes conspicuous by the wide 
and deep gaping cracks which traverse it in all directions, some- 
times to a depth of several feet, precisely as in the ' hog-wallow 
prairies' of the Southwestern States. Of course the effect of 
rains is here also similar in causing a bulging up of the masses 
between the cracks when the material which has fallen into the 
latter expands forcibly on wetting. Hence the 'hog-wallow' 
surface is as familiar in California as in Texas ; and the fact that 
a traveller outside of the Sierras in the dry season is rarely out 
of sight of some such land is eloquent as to the wide prevalence 
of the 'adobe.' On the steep hillsides of the Coast Range the 
sun-cracks aid in giving foothold to stock ; and during the rainy 
season the water running into them to the bed-rock causes 
numberless land-slides, such as gave rise to the memorable case 
of Hyde vs. Morgan. As it is well ascertained that at a former 
geological period the entire interior valley, as well as the Bay of 
San Francisco, was fresh-water lake basins, the bulk of the adobe 
soil would seem to represent ancient lake, or rather, perhaps, 
swamp deposits, which are therefore found in corresponding 



e54 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

positions in most of the connectinor valleys. On the bay we find 
usually only a narrow strip of sandy soil running along the 
beach ; inland of this a level belt of black adobe (or at times salt 
marsh), from which there is a gradual ascent toward the foot of 
the Coast Range, the soil becoming lighter colored and mingled 
with bowlders and rock fragments. The nature of the materials, 
as well as the form of portions of this slope, characterizes them 
almost inevitably as the result of glacial action. 

"The peninsula on which San Francisco is situated is overrun 
with the dune sand drifted from the ocean beach for a distance 
<y\ several miles south from the Golden Gate, so that the fixing 
of the sand and its conversion into soil is one of the chief prob- 
lems of the gardens and parks of that city. The city of Oak- 
land, also, is situated on a somewhat sandy, but neverthelesj; 
quite productive, soil ; and land of a similar character, but 
stronger by admixture of the adobe, yet easily tilled, forms the 
soil of the fertile valleys in the plain lying between the eastern 
shore of the bay and the Coast Range, which are largely devoted 
to market-gardens and fruit-culture, and, farther from the cities, 
to that of barley. The comparative difficulty and more or less 
of uncertainty attendant upon the cultivation of the adobe soils, 
unless very thoroughly tilled, has caused a preference to be very 
commonly given to the lighter soils found nearer to the streams, 
which are formed of a mixture of the adobe with the river sedi- 
ment, or, nearest the water-courses, of that sediment alone. It 
is suggestive of the character of the majority of California 
streams that the word 'bottom,' used east of the mountains to 
designate the well-defined flood-plain> is scarcely heard in the 
State, the more indefinite and general term 'valley' being in 
general use. The obvious reason is that there is in most cases 
no very definite terrace, but a rather gradual slope from the 
bank to the bordering hills. The Sacramento and San Joaquin 
have not, as a rule, raised their immediate banks perceptibly 
above the rest of the flood-plain, becau.se the sediment they 
carry is not such as will subside at the shghtest diminution of 
velocity, but is apt to be carried some distance inland. At the 
■points of its upper course the San Joaquin, and in the lower 



THE TULE LANDS. 555 

portions both it and the Sacramento, subdivide into numerous 
sloughs traversing wide belts of more or less marshy flats, sub- 
ject to overflow, and covered with a rank growth of ' tule/ 
This name applies, strictly speaking, to the round rush {Scirpus 
Lacush^is), which occupies predominantly the tide-water marshes, 
here as well as on the Gulf of Mexico. The farther from salt 
water, however, the more it is intermingled with (or locally 
almost replaced by) other aquatic grasses, sedges, and cat-tail 
flag {Typha), affording, together with the young ' tule,' excellent 
pasture nearly throughout the year. Here as elsewhere in such 
districts, the cattle soon acquire the art of keeping themselves 
from getting bogged, by maintaining a sort of paddling motion 
when on peaty ground, while draught-horses require to be pro- 
vided with broad ' tule-shoes.' These tule lands, embracing a large 
number of rich and partly reclaimed islands, such as Union, 
Brannan, Sherman, and others, forming part of the counties of 
Sacramento, San Joaquin, and Solano, continue with varying 
width along the east shores of Suisun and San Pablo bays, and 
up the tributary valleys of Napa, Sonoma, and Petaluma, nearly 
to the limit of tide-water. It is noteworthy that, as regards 
salubrity, the tules, at least so far as they are within reach of 
brackish tide-water, are less liable to malarious fevers than the 
upper portions of the great valleys. 

" The soil of the tule lands is of two principal kinds : sediment 
land, found chiefly along the Sacramento and other streams, 
c;irrying much 'slum ' from the hydraulic mines ; and peaty land, 
more prevalent along the San Joaquin and its branches. The 
latter kind consists almost entirely of tule roots, in various 
stages of freshness and decay, to a depth of from two to twenty 
and more feet ; in the latter case we have the ' float land,' which 
rests on the w^ater-table and rises and falls more or less with it. 
Like the ' Prairie Tremblante,' near New Orleans, it often trem- 
bles under the tread of man, but will nevertheless sustain herds 
of cattle without the least danger, its bulges forming places of 
refuge for them in time of high water. An excellent fuel has 
been made by pulping this mass and forming it into bricks like 
true peat. 



c56 (^^^^ WESTERN' EMPIRE. 

" The tule lands were long thought to be worthless except for 
pasture purposes; but it has now come to be well understood 
that they are in large part of extraordinary fertility, and, if pro- 
tected from overflow by levees, are almost sure to yield abundant 
crops every year, even in seasons when those of the uplands 
fail for want of moisture. In their reclamation the construction 
of levees is of course the first thinof needful. The sediment land 
can then be taken into cultivation at once by the use of large 
sod-plows, resembling the prairie plows of the Western States. 
It is usual to burn off the rushes and native grasses previous to 
plowing, especially in the peaty lands where the plow would 
otherwise find no soil. But here the fire penetrates several feet 
down, either to the underlying soil or to moisture, leaving behind 
a layer of ashes so light that the plow is useless. At the proper 
season grain is then sown upon the ashes, and either brushed in 
or trodden in by sheep, and extraordinary grain-crops are thus 
produced during the first years, the duration of fertility depend- 
ing, of course, upon the soil underlying after the ashes have 
been exhausted. The tule lands bordering upon Tulare lake 
are of a different character from those of the lower rivers. The 
soil is heavy, consisting of fine sediments mixed with gray clay 
and shell debris, contains a large supply of plant food, and with 
proper cultivation will doubtless prove as highly productive as 
are the soils of the Great Tulare plains themselves. 

"The soils of the Mojave desert seem on the whole to be 
rather light, whitish silts, of whose possible productiveness little 
can as yet be said, except that without irrigation culture is hope- 
less. In striking contrast with these close soils of the San 
Joaquin valley are those which prevail south of the Sierras, San 
Fernando, and San Gabriel, in the Los Angeles plain and its 
tributary valleys, the home of the orange, lemon, and olive in 
their perfection. The fine rolling uplands (' mesas ') of that 
region are generally covered with a brownish, gravelly loam, 
from eight to twenty feet in thickness, which, with tillage, assumes 
the most perfect tilth with ease. It is a generous, 'strong' soil, 
varying locally so as to adapt itself to every variety of crop, yet 
readily identifiable by its general character from Los Angeles to 



ALKALI SOIL. 567 

San Diego. In most respects it may be considered a variety of 
the red soils of the Sierra slope already described, like which it 
appears to be pre-eminently adapted to fruit culture. 

" The soils of the plain to seaward of Los Angeles, and of the 
coast plains south of Santa Barbara generally, so far as not 
modified by the sediments of the streams, seem to be uniformly 
characterized by a very large amount of glistening mica scales, 
distributed in a rather sandy, dark-colored mass, destitute of 
coarse materials. They are easily cultivated and highly pro- 
ductive when irrigated, although not unfrequently afflicted with 
a certain taint of ' alkali.' This, however, when not too strong 
or salt, is here readily neutralized by the use of gypsum. 

" 'Alkali ' soil is the name used in California to designate any 
soil containing such unusual quantities of soluble salts as to allow 
them to become visible on the surface during the dry season, as 
a white crust or efflorescence. They are of course found chiefly 
in low, level regions, such as the Great Valley, and the plains to 
seaward of the Coast Range ; sometimes in continuous tracts of 
many thousands of acres, sometimes in spots so interspersed 
with non-alkaline land as to render it impossible to till one kind 
without the other. The nature and amount of salts in these 
soils is of course very variable. Near the coast the 'alkali' is 
often little more than common salt, and can be relieved only by 
drainage or appropriate culture. At times we find chiefly 
magnesian salts, when liming will relieve the trouble. But in 
the Great Valley the name 'alkali' is in most cases justified by 
the nature of the salt, which almost always contains more or less 
carbonate of soda, and sometimes potassa. The presence of 
these substances, even to the extent of a fourth of one per cent., 
while it may do but little harm during the wet season, results in 
their accumulation at the surface whenever the rains cease, and 
the corrosion of the root-crown, stunting, and final death of the 
plants. But when stronger, as is too often the case, the seed is 
killed during germination. Moreover, land so afflicted cannot 
be brought to good tilth by even the most thorough tillage. 
Fortunately, a very effectual and cheap neutralizer of this, the 
true ' alkali,' is available in the form of gypsum, which transforms 



r^3 O^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the caustic carbonates into innocent sulphates. Wherever the 
amount of alkali present is not excessive, the use of gypsum 
relieves all difficulties arising from the presence of the former. 
Moreover, analysis shows that in many cases large amounts of 
important mineral plant-food, such as potash, phosphates, and 
nitrates, accompany the injurious substances ; so that when ti-e 
latter are neutralized, the previously useless soil may be expected 
to possess extraordinary and lasting fertility. Abundant deposits 
of gypsum have been shown to exist in many portions ot the 
State since attention has been directed to its importance in this 
connection. 

" On the eastern affluents of the Sacramento river, the Ameri- 
can, Bear, Yuba, Feather, and other streams heading in the 
region where hydraulic mining is practised, a new kind of soil is 
now being- formed out of the materials carried down from the 

o 

gold-bearing gravels. The enormous masses of detritus washed 
into the streams, filling their upper valleys to the height of sixty 
feet and more with boulders and gravel, while a muddy flood of 
the finer materials overruns the valley lands in their lower course, 
have given rise to a great deal of complaint on the part of 
farmers; and the 'mining debris question' has been the subject 
of numerous lawsuits, and of much angry debate in the legislative 
halls. In some cases the lands so overrun are definitively ruined; 
in others the new soil formed is of fair quality in itself, but as yet 
unthrifty; in many, the best quality of black adobe is covered 
many feet deep with an unproductive 'slum.' By the same 
agency, the beds of the Sacramento and its tributaries have 
become filled to such an extent as to greatly obstruct navigation 
and to cause much more frequent overflows, whose deposit, 
however, appears to improve, in general, the heavy lands of the 
plain, as well as the tules. It is difficult to foresee a solution 
of this question that would be satisfactory to all parties con- 
cerned ; the more as the navigation of the bay itself is begin- 
ning to suffer from the accumulation of deposit, the reddish 
sediment-bearing waters of the Sacramento being always distin- 
guishable in front of the city from the blue water brought in by 
the tides." 



THE MARIPOSA GROVE OF SEQUOIAS. 560 

Much of the soil of the State, especially of the mountain slopes, 
is pt'culiarly adapted to the growth of gigantic forest trees. Of 
these there have been recognized and described forty-eight 
genera and one hundred and five species in the State, the greater 
part of which are not only indigenous but only to be found on 
the Pacific slope. Of these forty species are evergreens, found 
mostly on the mountains of the Coast Range and the Sierras. 
The most remarkable of these are the two species of Scqiwia, 
Sequoia gigantca, or mammoth tree, and Sequoia sempervii^ens, 
or California Redwood. Of the former there are nine orroves 
known in the State, though the largest trees have been felled 
by the barbarity of the showmen, who could not be contented 
without despoiling the forests of their monarchs, the growth of 
thousands of years, only that they might exhibit their own mean- 
ness and brutishness for a miserable pittance. Some of these 
trees were more than 450 feet in height, with a circumference 
near the ground of not less than 120 feet. The giant Eucalypti 
of Australia may have had a somewhat greater circumference, 
but they were not as tall as these. The largest now standing 
is said to be 376 feet in height and 106 in circumference. 

The Mariposa and Calaveras groves are the best 'known, 
though not the largest, of these collections of mighty trees. 
Mr. A. R. Whitehill, of the Chicago Tribune, who has recently 
visited several of these groves, thus describes the "Grizzly 
Giant," and the Mariposa grove in that paper : 

" The principal tree in the grove is the one known as the 
• Grizzly Giant,' and the eye and sense of the spectator are at 
once bewildered at the size of its mighty proportions. At the 
base of this tree the carriage road stops, and the trail for horses 
begins. Carefully measuring the circumference with a line car- 
ried for that purpose, we found it to be over ninety-three feet at 
the base, and this not counting the burnt-away portions, which 
would have made the total still greater. We measured thirty- 
one feet as the diameter. At the base were five openings, any 
one of which seemed larcre enough for the accommodation of a 

o o 

camping party ; and immediately around these the bark was 
gone. From the ground to a height of about eleven feet the 



570 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

tree contracted perceptibly ; then, perfectly round, it shot up 
with scarcely a change to the lowest limbs, which were fully loo 
feet from the ground. On one side were about ten limbs, vary- 
ino- froni two to six feet in diameter, and on the other about 
twelve almost as large. The largest limb was probably 1 50 feet 
from the ground, and this was fully twenty feet in circumference 
where it left the trunk. Shooting out in a straight line for a 
distance of thirty feet or more, it curved then suddenly upward 
in a perpendicular direction, and, at a distance of seventy-five 
feet more, was lost in the upper foliage. Secondary branches, 
as lar'T^e as a full-grown eastern oak, shot out from this primary 
branch as a trunk, and there again produced other branches, to 
the third and fourth generation. Some of these branches were 
decayed ; some were moss-covered ; some were in the full vigor 
of their extraordinary growth. The top of the tree seemed to 
have been broken off, perhaps by lightning ; and the appearance 
of the whole was that of a war-worn veteran of the Sierra. 

" It was near dusk when we had finished our inspection of this 
mighty tree. We were over a mile above the level of the sea, 
and six miles from our stopping-place for the night. Still we 
lingered. Although it was then June, yet the eternal snows of 
the mountains were everywhere around us, and, as the huge 
banks and drifts stretched away off in the distance, the melting 
power of heat and the elements was on every side defied. Not 
a weed or blade of grass relieved the monotony of the view ; not 
the chirping of an insect or the twittering of a bird was heard. 
The solemn stillness of the night added a weird grandeur to the 
scene. Now and then a breath of wind stirred the topmost 
branches of the pines and cedars, and, as they swayed to and fro 
in the air, the music was like that of Ossian, 'pleasant, but 
mournful to the soul.' There were sequoias on every side 
almost twice as high as the Falls of Niagara ; there were pines 
rivaling the dome of the Capitol at Washington in grandeur; 
there were cedars to whose tops the monument of Bunker Hill 
would not have reached. There were trees which were in the 
full vigor of manhood before America itself was discovered ; 
there were others which were yet old before Charlemagne was 



f 

THE GIANT TREES OF MARIPOSA. 571 

born ; there were others still growing when the Saviour himself 
was on the earth. There were trees which had witnessed the 
winds and storms of twenty centuries ; there were others which 
would endure long after countless generations of the future 
would be numbered with the past. There were trees crooked 
and short and massive ; there were others straight and tall and 
slender ; there were pines whose limbs were as finely propor- 
tioned as those of the Apollo Belvidere ; there were cedars 
whose beauty was not surpassed in their counterparts of Leba- 
non ; there were firs whose graceful foliage was like the fabled 
locks of the gods of ancient story. It was a picture in nature 
which captivated the sense at once by its grandeur and extent ; 
and, as we drove back through six miles of this forest luxuri- 
ance, with the darkness falling about us like a black curtain from 
the heavens, and the mighty canons of the Sierra sinking away 
from our pathway like the openings to another world, then it 
was not power, but majesty ; not beauty, but sublimity ; not the 
natural, but the supernatural, which seemed above us and 
before us." 

The Sequoia scinpevzdrcns, or Redwood, is a very stately tree, 
attaining a height of 300 feet and a circumference of seventy- 
five or eighty feet. It is the most valuable timber-tree of Cali- 
fornia, but is fast disappearing, being confined to the upper por- 
tion of the Coast Range, not appearing below San Luis Obispo 
and but sparingly below .San Francisco, and disappearing entirely 
whf !i hlU^d, being replaced by other trees. Its gigantic congener 
does not appear on the Coast Range, but is confined to four or 
five counties along the western slope of the Sierras. Both of 
these trees belong to the cedar family. The sugar pine {^Pimis 
La7nbertiand) is almost the peer of the Redwood in size and 
commercial value. Its wood is white, straight-grained, clear and 
free-splitting. Its height is sometimes 300 feet, and its circum- 
ference forty-five feet. It has cones eighteen inches long and 
four thick ; a sweetish, resinous gum exudes from the harder 
portion of the wood, tasting much like manna, and having cathar- 
tic properties. There are fifteen other species of pine, of which 
the finest are the Pinus ponderosa, or yellow pine, 225 feet high. 



C^2 ^^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Pbms Sabiniana, Sabine's or nut pine, which has an edible cone 
or nut much valued by the Indians, and Pinus irisignis, or Mon- 
terey pine. This and the yellow pine are similar to our yellow 
and pitch pines at the East, and are in demand for flooring pur- 
poses. The other species of pines rise from 30 to 100 feet 
in height, but are not so much prized. There are six species of 
true fir, one of them, Abies Douglasii, Douglas's spruce, being 
300 feet in height, and three of the others, stately trees, 100 feet 
or more in height ; the western balsam fir, Picea grandisy grows 
to the height of 1 50 feet. 

The California white cedar — Libocednis decurrens — grows 
to the height of 140 or 150 feet. There are also four species of 
cypress, three of juniper, two of arbor-vitse, and one of yew — 
TaxiLs brevifolia — which attains the height of seventy-five feet. 
The wild nutmeg — Torrcya Califoniica — the California laurel — 
Orcodaphue Californica — the madrona — Arbutus Menziesii — and 
the manzanita — Arctostaphylos olaiica — are all beautiful ever- 
greens. There are twelve species of oak, two of them ever- 
green or live oaks, the rest deciduous. The burr oak — Quercus 
macrocarpa? — is the largest of these, but its wood, like most of 
the others, is principally valuable for fuel. The Qtierais Garry- 
ana, sometimes called white oak, though not a large tree, has a 
dense, fine-grained wood, used for making agricultural imple- 
ments. There is one of the chestnut family, the Western chin- 
quapin, a fine tree, sometimes attaining a height of 125 feet. 
There are four acacias, thorny enough; three poplars, or cotton- 
woods, one very large ; two alders ; the Mexican sycamore ; one 
species of walnut — Juglaiis rupestris — a fine tree ; three species 
of dogwood or Cornel, all differing from the Eastern dogwoods ; 
four wild lilacs; two wild cherries, both shrubs; two maples — 
Acer macrophyllwn — a large and beautiful tree — and Acer circi- 
natum — the vine maple, a smaller tree, found only in the moun- 
tains. There are three yuccas, two species of willow, a box 
elder, an Oregon ash, and the flowering ash, which is not a true 
ash, one species of buckeye, one of ironwood, a Parkinsonia or 
greenwood, small but elegant ; two or more species of cactus, a 
native persimmon, and the valuable Japanese species ; the pis- 



CALIFORNIA TREES, SHRUBS AND GRASSES. 573 

tachio-nut and many species of semi-tropical trees which are 
unknown elsewhere. The shrubs and small fruits are numerous, 
but the cultivation of these and of grapes and edible nuts and 
berries belongs rather to horticulture. There are many medi- 
cinal plants and shrubs, some of them possessing very valuable 
qualities. Grasses are very numerous, and some of them highly 
nutritious, but they are nearly all annuals, and except in the 
foggy regions along the northwestern coast, there are hardly 
any native grasses which will make a sod or which are adapted 
for hay. The greater part of the State is entirely destitute of 
anything like a permanent sod, and aside from the wild oat 
{Avena sativa), the wild barley i^Hordeum jubatiwi), the burr 
clover {Medicago de7iticidatd) and four or five species of native 
clovers, which are annuals, and are cured by the sun at the 
beginning of the dry season, but form for a time good pasturage, 
the farmer and stock-raiser is compelled to rely on Alfalfa and 
the forage grasses and cereals, Hungarian, German, and pearl 
millet, Egyptian rice-corn or Dhurra, oats, wheat, rye, sor- 
ghum as a forage plant, etc., for late feeding of his stock. 

Wild flowers abound in California, many of them those highly 
prized by florists elsewhere, of remarkable beauty of form and 
color, and some of them exceedingly fragrant. The lily and 
syringa families, many of them shrubs and even trees, and con- 
spicuous alike for beauty and fragrancy, are found growing wild 
and filling the air for long distances with their perfume. Of 
cryptogamous plants, the quantity and variety is almost without 
limit. One hundred species of mosses have been described, 
and the mushrooms, seaweeds, lichens and fungi are still more 
abundant. 

Zoology. — There are 115 species of mammalia in California, 
of which twenty-seven are carnivorous, including the grizzly, 
black, and brown or Mexican bear, the raccoon, badger, two 
species of skunk, the wolverine fisher, American sable or mar 
ten, mink, yellow-cheeked weasel, California otter and sea otter, 
the cougar, jaguar, wild cat, red lynx and banded lynx, raccoon 
fox or mountain cat, gray wolf, coyote or barking wolf (this 
differs somewhat from the prairie wolf, and is becoming annoy- 



e-. OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

ingly abundant In the State, preying upon lambs, young pigs, 
fowls, etc.), five species of fox, three or four species of sea-lion, 
two species of seal, and the sea-elephant. The larger and more 
formidable of these carnivora are becoming rare in the State 
except in some of the more sparsely inhabited counties ; the 
grizzly and other bears are found in the mountains, but the 
/elides, especially the cougar, jaguar, and the lynxes are rare, 
and the gray wolf is not often found near the settlements. 

Of the insect eaters, there are two moles, two shrews, and six- 
teen species of bats. Of the rodents, there are the beaver, the 
sewellel or mammoth mole, five species of ground-squirrels, 
pests which multiply by the million and levy their assessments 
upon the grain crop, often carrying off half the crop and riddling 
the stacks and sacks of grain, and even finding their way into 
the barns and storehouses. There are also five species of tree- 
squirrels, more harmless in their character. Of the mouse family 
there are eighteen species, including three naturalized ones. 
The musk-rat, jumping mouse, four species of kangaroo mice, 
and five of gophers, a pest almost as destructive of trees, shrubs, 
and plants as the squirrel is of the grain. There is a yellow- 
haired porcupine, six species of hares and rabbits, some of them 
peculiar to the Pacific coast, and a coney or rat-rabbit. Of 
ruminants, there are the elk, the white-tailed, black-tailed, and 
mule-deer, the American antelope, the mountain goat or goat- 
antelope, and the big-horn or mountain sheep. 

Of the cetacea, as well as of the sea-fishes, California claims 
justly all that are found in the waters of the Pacific within the 
bounds of the United States, possibly excluding Alaska. This 
includes the right and the California gray whale, the hump-back 
and fin-back, two of the beaked whales, the sperm whale, the 
black fish and three species of porpoise. 

Of birds there are 350 species or more, recognized as natives 
of California. There are twenty species of climbers, fifteen of 
them wood-peckers ; of birds of prey there are thirty-seven 
species, including five of the eagle family, ten species oi buzzard- 
hawks, four hawks and four falcons; twelve species of owls ; the 
king of the vultures, and the turkey-buzzard, or turkey-vulture. 



OBJECTS OF INTEREST IN CAIIFORNIA. 575 

There are eleven species of perchers in the first group, including 
the crows, ravens, magpies, jays, and king-fishers; 148 species 
in the second and third groups, the insectivorous and granivor- 
ous perchers, including the fly-catchers, humming-birds, swallows, 
wax-wings, shrikes, tanagers, robins and thrushes, wrens, chicka- 
dees, grosbeaks, finches, linnets, larks, orioles, and sparrows. 
There are but three species of pigeons, the band-tailed pigeon, 
and the turde and ground-doves. Of grouse there are the blue 
grouse, sage-cock, prairie-hen, and ruffed grouse, and three new 
species of quail. The waders are numerous, fifty-one species 
having been described. These include cranes, herons, bitterns, 
ibises, plover, kill-deer, avocets, snipes, sandpipers, curlews, rails 
and coots. Of swimmers over ninety species have been de- 
scribed, including many species of geese, brant, teal, ducks, 
scooters, coots, sheldrakes, mergansers, pelicans, cormorants, 
albatrosses, fulmars, petrels, gulls, terns, loons, dippers, auks, 
sea-pigeons and murres. 

Of the fishes, about 240 species have been discovered in the 
lakes, bays, rivers, and on the sea-coast of California, of which 
more than 200 are edible. These include nine species of the 
salmon family, four of the cod family, a dozen eels, seven or 
eight species of mackerel; numerous species of the perch family 
and the allied genera ; two tautogs, viz., the red-fish and the 
kelp-fish; fifteen flat fish and flounders; nine species of shad, 
herring and anchovies, two of them introduced from the East; 
twenty-two carps, and thirty-five species of cartilaginous fishes, 
sturgeons, sharks, rays, sun-fish, etc., etc. 

There are sixty species of mollusks, including a great variety 
of clams, oysters, mussels, scollops, whelks, limpets, sea-snails, 
cutde-fish, squids, nautiluses, etc., etc. Of crustaceans there are 
eight or ten species, including crabs, king-crabs, lobsters, shrimps 
and craw-fish. Of the reptiles there are great numbers, though 
there are no true saurians (alligators or crocodiles), except in 
the Colorado river on the southeast border of the State. There 
are three species of tortoise, possibly some terrapins, thirty-one 
lizards, five rattle-snakes, twenty-five species of harmless snakes, 
twenty-three frogs, several toads, horned toads, salamanders, etc. 



q-5 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Objects of Intei'est and Wonder. — First among these is the far- 
famed valley of the Yosemite, known everywhere as one of the 
wonders of the world. The best and most accurate and satis- 
factory description of this wonderful valley ever written is that 
from the pen of Josiah D. Whitney, LL. D., State Geologist of 
California, and a member of the National Academy of Science. 
This description, slightly condensed, we give below : 

" The word Yosemite means ' a full-grown grizzly bear,' and 
was not the aboriginal name of the valley itself, but that of a 
noted chief of the tribe inhabiting it. The present Indian name 
of the Yosemite is said to be Ah-wah-nee. 

" The Yosemite valley is situated in the Sierra Nevada of 
California, about 150 miles in a direct line a little south of east 
from San Francisco, nearly in the centre of the State of Califor- 
nia, north and south, and about midway between the east and 
west bases of the Sierra, which is here not far from seventy mih.'s 
in width. It is a level area, about six miles in length, and from 
half a mile to a mile in width, and is sunk nearly a mile in depth 
below the general level of the adjacent region. It has very 
much the character of a gorge or trough, hollowed in the moun- 
tains in a direction nearly at right angles to their general trend. 
This gorge has not a regular form, but while its general direc- 
tion remains nearly the same, its sides advance and retreat, with 
angular projections and recesses, thus giving a great variety of 
outline to the enclosing masses. The river Merced, which rises 
in the Sierra, some fifteen miles higher up than the head of the 
valley, in the group of mountains of which Mount Lyell is the 
dominating peak, runs through the Yosemite with many graceful 
windings, and gives rise at the head of the valley to the remark- 
able waterfalls, which will be noticed farther on. Two branches 
of the main Merced also enter the valley near its head ; one, the 
Tenaya Fork, which rises in a beautiful mountain lake of the 
same name, comes in from the northeast ; the other, the Illilou- 
ette, enters from the south. These tributaries join the Merced 
through deep canons, as the mountain gorges in the Sierra are 
always called ; but there are several other smaller streams which 
also enter the valley, leaping over its walls, and giving rise in 



THE YOSEMITE VALLEY. cy? 

almost every instance, to Interesting falls ; which, however, are 
not in general of any great size, except during the early part of 
the season, when the snow upon the adjacent mountains is 
meltinof. 

"The pleasure-seeking traveller, who visits the Yosemite, does 
not confine his explorations to the valley proper, but from vari- 
ous commanding points adjacent to it obtains a great variety of 
views of the groups of peaks which form the crest of the Sierra 
in that region, as well as of the spurs which extend down from 
the main range, or stretch along parallel with it. Thus a jour- 
ney to the Yosemite properly includes a tour around its exterior, 
or at least one or more visits to prominent points of view above 
it, from which the observer cannot only look directly down into 
the depths of the valley below him, but also command a variety 
of views of lofty and in part snow-clad ranges, which offer among 
themselves most remarkable contrasts of form and structure. 

" In noticing the details of the scenery of the Yosemite, the 
valley proper may first be considered. The prominent features 
here are : the great elevation of the walls which enclose it ; the 
remarkable approach to verticality in these walls; their great 
height and their wonderful variety and beauty of form. To 
these features may also be added the attractions of the mag- 
nificent waterfalls which occur at various points on both sides of 
the valley, although these, as already noticed, must be seen early 
in the season in order that the traveller may be greatly im- 
pressed by them. In entering the Yosemite by the roads which 
approach it from the lower end, the visitor notices that he has 
before him a valley of a different type of form from those he 
has before been accustomed to see. He passes from a V-shaped 
gorge or canon into one which may be fairly called U-shaped, 
since its walls rise almost vertically from its floor. This change 
of form is strikingly impressed on the visitor as he approaches 
what may be called the gateway of the Yosemite. Here he 
sees before him, on the north side of the valley, the mass of 
rock called El Capitan, and exactly opposite the Bridal Veil and 
Cathedral Rocks. At this point the distance across the valley is 
only a mile, measured from the summit of the Bridal Veil Rock 

37 



cyS OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

to that of El Capitan, and at the base of these cHffs there is only 
just room for the river to pass. El Capitan is an immense 
block of granite projecting squarely out into the valley, and 
presenting two almost vertical faces, which meet in a sharp edge 
3,300 feet in perpendicular elevation. The sides or walls of this 
mass are bare, smooth and entirely destitute of vegetation. It 
is doubtful if anywhere in the world there is presented so 
squarely cut, so lofty and so imposing a face of rock. On the oppo- 
site side of the valley is the grand mass of the Cathedral Rocks, 
divided into two parts by a deep notch between them. The 
most striking face of the larger Cathedral Rock is turned up 
the valley, but on the side facing the entrance there is a feature 
of great beauty, namely, the Bridal Veil F"alls, made by the creek 
of the same name, which, as it enters the valley, descends in a 
vertical sheet of 630 feet perpendicular, striking there a pile of 
debris, down which it rushes in a series of cascades, with a vertical 
descent of nearly 300 feet more, the total height of the fall being 
900 feet. This creek flows through the entire year, but tiie fall 
is only great when the amount of water is near its maximum. 
When the stream is neither too full nor too low, the mass of water, 
in its fall, vibrates with the varying pressure of the wind blowing 
in the daytime up the valley in the most beautiful and remark- 
able manner. It is this fluttering and waving of the sheet of 
water which has given it the poetic but somewhat fanciful name 
it now bears, that of the Indians having been Pohono, a term 
having reference, it is said, to the chilliness of the air under the 
high cliff and near the falling waters. There is also a charming 
fall in a deep square recess of the rocks opposite the Bridal 
Veil, and just below El Capitan. This fall, which is over 1,000 
feet high, is called the Virgin's Tears. It runs, however, but a 
short time during the early summer months. 

"Passing up the valley after entering between the Cathedral 
Rocks and El Capitan, the level area or river-bottom increases 
to nearly half a mile in width. This area is broken up into 
small meadows, gay with flowers in the early summer, and 
sandier regions on which grow numerous pitch-pines, and some 
oaks, cedars and firs. The walls of the valley continue lofty and 



THE YOSEMITE VALLEY. r^Q 

broken Into the most picturesque forms. Of these the Three 
Brothers and the Sentinel Rock are the most conspicuous. 
Nearly opposite the Sentinel Rock Is one of the most attractive 
features of the Yosemite, namely, the fall made by the descent 
of Yosemite creek down the wall on the north side of the valley. 
The vertical elevation of the edge of this fall is 2,600 feet, but 
the descent is not in one unbroken sheet. There is first a 
vertical fall of 1,500 feet, then a descent of 626 feet In a series 
of cascades, and finally one plunge of 400 feet on to a low talus 
of rocks at the foot of the precipice. The body of water is not 
large, and It decreases considerably as the season advances, be- 
coming very small, in ordinary years, by the end of August. 
The width of the stream in June and July is usually about twenty 
feet, and its depth about two feet. The beauty and grandeur of 
this fall, however, taken in connection with the majesty of its sur- 
roundings, give it a claim to be rank( d among the most remark- 
able natural objects in the world. There are certainly very few 
waterfalls which can compete with It. 

"At the head of the valley the falls of the Merced river are of 
ofreat interest. There are two of them with beautiful interven- 
ing rapids. The lower one Is called the Vernal Fall, and is 
about 400 feet in vertical height. The upper, the Nevada Fall, 
is about 600 feet In elevation. The body of water In these falls 
is large, and the effect very grand. As the Merced river is fed 
by melting snows high up in the Sierra, the amount of water is 
not so much diminished toward the end of the season as it is in 
the case of the smaller creeks heading at an Inferior elevation; 
thus the falls of the Merced usually remain extremely picturesque 
and attractive objects during the whole summer. 

" The dome-shaped masses of granite which characterize the 
vicinity of the Yosemite are also extremely grand. The North 
Dome, on the north side of the valley, lends itself to beautiful 
combinations of scenery, as seen from various points a little 
above the Yosemite Falls. The Sentinel Dome, on the opposite 
side, is not visible from the valley itself, but it affords a magnifi- 
cent view from its summit of the valley and its surroundings, 
and especially of the high Sierras. A projecting cliff called 



r3o OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Glacier Point, a little lower than this, and just on the edge of 
the valley, is also much visited for the sake of the grand view 
which it offers of the whole region, but especially on account of 
its favorable situation with reference to the Half-Dome, of which 
it commands a most wonderful view. The rock thus named is 
the highest point in the immediate vicinity of the Yosemite, rising 
to an elevation of 4,737 feet above the general level of the 
yalley. The Half-Dome has the appearance of having been 
originally a dome-shaped mass which has been split into two 
garts, one of which has sunk down and disappeared ; hence the 
name. It fronts the Valley of the Tenaya fork of the Merced 
with a very steep slope, crowned by a vertical wall of fully 1,600 
feet in elevation, formino- too^ether a mass of rock of the most 
astonishing form and imposing magnitude. Arrangements are 
now made by which this Half-Dome, or, as it is now called, the 
South Dome, may itself be ascended. It is a weary climb, pos- 
sible only by the aid of a rope of great strength fastened to the 
rock by iron staples every fifteen feet, by which the climber 
works his way, hand over hand, for about 1,500 feet; but the 
view at the top is grand and beautiful. Still more magnificent 
is the view from Cloud's Rest, fourteen miles away by the trail, 
and a most fatiguing journey, but once reached, the traveller 
feels that he has seen 'all the kingdoms of the world and the 
glory of them.' 

"The rocky citadel juts out into space, so that you seem 
isolated from the world, and held pendant over the valley. 
Around you is an unbroken horizon of mountain peaks, with 
the great valley in the centre, its walls dwarfed to pigmy pro- 
portions. The lesser mountains and barren rolling ridges re- 
semble nothing so much as a storm-tossed ocean turned to 
stone. A more absolute desolation could not be conceived. 
You feel the weight of the centuries that look down upon you 
from the lonesome peaks of the Sierras. The spectacle reminds 
one strongly of maps of the moon ; it gives the same impres- 
sion of lifeless repose after giant upheavals of mountains and 
rending of rock-buttressed walls. Thomas Hill, the artist, says 
that he once took a seven days' camping excursion about the 



YO SEMITE AND TUOLUMNE VALLEYS. 58 1 

valley, with a nephew of the present Czar of Russia. At all the 
other peaks the Prince found some mountain in the Alps or the 
Himalayas the view from which surpassed the one before him. 
But when the summit of Cloud's Rest was reached, he took off 
his hat and said: 'I salute the Grandest view in the world.'" 

The Yosemite valley was given by Congress to the State of 
California in 1864 to be "held for public use, resort, and recrea- 
tion," to be also " inalienable for all time " with the conditiofi 
that portions of the valley might be leased, the income arising 
from such leases to be expended " in the preservation of the 
property or the roads leading thereto." The grant is managed 
by commissioners appointed by the governor of the State. 
Wagon roads, railroads and trails have been built to afford more 
convenient access to the valley, and to various points command- 
ing remarkable views of the valley and its surroundings. 

The Tuolumne river, another tributary of the San Joaquin, 
which enters it a few miles north of the Merced and drains Tuo- 
lumne county as the Merced does Mariposa, also has its sources 
in the Sierra Nevada, and about fifty miles northwest of the 
Yosemite valley, flows through another valley nearly or quite 
as picturesque and grand as the Yosemite and with as many 
and as lofty waterfalls. 

But these remarkable valleys do not furnish all the natural 
wonders of California. In Tulare, Fresno, Mariposa, Tuo- 
lumne, and Calaveras counties there are groves of the gigantic 
Sequoias, whose vast height and wondrous beauty would well 
repay a journey across the continent. 

In Napa county, near Calistoga, is a narrow valley where ar^ 
all the evidences of recent, and, indeed, existing volcanic action. 
The whole valley or canon is filled with flowing (not spouting) 
hot springs, which are called geysers (an inappropriate name, 
though they are very singular in their action, flowing with inter- 
missions), and the whole soil is covered with a crust of sulphur, 
iron-rust, and other mineral deposits, and filled with steam from 
the boiling water. The ground shakes under the foot-steps, and 
is so hot as to be uncomfortable to the feet. 

Besides these there are the natural bridges and the chyote 



582 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

caves of Calaveras county, with their bell-sounding rocks, the 
magnificent grotto near Grizzly Flat, in El Dorado county ; of 
the lakes, Tahoe, the gem of the mountains, almost at the sum- 
mit of the Sierras, and the smaller but romantic Lake Donner 
on the boundary line of Nevada ; Mono (salt) lake, in Mono 
county, not far from Yosemite ; Klamath lake, in the north ; 
Tulare lake in the county of the same name ; and the wild vol- 
canic region in the southeast in Inyo, Mono, San Bernardino, and 
Kern counties ; that region of horrors enclosing the sink of the 
Amargoza river, the " Death Valley," of which we have already 
spoken, 400 feet below the level of the sea, while within sight 
of it the Sierras tower 14.000 or 15,000 feet above the sea. 
This deep depression, forty miles long and eight or ten wide, is 
partly crusted over with salt and soda and other alkalies several 
inches thick, and partly composed of an ash-like earth mixed 
with a tenacious clay, sand, and alkali so soft that no animal can 
cross it without being mired. There is no vegetation on any 
part of it, and the temperature during at least six months of the 
year ranges from 110° to 140° Fahrenheit. 

Climates. — Prof E. W. Hilgrard thus describes the various 
climates of the State : 

"Taking as a convenient point of view the central portion of 
the State, the climates of California may be roughly classified as 
follows : 

"I. The bay and coast clhnatc. Its prominent characteristics 
are, first, the small range of the thermometer, caused by the 
tempering influence of the sea, the prevailing winds being from 
the west. The average winter and summer temperature at San 
Francisco thus differs by only about 6° Fahrenheit (53° and 59° 
respectively). Snow rarely reaches the level of the sea, and is 
sometimes not seen for several seasons, even on the summits of 
the Coast Ransfe.* A few liofht frosts with the thermometer at 
between 28° and 32° Fahrenheit for a few hours during the 



*The winter of l8So was one of the exceptional years in which snow did reach the coast, 
and the thermometer marked i8° Fahrenheit. This severe weather was very destructive to 
flowering plants and shrubs, but was said not to have occurred for more than thirty years pre- 
viously. Ordinarily, the fuchsia and heliotrope live and thrive in the open air there in winter. 



BAY AND COAST CLIMATE. rg, 

night is the ordinary expectation for winter, while in summer the 
number of ' hot ' days on which the thermometer reaches 80° or 
more, rarely exceeds eight or ten. These occur chiefly in Sep- 
tember and under the influence of the 'norther,' which causes 
the hot dry air of the interior valleys to overflow the barrier of 
the Coast Range. Under a brilliantly clear sky, it sweeps over 
the mountains, accompanied by clouds of dust, and, like the hot 
breath of a furnace, it licks up all moisture before it, wilting and 
withering the leaves of all but the most hardy plants, cracking 
and baking the soil, loosening the joints of all wooden structures, 
whether wacrons, furniture, or houses, and causincr the latter to 
resound at night with the splitting of panels and similar unearthly 
noises, to the discomfort of the nervous sleepers, that at such 
times comprise the vast majority of the population. This uni- 
versal infliction fortunately lasts but rarely more than three days, 
when the welcome sea-fog, which has been kept standing like a 
wall forty or fifty miles in the offing, gradually advances, and 
with its erateful coolness and moisture infuses fresh life into the 
parched vegetation and the irritable, panting population. 

" During the winter months the north wind is equally dry, but 
at the same time cold ; and while it then sometimes lasts a week 
or more, it causes but little discomfort or damage, save occa- 
sionally to the young grass and grain. The second distinctive 
feature of the coast climate is the fofjs brou^rht in from the sea 
by the prevailing west winds or summer trades, as the result of 
their crossinor the cold Alaskan current in-shore. The sea-foes, 
coming in regularly almost every afternoon from the latter part 
of June to that of August, and more or less throughout the year, 
often with a gorgeous display of cloud pictures, temper materi- 
ally not only the heat, but also the summer drought; so that 
under their influence plants requiring but a moderate degree of 
moisture can, in a loose soil, grow throughout that season. In 
the latitude of San Francisco it thus happens that in the coast 
climate sub-tropical and northern plants may thrive side by side; 
the latter (such as currants and cranberries) ripening with ease 
and in great perfection, while the fig, grape, orange, etc., though 
growing luxuriandy, can ripen their fruit only in valleys pro- 



c84 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

tected by mountain ridges from the direct influence of the sum- 
mer trade-winds. Thus while a broad river of fog may be pour- 
ing in at the Golden Gate, covering the two cities and spreading 
out on the opposite shore to a width of eight or ten miles, the 
hamlet of San Rafael, only fourteen miles to the north, but under 
the lee of Mount Tamalpais, and the old town of San Jose, under 
the protection of its seaward mountains, forty miles to the south, 
are mostly basking in full sunshine, and ripen to great perfec- 
tion not only the grape, but also the more tender fruits of their 
groves of fig and orange. 

2, Climate of the great inteiior valley. "The average winter 
temperature is lower than that of corresponding portions of the 
coast, although the niinimimi is little, if at all, below that of the 
latter. Sub-tropical plants, therefore, winter there almost as 
readily as on the coast. In summer, however, the average 
temperature is high, often remaining above ioo° Fahrenheit for 
many days, the nights also being very warm. At the same time, 
however, the air Is so dry as to render the heat much less 
oppressive than is the case east of the mountains, sunstroke 
being almost unknown. Standing on the summits of the Coast 
Range In summer, and looking down upon the thick shroud of 
fog covering all to seaward, the white masses can be seen drift- 
ing against the mountain side, and, rising upward, dissolving 
Into thin air as soon as, on passing the divide, they meet the 
warmth of the Great Valley. From points In the latter the 
cloud-banks may be seen filling the mountain passes and some- 
times pouring like a cataract over the summit ridges, but power- 
less to disturb even for a moment the serenity of the summer 
sky, or to yield a drop of moisture to the parched soil of the San 
Joaquin plains. The unwary traveller, starting from Sacramento 
or Stockton on a hot summer's day without the thought of shawl 
or overcoat, may find himself chilled to the bone on crossing the 
Coast Range, and runs Imminent risk of rheumatism or pneu- 
monia. On the other hand, the San Franciscan, feeling the need 
of having his pores opened by a good perspiration, can have his 
wish gratified in an hour or two by taking the reverse direction. 
The 'norther' is, of course, more frequent In the great valley 



INTERIOR CUM ATE. cg- 

than on the coast ; but its dryness and high temperature are not 
so much of a change from the ordinary condition of things, and 
it therefore does not cause such general remark, disturbance, or 
damage unless unusually severe. 

3. Climate of the slope of the Siei^ra Nevada. " The essential 
features of the climate of the Great Valley may be roughly said 
to extend to the height of about 2,000 feet up its flanks into the 
' foot-hills,' with, however, an increasing rainfall as we ascend, 
and therefore greater safety for crops and less absolute depend- 
ence upon irrigation. Higher up, the influence of elevation 
makes itself felt ; snow falls and lies in winter, while the summers 
are cool ; and we thus return to the familiar regime of seasons 
as understood in the Middle and Northern States, including, 
especially in the more northern portion, the phenomenon of 
summer thunder-storms, M'hich are almost unknown on the coast 
and in the San Joaquin valley. The same general features 
come into play more and more as we advance northward in the 
hilly and mountainous regions lying north of San Francisco bay, 
toward the Oregon line, marked also in general by a gradual 
increase of timber growth. The features of the three principal 
climates described intermingle, or are interspersed, according as 
the valleys are open to seaward, run parallel to the coast, or are 
in communication with the great interior valley. We thus find 
numberless local climates, ' thermal belts,' and privileged nooks 
a(iapted to special cultures which may be impracticable in an 
adjoining valley, and almost insular as regards the region where 
similar conditions are predominant. To the southward, the chief 
climates above defined are modified by three factors, viz. : the 
increase of temperature, the decrease of rainfall, and the de- 
crease, from about San Francisco southward, of the feature of 
summer fogs. As regards temperature, the extreme range is 
still very nearly the same at Los Angeles as at San Francisco ; 
but the averages are very considerably higher at the former 
point, that of the winter being 60°, that of summer about 75° 
Fahrenheit. At intermediate points along the coast, local varia- 
tions excepted, the averages vary as sensibly as the latitude. 
As to rainfall along the coast, its decrease is slow, descending 



586 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



from twenty-four inches at San Francisco to fifteen at Santa 
Barbara, twelve at Los Angeles, and nine to ten at San Diego. 
But in the interior valley the decrease is much more rapid, as 
previously stated, modified locally, according as the divide of the 
Coast Range is so high as to preclude the access of moisture 
from the sea, or low enough to admit its influence. The .same 
factor influences also the cooling and moistening effect of the 
summer winds and fogs, which temper the summer climate of 
the Los Angeles plain, but fail to reach the Mojave desert or 
the fervid plains ot the upper San Joaquin valley." 

We supplenivMit this general statement by the following table, 
corrected to the latest date. It is the average in most cases of 
twenty years : 



Places. 



San Francisco 
Sacramento 
Humboldt Bay 
Benicia . 
Monterey . 
Vi.salia . 
San Diego . 
Los Angeles 
Fort Yuma 



Mean 
temperature. 

Spring. 




t . 

ill 

V 


2 

Hi 


2 2 rt 

g 


56.3° 
58-5° 


59-5° 

71.5° 


58.8^ 
62.1° 


51-9^ 
47-9^ 


56.6° 

59-9° 


52-0- 
56.5° 


57-5' 
67.0° 


53-o^ 
60.5° 


43- 5 -^ 
49.0^ 


58.0° 


54.0^ 
60.6° 

59-4° 
58.6^ 


59-o^ 

79-5° 
69.1'^ 
68.6^ 


57-o^ 
60.9° 
63.8° 
65.1° 


51.0^ 
48.6^ 
54-1° 
54-3° 


55-5^ 
62.4° 

61.6= 

61.7^ 


72.0^ 


90.0' 


75-5" 


57-°'' 


73-5^ 




In 1878, the maximum temperature was reached in San Fran- 
cisco, September 15th to iSth, when the thermometer stood at 
86°, 90°, 92° and 93° Fahrenheit. In no other days of the year, 
except one in October, did it reach 80°. The lowest point was 
reached on the 4th of January and was 39° F'ahrenheit. There 
were no frosts during the year. The extreme range of the year 
was 54°. 

In Sacramento the highest point reached was 103°; for three 
days the thermometer rose above 100° ; for twenty-three days it 
exceeded 95°, and for sixty- three days it was above 90°. The 
lowest point was reached January 3d. It was 27°. For six 
days there were frosts. The extreme range was 76°. 

In San Diego the thermometer indicated 91° on the first of 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. ^gn 

September, but did not reach 90° on any other day. It exceeded 
80° only eleven days of the year. The minimum was for three 
days in January, 38°. The range was 53°. 

Visalia (latitude 36° 20', west longitude from Greenwich 
1 1 9. 1 6) reached 106.5°, ]^^y 14th. During twenty-three days 
the temperature exceeded 100°, and for sixty-nine days it ex- 
ceeded 95°. The minimum, January 4th, was 24°. There were 
eight days of frost. The range was 82.5°. 

Los Angeles (latitude 34° 3', west longitude from Greenwich 
118° 16') reached 93° on the 20th of July and the ist of Septem- 
ber. Seven days exceeded 90°. The minimum was 36.5° on 
the xi^X. of December. There were no frosts. The ranee was 

56.5°. 

Fort Yuma (latitude 32° 43', west longitude 114° 36') reached 
113°, July 19th; four days were above 112°; eleven days above 
110°; fifty-three above 105°, and one hundred and six above 
100°. In other years the maximum had been as high as 126°. 
The minimum, December 31st and January 3d, was ■^'^°. 
Ranore %o^. 

Aoricultural Products. — Professor Hileard has treated these 
in a manner so attractive, that we quote from him, in part, in re- 
gard to them. Speaking at first of cereal crops, he says : 

" Of all the field-crops grown in the State, wheat is the most 
important at this time. It was the first culture on a large scale 
introduced on the subsidence of the gold fever, and the returns 
received proved to be so much greater and more certain than 
those from the placer mines that it extended rapidly, and has 
ever since remained the largest and most generally appreciated 
product of California agriculture. The amount produced in 
1878, an average year, was 22,000,000 of centals, of which 
8,069,825 were exported as grain, and about 500,000 barrels of 
flour. In the markets of the world the wheats of the Pacific 
coast are noted for their high quality, the plumpness and light 
color of the ' berry,' and the high percentage of first-class flour it 
furnishes in milling. At home the extraordinarily high product 
per acre of forty to sixty bushels, and even more, under very im- 
perfect tillage, for a number of consecutive years, forms a strong 



eg3 0^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

incentive to this culture. Nor is the California wheat-grower 
obliged to be very careful in the choice of his seed. Probably 
every known variety of wheat has in the course of time been 
brought and tried here ; but all, in a short time, seems to assume 
very nearly the same peculiar California type, upon which, in 
fact, it would seem hard to improve materially. It is almost 
ludicrous, at times, to compare the eastern seed with its Califor- 
nia offspring, which has undergone the ' swelling process ' of one 
season's orrowth in her orenerous soil and climate. It is but fair 
to say that substantially the same peculiarities are observable in 
the wheats of Oregon, grown in the valley of the Willamette and 
on the plains of the Upper Columbia. Since the growing season 
in the greater part of California extends, with little interruption 
from cold, from the beginning of November to June, the distinc- 
tion between winter and spring grain is also in a great measure 
lost. The farmer plows and sows as early as practicable, watch- 
ing his chances between rains, in November and December if 
he can, in March if he must, or at any convenient time between ; 
increasing the amount of seed sown per acre in proportion as 
there remains less time for the grain to tiller. Should the ears 
fail to fill, he can still make hay. 

" Much discussion has been had concerning the merits of early 
as compared with late sowing. The objections against the former 
practice are that copious early rains may start the growth too 
rapidly, the chances being that in that case but little more water 
will fall until Christmas. It is true that the weather-wise may 
sometimes gain materially by delay in sowing ; but the general 
result of experience seems to be that it is better in the long run 
to take the risk of having to sow twice, rather than that of being 
kept from sowing at all, until too late, by persistent rains. It 
has therefore become a very common practice to ' dry-sow ' grain 
in summer- fallowed land in September and October. The seed 
lies quiescent in the parched and dusty ground until called forth 
by the rains, and in clean fields and ordinary seasons such grain 
generally yields the highest returns. The preparation of the 
ground for the crop on the large wheat farms is usually made 
by means of gang-plows with from two to six shares, drawn by 



HARVESTING IN THE LARGE WAY. ^^q 

from three to five horses or mules, three animals very commonly 
walkinof abreast. At the critical season it is not uncommon to 
see half a dozen such implements and teams at work in a single 
field, closely followed by a wagon carrying seed-grain and the 
centrifugal sower, which showers the grain upon the fresh-turned 
furrows, in strips thirty or more feet wide. Before the day ends 
the great (usually flexible) harrows have also performed their 
work, and thirty or forty acres of what was a stubble-field in the 
morninir have been converted into a well-seeded o-rain-field. Of 
late, appliances for seeding and covering have been attached to 
the gang-plows themselves, so that the whole task is performed 
in one operation — certainly the perfection of labor-saving 
machinery. Seed drills are as yet in but limited use; although 
nowhere, probably, would drilling be more desirable, in order to 
admit of subsequent culture, for want of which crops often totally 
fail on the heavier soils. During the rainy season the covering 
is often done by rolling alone, and on harrowed ground the 
roller is frequently used later in the season, in order to compact 
the surface so as to mitigate the drying effects of ' northers.' 

" In the grain harvest (which begins in the second week of 
June) the 'wholesale' mode of procedure is equally prevalent. 
The scythe is used only to cut the way, and that on small farms ; 
then follows the reaper, hired if not owned by the farmer himself. 
But the binding and shocking process that is to succeed is far 
too slow for the large grain-grower, who has his hundreds, and 
sometimes thousands, of acres to reap within the short time 
allowed by the exceedingly rapid maturing, which threatens him 
with serious loss by shedding, the air being at that season very 
dry even at night. His implement is the giant header, pushed 
into the golden fields by from four to eight horses. Its vibradng 
cutters clip off the heads with only a few inches of straw attached, 
on a swath sixteen and even twenty-eight feet wide, while a re- 
volving apron carries the laden ears to a wagon driven along- 
side, and having a curious, wide, slanting bed for their reception. 
Several of these wagons drive back and forth between the swaths 
and the steam-thresher, where, within half an hour, the grain that 
was waving In the morning breeze may be sacked ready for 



ego OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

shipment to Liverpool. Even this energetic mode of procedure, 
however, has appeared too slow to some of the progressive men 
in business, and we have seen a wondrous and iearful combina- 
tion of header, thresher and sacking-wagon, moving in procession 
side by side through the doomed grain. If this stupendous com- 
bination and last refinement shall prove practically successful, 
we shall doubtless next see the llouring-mill itselt form a part of 
this agricultural pageant. Where farming is not done on quite 
so energetic a plan, the reaped and bound grain being at that 
season perfiictly safe from rain, is left eidier in shocks or stacks 
until the threshing party comes around, mosdy with a portable 
engine often fed with straw alone, to drive the huge 'separator,* 
whose combined din and puffing will sometimes startle late sleep- 
ers, as it suddenly starts up in the morning from the most unex- 
pected places. Two wagons usually aided by some ' bucks ' (a 
kind of sledge-rake, which also serves to remove the straw from 
the mouth of the thresher) feed the devouring monster. In an 
incredibly short time the shocks or stacks are cleared away and 
in their stead appear square piles of turgid grain-sacks and broad, 
low hillocks of straw. Both products often remain thus for six 
or eight weeks, the grain getting so thoroughly dry in the interval 
that there is frequendy an overweight of five or more per cent, 
when, after its long passage in the damp sea air, the cargo reaches 
Liverpool. The moral question thus arising as to wlio is entitled 
to the benefit of this increase I will not pretend to determine ; 
but the producers say that they rarely hear of any differences in 
their favor. 

"The manner of disposing of the straw is one of the weakest 
points of California agriculture. Near to cities or cheap trans- 
portation, much of it is baled like hay, and finds a ready market, 
but in remote districts it is got rid of by applying the torch ; and 
these 'straw fires' habitually redden the autumn skies as do the 
prairie fires in the Western States, covering the whole country 
with a smoke haze, as a faint reminiscence of the Indian summer, 
which is not otherwise well-defined on the Pacific coast. This 
holocaust of valuable materials, which might be made the means 
of some slight return of plant-food to the soil, is a standing re- 



CALIFORNIA BARLEY, RYE AND OATS. cqi 

proach to those who practise it; yet they have some excuse in 
the fact that the pecuHarities of the cHmate do not make it as 
easy to convert it into manure as is the case in countric s having 
summer rains. For in winter the temperature is, alter all, too 
low to favor rapid decay, while during the summer months the 
intense drought soon puts an end to fermentation. It tlierefore 
takes two seasons to render the straw fit for plowing in : and in 
the mean time, as left by the thresher, it occupies consi(ierable 
ground. As yet, the conviction that straw-burning is penny- wis- 
dom and pound-foolishness has not gained sufficient footliold to 
induce the majority of wheat-growers to take the pains of putting 
the straw into stacks with concave tops, to collect and retain the 
water. But those who have done so report that the resulting 
improvement of the soil pays well for the trouble. The practice 
of burning will, of course, disappear so soon as the system of 
large-scale planting gives away, as it soon must, to that of mixed 
farming on a smaller scale. 

"Of the other cereals, barley and oats are the only ones that 
can as yet lay claim to general importance ; and the meiliods of 
culture are much the same. Like the wheats, so the barlejs of 
California are of exceptionally fine quality, that of the ' Cheva- 
lier ' variety being so eagerly sought for by eastern brewers that 
but little of it finds its way into California-brewed beer. The 
common (six and four rowed) barleys are, however, themselves 
of such high quality that the absence of the highest grade grain 
is certainly not perceptible in the quality of the beer, into which, 
unlike most of its eastern brethren of St. Louis and Chicago, 
nothing but barley and hops find their way. The various kinds 
of oats are produced for home consumption only, the difficulty 
being very commonly that the straw becomes so strong as to 
interfere seriously with its use for forage. Rye is grown to 
some extent in the mountain counties, and yields a splendid 
grain, called for chiefly by the taste of the German population 
for rye bread. Some Polish wheat {Triticunt polonimiu) is grown 
under the name of 'white rye.' Maize is thus far grown but to 
a small extent, compared with wheat, barley, and oats ; not, how- 
ever, because of any difficulty in producing corn, which, both as 



eg2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

to quality, size, and yield per acre, can compete with any in the 
Mississippi valley. The large foreign element in the population 
limits the demand for corn-meal, and, as before remarked, on 
account of the mild winters, hog-raising on a large scale is not 
likely to become important in the State. A good deal, however, 
is planted for green-soiling purposes in connection with dairies. 
The planting is generally done very late in April, and in May 
after everything else has been attended to, since in the coast 
climate a crop of corn is often made without a drop of rain from 
the time of planting, when the season has been one of abundant 
moisture. Of late, several millets, and among them especially 
the DJiJirra or Egyptian corn, are coming into favor. The 
Dhurra, though not as much relished by cattle as maize fodder, 
will admit of three cuttings each season, when irrigated, and the 
meal made from its grain is by many preferred to corn-meal, 
while as a chicken-feed it is, apparently, superior to anything 
else. 

" Of other field crops, the 'beans' that formed the chief solace 
of the Argonauts of early days are still prominent, especially 
where the Mexican element is somewhat strong. To them 
* frijoles ' are still the staff of life, supplemented by the ' tamales,' 
the native preparation of the ' roasting-ears ' of green corn. 

"The Irish potatoes grown in California are not, as a rule, of 
first quality, but incline to be watery. The tuber is largely im- 
ported from Utah under the name and style of ' Salt Lake pota- 
toes,' albeit much that is sold under that brand is of California 
growth. The sweet-potato flourishes especially in the lighter 
soils of the coast south of San Francisco ; its quality would not 
be likely to be criticised by any but those who have been accus- 
tomed to the product of the Gulf States or of the Antilles. 

" The big pumpkins of California have acquired a world-wide 
reputation not unlike that enjoyed by the sea-serpent. The un- 
prejudiced observer, however, readily appreciates the fact that 
when a well-organized pumpkin has ten months' time to grow 
instead of three or four, it has every reason to give a corre- 
sponding account of its stewardship. But while a laudable 
ambition to excel may result in the production of three hundred- 



SUGAR-BEE TS—HOF- GR O WING. 593 

pound pumpkins, it is but fair to say they are not the rule ; being 
inconvenient to handle, and, like other organisms exceeding a 
certain age, inclined to be hard and tough. The same is true 
of mammoth beets (mangel-wurzel), carrots and turnips, which, 
when left out in the field during a mild winter, continue incon- 
tinently to grow and develop until the time comes to put in 
another crop. The dairy-men and stock-breeders raise these 
crops largely, and are chiefly responsible for the production of 
the monsters. 

" The sugar-beet succeeds admirably in a large portion of the 
State, and in appropriate locations yields a juice of extraordinary 
richness ; as much as nineteen per cent, is clarified in some cases 
(but I can vouch for fifteen only from personal experience), and 
a fair degree of purity. Several prosperous beet-sugar factories 
already exist, the failures reported having apparently been due 
to mismanagement. It is difficult to see why, with such material 
and the possibility of keeping up the supply for nine months by 
the planting of successive crops, this industry should not become 
one of the most important and lucrative in the State, and fully 
able to compete with any sugar-cane planting that may hereafter 
be introduced in the southern portion of the coast. 

" Hop-growing is an important industry in the middle portion 
of the State, especially in the Sacramento valley and in the 
Russian river region, north of San Francisco bay. The pro- 
duct is of excellent quality, and is much sought after by Eastern 
brewers. 

" Of other crops of minor or only local importance may be 
mentioned the culture of pea-nuts, chiefly in the coast region 
south of San Francisco ; of the chiccory root, in the neighbor- 
hood of Stockton, supplying a large amount of the parched and 
ground ' old government Java coffee ' sold by grocers. In the 
same neighborhood the culture of the ' Persian insect-powder 
plant' (Pyretknmz carneuni) is being successfully carried out, the 
product being in very general requisition on account of the pre- 
vailing abundance of fleas. This neighborhood supplies a quality 
of mustard that is somewhat overwhelming to the novice, and 
even for plasters should be diluted with flour. Were rape-seed 
38 



eg. OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

oil in demand, the fact that the whole State is overrun with the 
plant that produces it, as a most troublesome weed, proves what 
could be done with it if fostered. 

" Nothing, probably, strikes the new-comer to California more 
forcibly, and nothing certainly more agreeably, than the advan- 
tages offered by a climate where plants can ordinarily be kept 
crrowing from ten to twelve months in the year, provided water 
is supplied. The immigrant desiring to make a home for him- 
self is delighted to find that the rapid growth of shrubbery and 
rtowers — and among them many that he has so far seen only 
nurtured in greenhouses — will enable him to create around him 
in the course of three seasons, on a bare lot, a home atmosphere 
that elsewhere it would have required ten or more years to 
establish. The housewife, however industriously disposed, is 
not ill-pleased to find herself relieved from the annual pressure 
of the ' preserving season ' by the circumstance that fresh fruits 
are in the market at reasonable rates during all but a few weeks 
in the year ; so that a few gallons of jellies is all that is really 
called for in the way of ' putting up.' It is not less pleasing to 
her, as well as to the rest of the family, that a good supply of 
fresh vegetables is at her command at all seasons, and that the 
Christmas dinner, if the turkey does cost thirty cents a pound, 
may be graced with crisp lettuce, radishes, and green peas just 
as readily as it may be celebrated by an open-air picnic on the 
green grass under blooming bushes of the scarlet gooseberry. 
Of course there are seasons of preference for each vegetable, 
but among the great variety naturally introduced by the various 
nationalities there are few that cannot be found in the San Fran- 
cisco market at almost any time in the year — if not from local 
culture, then from some point between Los Angeles and the 
mouth of the Columbia, The truck-gardens are largely in the 
hands of the Italians and Portuguese, who have brought with 
them from their home habits of thrift ; and their manure piles, 
windmills for irrigation, and laborious care of their unceasing 
round of crops on a small area, render their establishments easy 
of recognition. Their products are distributed partly by them- 
selves, partly by the ubiquitous Chinese huckster, trotting with 



FRUIT CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. cqc 

his two huge baskets under a weight that few Caucasians would 
carry for any length of time. Not a few Chinese also are en- 
eaeed in the truck-farminof business. The veo-e tables are in 
general of excellent quality, and it may be truly said that in no 
city in the United States is the general quality of fare so good, 
so well adapted to every variety of taste, and, last but not least, 
so cheap, as in the city of the Golden Gate ; and nowhere is the 
decoration of even the humblest homes with flowers and shrub- 
bery more universal, and at the same time so generously aided 
by nature. 

"In no department of industry, probably, is the reputation of 
California better established than in regard to fruit culture. Its 
pears seem to have been the pioneers in gaining the award of 
special excellence ; grapes and cherries have rapidly taken a 
place alongside, and, last, oranges and lemons have come to dis- 
pute the palm with Sicily and the Antilles. The most striking 
peculiarity of California fruit culture is its astonishing versatility, 
not to say cosmopolitanism ; for the variety of fruits capable of 
successful culture within the limits under consideration in this 
article probably exceeds, even at this time, that found elsewhere 
in any country of similar extent, and is constantly on the in- 
crease by the introduction of new kinds from all quarters of the 
globe. Doubtless, in time, each district will settle down to the 
more or less exclusive production of certain kinds found to be 
most profitable under its particular circumstances, so far as the 
large-scale cultures are concerned ; but whosoever raises fruit 
mainly for home consumption will hardly resist the temptation 
offered by the possibility of growing side by side the fruits of 
the tropics and those of the north temperate zone — the currant 
and the orange, the cherry and the fig, the strawberry and the 
pineapple, the banana and plantain, as well as the apple and the 
medlar. It would be supposed that the quality of these products 
must of necessity suffer grievously under the stress of their 
mutual concessions of habit; and this, of course, is true as 
regards the highest qualities of the extremes, under the judg- 
ment of the expert, but unperceived to a surprising degree by 
the taste of the public in ^e general market. The oranges 



5g5 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

grown in some of the sheltered valleys of the Coast Range, and 
on the red soils of the foot-hills, as far north as Butte county, 
often successfully dispute the precedence of the product of Los 
Ano^eles and San Bernardino. 

" In view of the short time within which this industry has 
developed, and of the multitude of nationalities which have taken 
part therein, it is not surprising that many important questions 
relating to it should still remain unsettled, and that the best 
regular routine for the several districts, or even for general 
practice, should as yet not have been established. Too many 
different varieties, whose adaptation to the local and general 
climate is undetermined, fill the orchards, and give rise to im- 
mense quantities of unmarketable fruit, that ulumately fall to the 
share of cattle and hogs. The high price of labor and of transr- 
portation from remote districts condemns another large part to 
a similar fate, especially in favorable seasons, when the local 
market soon becomes glutted with fruit unable to bear shipment 
to the East. Curiously enough, even at such times, the prices 
of fruit to the consumer are generally higher than is the case at 
corresponding times in the Western States, showing irrefragably 
that the cost of production is higher, and consequently that only 
fruit of high quality can bear exportation. Inattention to this 
point has rendered unprofitable, or worse, many of the refrigera- 
tor-car shipments heretofore made, and the same want of proper 
care in assorting the various qualities is one of the chief causes 
of frequent business failures of those supplying the markets of 
San Francisco. This practice, however, is fast being improved 
upon, and the disposal of the surplus fruit by drying is beginning 
to relieve, to a very great extent, the glut that has often de- 
pressed prices below the paying point. The exportation of 
dried fruits of all kinds is doubtless destined to become one of 
the most important branches of agricultural industry in the State, 
both on account of quality and of the natural facilities for the 
drying process offered by the dry summer air. It is found to be 
absolutely necessary to exclude in the drying operations all 
access of insects, which otherwise lay their eggs on the fruit and 
spoil it within a year. This is now very generally and effectu- 



THE CULTURE OF SUB-TROPICAL FRUITS. 



597 



ally accomplished by the use of the best drying apparatus, not 
uncommonly in co-operative factories erected by companies or 
granges. The quality of the prunes, plums, apricots, pears, etc., 
cured by some of these establishments is not behind the best of 
the kind imported from France and Italy, but as yet the neatness 
and convenience of the packages is not so generally what would 
be necessary to render them equally attractive to the purchaser. 
"While the orange, lemon, lime, and other sub-tropical fruits 
are more or less in cultivation up to the northern third of the 
State, they form the specialty of Los Angeles, San Bernardino, 
and adjoining counties, where also the pineapple, banana, guava, 
and other more stricdy tropical fruits are mainly under trial. In 
a measure, what has been said above of the more northern fruits 
applies here also. While much fruit of the highest quality is 
produced, much also is still in the experimental stage, and some 
very poor lots are occasionally thrown upon the market. The 
subject has lately, however, been earnesdy taken in hand by the 
young but proportionally energetic Hordcultural Society of 
South California, in which a number of the most intelligent men 
have combined to determine in the shortest possible time, by 
systemadc experiments, discussion, and scientific invesdgadon, 
in connection with the agricultural department of the university, 
the practically important quesUons relating to this culture. 
While the orange and lemon product is marketed without diffi- 
culty and at good prices, the millions of excellent limes borne 
by the hedges customary in the southern part of the State are 
still mosdy allowed to decay where they fall. The manufacture 
of citric acid can hardly fail before long to put an end to this 
waste of precious material. The pomegranate, which is to some 
extent similarly used, generally finds a ready sale for its fruit. 
The olive, so universally found around the old missions as a relic 
of the past, has not so far found its place in general culture ; 
and on the shelves of the grocers in the cities we still find the 
same mixtures of cotton-seed, pea-nut, and other oils, with a 
modicum of the genuine product of the olive, that form the 
standing complaint of salad-eaters throughout the United States. 
The subject of olive culture has of late attracted considerable 



5^8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

attention, and small quantities of excellent oil have been made 
in various parts of the State, proving beyond cavil that its pro- 
duction can be made an important industry. The culture of 
the fio- in California is co-extensive with that of the vine, and 
both fresh and dried fruit of the highest quality is found in the 
market. 

"As to nuts, the European walnut, Italian chestnut and almond 
are those whose culture on a large scale has been successfully 
carried out. The filbert may also be mentioned. Of these, the 
almond has been made the subject of the largest experiments, 
and, as might be expected, there have been numerous disappoint- 
ments in consequence of the selection of unsuitable localities, 
subject to light frosts at the time of bloom. The best results 
have been obtained in situations moderately elevated above the 
valleys, ' thermal belts,' where the cold air cannot accumulate. 
The quality of the product leaves nothing to be desired, where 
proper care is had in selection of varieties. 

" The Japanese persimmon promises here, as in the Southern 
United States, to prove an important acquisition. The jujube, 
the carob, the pistachio nut, and many others are under trial. 

"Of small fruits, the strawberry is in the market during the 
twelve months of the year. Raspberries and blackberries are 
largely grown, both for market and canning. The currant is of 
especial excellence and size, and is extensively grown between 
the rows in orchards. Gooseberries have not been altogether 
successful in general culture. 

"A good deal has been said and written about coffee culture. 
It was currently reported that a kind of coffee grew wild in the 
foot-hills, and of course the real coffee must succeed. The 'wild 
coffee,' however, is simply the California buckthorn {^Frangula 
Cali/ornica), and of course no more suitable for a beverage than 
turnip-seed. True, coffee trees are now growing at numerous 
points in the State, but it is not probable that the culture will 
prove a success outside of South California. 

"The grape-vine was among the culture plants introduced 
earliest by the Catholic missionaries. The similarity of the Cali- 
fornia climate to that of the vine-growing regions of the Mediter- 



COFFEE AND GRAPE CULTURE. Cqq 

ranean would naturally suggest the probable success of vine 
culture, corroborated by the fact that a native vine, albeit with a 
somewhat acid and unpalatable fruit grows abundantly along the 
banks of all the larger streams. The grape variety introduced 
by the missionaries, and still universally known as the ' Mission ' 
grape, was probably the outcome of seed brought from Spain ; 
it most resembles that of the vineyards which furnish the ' Beni- 
carlo ' wine. It is a rather pale-blue, small, round berry, forming 
at times very large and somewhat straggling bunches. It is very 
sweet, especially in South California, has very little acid, very 
little astringency, no definite flavor, and, on the whole, commends 
itself as a wine-grape only by the abundance of its juice and its 
great fruitfulness. The American immigrants found this vine 
growing neglected around the old missions, along with the olive, 
fig and pomegranate. It soon attracted the attention of the 
European emigrants from wine-growing countries, was resusci- 
tated and propagated, and still forms the bulk of the vineyards 
of California. We have good testimony to the effect that the 
wines made by the missionaries were of very indifferent quality, 
owing partly, of course, to the inferiority of the grape used, but 
chiefly to the primitive mode of manufacture ; the entire caskage 
consisting of a few large, half-glazed earthenware jars [tinajas), 
from which the fermented wine was rarely racked off, being 
mostly consumed the same season. Still, the luscious grapes 
and refreshing wines of the missions are dwelt upon with all the 
delight that contrast can impart by travelers just from the fiery 
ordeal of the Arizona deserts, or the thirsty plains of the Upper 
San Joaquin. The European wine-makers soon improved vastly 
upon the processes and product of the padres, but, in accordance 
with the fast ideas of the early times of California, they impru- 
dently threw their immature product upon the general market, 
and thereby damaged the reputation of California wines to such 
a degree that it is only of late years that the prejudice thus 
created has been overcome, not only in consequence of better 
methods of treatment, and greater maturity of the wines when 
marketed, but also, and most essentially, by the introduction of 
the best grape varieties from all parts of the world. The result 



5qo our western empire. 

is, that at this time, a large part of the wines exported are either 
partially or wholly made of foreign grape varieties, and, as a 
whole, v,^ill compare favorably with the product of any European 
country, while among the choicer kinds now ripening there are 
some that will take rank with the high-priced fancy brands of 
France. It is true that so far all California-grown wines are 
recognizable to experts, a peculiar flavor difficult to define, which 
has been called ' earthy,' recalling to mind that of the wines of 
the Vaud and of some of Burgundy. But this peculiarity re- 
mains unperceived by most persons, and is not comparable in 
intensity to the ' foxy ' aroma of wines made from the American 
grape varieties. 

*' Another prominent peculiarity of the California wines is that 
they are generally of considerable alcoholic strength, as the re- 
sult of the intense and unremitting sunshine under which they 
invariably ripen. This is especially the case in the Los Angeles 
region, whose natural wines are by many, at first blush, thought 
to be ' fortified,' since they not only reach the maximum alcoholic 
strength attainable by fermentation, but even then retain a very 
perceptible amount of unchanged sugar. This circumstance 
interferes, of course, with the safe daily and sanitary use of the 
native wines at home, and explains the fact that as yet a not in- 
considerable amount, of French clarets especially, is imported 
into California for table use by the foreign-born population. 
This folly (for such it must be considered in this point of view) 
has already been in a measure remedied by the use of such 
varieties as the Hungarian ' Yinfandel ' and others of a more acid 
and tart character ; and it is quite probable that it will be found 
desirable to limit the time of exposure of the ripe grapes to the 
su<7ar-makincr autumn sun in order to restrict still further the 
alcoholic strength of some of the wines. Of course, the German 
and French vintners are difficult to convince that there may be 
in California too much of the blessed sunshine, every hour of 
which, in their native climes, adds to the market value of their 
product. This is but one of the many points in which the vini- 
cultural practice of California seems susceptible of improvement. 
We find elsewhere that long experience teaches the vintners of 



CALIFORNIA WINES. 5qI 

each country how to obtain the best possible results under their 
particular conditions; and it is not surprising- that duringr the 
short period of experience had in California, and with the tend- 
ency of Spaniards, Portuguese, Italians, French and Germans to 
introduce each the practice of his own country under circum- 
stances so different, the best methods and uniformity in quality 
should not yet have become fixed. What is true of wine-making 
proper is equally so of the modes of culture. The padres natur- 
ally adopted the system of short pruning prevailing in their own 
country, and the later comers as naturally continued it, and, 
oddly enough, applied it almost indiscriminately to the other 
grape varieties brought from Northern France, Germany and 
Hungary, in some cases even to the varieties of the native 
American stock, altogether unused to such summary treatment. 
The experimental stage in California wine-making is also strik- 
ingly evidenced by the great variety of grapes still found in the 
vineyards of progressive growers, as the result of which we find 
in the markets and in fairs a most tempting and beautiful dis- 
play of the grape varieties of all countries ; and nothing can be 
more convincing as regards the peculiar adaptability of the State 
to this industry than the excellence of most of these, often sur- 
passing in this. respect the best of their kind in their original 
homes. Yet we can hardly wonder at this in a climate which 
allows the currant and the orange to ripen side by side. 

"Another drawback to the quality of the wines thus far is the 
tendency of each vine-grower to make his own wines, involving 
not only an unnecessary multiplication of costly buildings, 
caskage, etc., but also the unfounded assumption that wine- 
making is an easy thing, and can be managed by any one having 
a moderate amount of common sense; whereas, on the contrary, 
the production of the best possible result from a given material 
requires in this case, as in other manufacturing industries, a very 
considerable amount of knowledge and good judgment, which 
can be in some degree replaced by mere practice only in 
countries where long experience has settled all into a regular 
routine. The introduction of large wineries, managed by pro- 
fessional experts (like the magnificent establishment of Buena 



5o2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Vista, near Sonoma Town), has gone far toward redeeming the 
wines of California from the reproach cast upon them by the 
hasty marketing of first crude efforts, which has, until lately, 
caused much of the native product to be sold under foreign 
labels. They have always possessed at least the merit of being 
made of the grape pure and simple, ungallized and unpainted, 
not so much, i)crhaps, as the result of superior virtue of wine- 
makers on the Pacific coast as because the superabundance and 
low price of grapes reduces the temptation to adulterate or 
'correct' the natural product to a minimum. Even within the 
last few years some vineyards In the Interior have been In part 
harvested by turning In hogs; and other uses for the surplus 
product have been sought and found In the making of an excel- 
lent syrup by evaporation of the must. The growing appre- 
ciation and consequent betj;er price of California wines will 
probably hereafter prevent recourse to such expedients. 

"A detailed consideration of the methods of wine-making Is be- 
yond the limits of the present article, but it should be said that 
after the picking of the grapes (usually by Chinese) the means 
and appliances used in the succeeding processes are generally 
(as in other branches of agriculture in California) of the most 
approved and efficient kind, and the operations conducted In the 
most cleanly manner. The reported treading of the grapes by 
the feet of 'Greasers' in the southern part of the State applies 
only to the pommace destined for distillation into brandy ; albeit 
for certain kinds of wine {c. g., Port) the treading process Is 
deemed Indispensable In Europe, and, after all, feet can be 
washed as clean as hands. 

"Again, there are in California, as elsewhere, regions whose 
soil and climate favor the development of the highest qualities 
in wines, while there are others whose product, however abun- 
dant, good-looking, and pleasant to the palate when fresh from 
the vine, will fail, even with the best management, to yield a 
beverage fit for exportation. 

"The volcanic soils of the beautiful valleys of Napa and Sonoma 
have thus far achieved the highest general reputation for wines 
of fine bouquet ; yet even there the products of adjacent vine- 



THE BEST VINEYARDS. 6q^ 

yards sometimes differ widely, and these differences are not yet, 
as a rule, sufficiently considered by the producers, or by those 
who blend the several products for market. The red soils of the 
foot-hills of the Sierra also give high promise of fine wines, and 
in the Coast Range those of the valley of San Jose arc note- 
worthy. The wines made from the sugary berries of Los 
Angeles are, of course, very similar to those of South France, 
Spain and Portugal — fiery, and with a heavy body, but less 
'bouquet ' than those grown farther north. Its least deserving 
wine (if it may be so classed at all) is perhaps the far-famed 
Angelica ; and the mission grape almost alone is in bearing there 
as yet. 

" The vineyards planted on the heavier soils of the Sacramento 
plain yield a large part of the table grapes for the home and 
eastern markets, and seem destined to become one of the chief 
regions for the raisin-making industry, to which the climate of 
the great interior basin is, of course, especially adapted in conse- 
quence of its rainless summers and intense, dry heat, sweetening 
the grape to the utmost, and rendering the curing process easy. 
Owing probably to a combination of favorable soils and good 
managem.ent, some of the Muscatel raisins from near Woodland, 
in Yolo county, have proved fully equal to the highest quality of 
those imported from Malaga. Unfortunately the commercial 
standing of California raisins, like that of its wines, has been in- 
jured by putting into market such as, from the mode of curing, 
did not possess the requisite keeping qualities. The efficient 
drying apparatus now introduced obviates this objection, and 
being accompanied by a superior style of packing, it is probable 
that raisin-making will hereafter take its place, alongside of wine- 
making, among the most important industries of the State, as in- 
deed the increased demand and large advance in price already 
indicates. 

"Brandy-making, also, has not been neglected, but in conse- 
quence of unfavorable Federal legislation has until lately labored 
under great disadvantages. Most of the native 'Aguardiente ' 
has been distilled from pommace, and is, of course, rather hot 
and rank-flavored. In the Los Angeles region it is, to a great 



5o4 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

extent, the ' first run ' of the grapes only that is made into wine, 
no presses being used ; hence the brandy made from the residue 
is of higher quahty. The distillation of brandy from wine itself 
(now so rare in France) from the best of foreign grapes has been 
made a specialty by General H. Naglee, of San Jose, and the 
quality of the product is far above that of any imported now in 
the market. That the extensive importation of grape varieties 
should result in the introduction of their formidable enemy, the" 
Phylloxera, is not surprising ; but we may well wonder at the in- 
difference with which that now well-known fact is regarded by 
the majority of wine-growers, even in districts in which the in- 
sect has already made its appearance, and has shown its power 
for harm. This is due largely to the fortunate, as well as unex- 
pected and hitherto unexplained, circumstance that the progress 
of the pest has been remarkably slow as compared with its sweep- 
ing advance in Europe, though evidently not less sure. It is as 
though the winged form were not produced at all, or very much 
restricted in its powers of locomotion. It therefore seems 
quite possible to check, and perhaps stamp it out by timely pre- 
cautions. But nothing of the kind has been done, and the 
penalty of this neglect has already been dearly paid in the 
Sonoma valley, the region chiefly afflicted. Sonoma Mountain 
seems to have proved an effectual barrier against its transmission 
to the Napa valley. The ravages of the insect are also reported 
from some other localities, but no noteworthv damasfe has thus 
fir been heard of. Of other vine pests, the OidiMni and a kind 
of black knot are the chief; but, on the whole, the damage done 
has been merely local and easily checked, and it may be truth- 
fully said that to the grape vine, as to the human race, the climate 
of California is exceptionally kind." 

'^Forag-e Crops. — The strong tendency of the farming popula- 
tion of California to engage in stock-raising, dairying, and wool- 
growing, and the fact that the rainless summers of the greater 
part of California exclude from its agricultural system, at least 
on unirrigated land, both permanent meadows and clover, render 
absolutely necessary the cultivation of forage plants suitable for 
such climatic conditions. The search for these was early begun 
and is far from being yet concluded. 



FORAGE CROPS. 5^e 

"The most obvious expedient, adopted at the outset, and still 
supplying the bulk of dry forage, is the cutting of the ordinary 
cereal crops for hay before the grain ripens. ' Wheat hay ' and 
'barley hay,' which, with oats similarly cured, constitute the main 
mass of the hay crop, are among the Californian oddities that 
first strike the agricultural immigrant. Most of the late sown 
grain, as well as so much of the early sown as from any cause 
does not promise a good grain crop, and the ' volunteer crop ' 
that commonly springs up from the seed shed in harvesting the 
previous season's grain on land left untilled, is devoted to this 
purpose, for which it generally becomes fit some time in May, 
according to location. Oddly enough, embarrassment not un- 
commonly arises on fresh and strong land, from the fact that the 
straw is so strong and tall as to render it unsuitable for cutting.'- 
into hay. A great deal also is cut at too late a period, when the 
grain is almost full-grown — it being well known that it is then 
that the greatest total weight is harvested ; the quality, however, 
is in that case of course injured. During hay-making time (end 
of April to that of May) the weather is usually so dry that there 
is little difficulty about curing. There are no sudden thunder- 
storms to call for a hasty garnering of the hay. So little danger 
is there that injury from rains will occur after May that the 
shocks are often left exposed for many weeks to the bleaching 
action of dew and sunshine. The regular practice, however, is 
to gather them into large rectangular ricks, built without much 
reference to protection from rain, but mainly with regard to the 
convenience for pressing into bales. This is mostly done by 
contract with gangs or ' pressers,' usually consisting of four men 
with a wagon and press, who perambulate the country from 
June to October. 

" Undoubtedly the most valuable result of the search after 
forage crops adapted to the California climate is the introduction 
of the culture of Alfalfa; this being the name universally applied 
to the variety of Lucerne that was introduced into California 
from Chili early in her history, differing from the European 
plant merely in that it has a tendency to taller growth and 
deeper roots. The latter habit, doubtless acquired in the dry 



6g6 ^<^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

climate of Chili, is of course especially valuable in California, as 
it enables the plant to withstand a drought so protracted as to 
kill out even more resistant plants than red clover; as a substi- 
tute for the latter, it is difficult to over-estimate the importance 
of Alfalfa to California agriculture; which will be more and more 
recognized as a regular system of rotation becomes a part of the 
general practice. At first Alfalfa was used almost exclusively 
for pasture and green-soiling purposes ; but during the last 
three or four years Alfalfa hay has become a regular article in 
the general market, occasional objections to its use being the 
result of want of practice in curing. On the irrigated lands of 
Kern, Fresno, and Tulare counties, three and even four cuts of 
forage, aggregating to something like twelve to fourteen tons 
of hay per acre, have frequently been made. As the most avail- 
able green forage during summer, Alfalfa has become an invalu- 
able adjunct to all dairy and stock-farming, wherever the soil 
can, during the dry season, supply any moisture within two or 
three feet of the surface. 

''Grasses. — Of the ordinary pasture and meadow grasses of 
Europe and the East, but a few have to any extent gone into 
cultivation. One of the most unsuited to the climate, viz., Ken- 
tucky blue grass, is carefully nurtured by daily sprinklings as 
the chief ingredient of lawns, for which the Eastern immig^rant 
generally maintains a preference, often satisfied at an inordinate 
cost of money and labor, and sometimes of health. As water 
for household purposes is almost universally kept under press- 
ure from elevated tanks or water-works, the hose and lawn- 
sprinkler are probably in more general use here than in any 
other country ; and innumerable attacks of rheumatism and 
malarious fever are traceable to their intemperate use, even to 
the injury of the coveted grass itself But few attempts have as 
yet been made to find an acceptable substitute for the costly 
blue-grass lawn. Among those which promise best are the 
Italian rye grass, which remains green all summer without irri- 
gation in the bay climate ; and, with proper treatment, doubtless 
the Bermuda grass could also be used. In either case, fully six 
out of seven weekly sprinklings might be dispensed with. This 



STOCK-BREEDING AND DAIRYING. 607 

rye grass [Lolium Italicum, niultifioruni) has in some districts 
become so naturalized as to be cut for ' volunteer hay,' while at 
other points it is regularly cultivated with irrigation, if needed. 
In the tule lands and other naturally or artificially irrigated 
regions, the soft meadow grass {Ho/cus lanaius), under the sin- 
gularly inappropriate name of ' mezquite,' as well as the orchard 
grass {Dactylis glouierata) have come into use for pasture as 
well as hay ; but the latter is not found in market. So of the 
millets {^Paiiicum Italiczim, Germanicum), which are locally in 
use. Of late various species and varieties of sorghum are com- 
ing into favor; among these especially the Dhurra, or Egyptian 
corn, and the pearl millet {Pe7iicilla7^a spicata). Other forage 
plants are under trial in various portions of the State ; but thus 
far none can compare in importance with the cereal grasses and 
Alfalfa. It is probable that hereafter some of the native grasses 
and clovers, now considered as weeds only, will be found profit- 
able for culture. 

'' StocJz-breedmg and Dairying. — Prior to the American occu- 
pation, the breeding of sheep, horses, and, to a less extent, of 
neat cattle, roaming in flocks over the extensive ranches, was 
the chief occupation of the inhabitants ; and to a great extent 
the remnant of the original Spanish-Mexican population still 
clings to the old pursuit, which affords an easy livefihood, and 
permits of indulgence in that dolce far niente which seems to be 
impossible to the 'Americanos,' however varied may be the 
nationalities that compose the population of the United States. 
It thus happens that even where the ' ranche ' and stock are 
owned by Americans, the herders are to a great extent still the 
native 'vaqueros,' who, mounted on their hardy mustangs, and 
with the old-time lasso (more properly ' lazo '), coiled around 
the horn of their high Mexican saddles, and rarely more than a 
rope to guide their steed, may be seen careering around the 
steep hill-sides with a disregard of all the ordinary precautions 
against the breaking of necks, that is quite straining to the 
nerves of novice lookers-on. As a matter of fact, accidents very 
rarely happen to these wild riders ; and their efficiency in keep- 
ing in bounds and ' corraling ' the cattle intrusted to their care, 



5o8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

on the most rugged ground, is remarkable. It Is but fair to say, 
however, that their practice has been quite successfully imitated 
by other nationalities, and that many a swarthy herdsman now- 
a-days responds more promptly to the Saxon or Norse saluta- 
tion than to that of the Mexican-Spanish dialect. 

"The purely pastoral method of stock-raising is, of course, 
gradually receding before the advance of agriculture proper to 
the more thinly settled regions ; maintaining itself, however, in 
some of the large ranches owned by parties declining to sell to 
small farmers. The obvious disadvantage of being entirely at 
the mercy of the seasons, thus sometimes losing in a single dry 
year all the increase of a previous succession of favorable ones, 
has gone far toward the introduction of a safer system, in which 
the hardy and nutritious Alfalfa serves to carry reduced numbers 
of stock of correspondingly higher quality safely through the 
dry months. In few States, probably, is the value of improved 
breeds more highly appreciated than in California ; and nowhere, 
probably, can the best strains of the more important breeds be 
seen in greater perfection. The one domestic animal of com- 
mon note, not as well represented in California as elsewhere, is 
the hog ; the obvious cause of the comparative neglect being the 
absence of a sufficiently long and regular period of freezing 
weather, whereby the safe packing and curing of pork, hamr-, 
etc., is rendered too precarious. While, therefore, fresh pori: 
of excellent quality is commonly found in the markets, the sup- 
plies of bacon, ham, and lard are, as a rule, furnished by the 
Western States, and partly by Oregon. Foremost in numbers 
among the rest is undoubtedly the sheep, in its double capacity 
of wool-bearer and producer of some of the best mutton in the 
world; a combination which has doubtless contributed much to 
the preference given it on the part of the somewhat inert native 
population. Easily satisfied with scanty pasturage, and in the 
southern part of the State scarcely needing shelter, the sheep is 
the very animal ^or the swarthy inhabitant of the adobe house, 
who loves to take his ease lounging on the airy veranda, asking 
of fate no luxury beyond a due allowance of cigaritos, and not 
at all envious of the greater comforts and riches of his unquiet, 
hard-working, and ever-scheming Saxon neighbor. 



CALIFORNIA SHEEP. gOQ 

"The common sheep of the country, while far from being a 
high-bred animal, is yet superior in many points to the stock 
commonly found in other countries, and its adaptation to the 
climate has rendered it profitable in cases where improved stock 
failed to pay. The Spanish Merino, whose blood doubtless runs 
in the veins of the native stock, seems to be best adapted to its 
improvement, and the best of this breed has been imported into 
the State. The wool-clip is among the most important products 
of South California ; but it would seem that the attainment of 
the highest quality requires some change from the natural con- 
ditions of pasturage, which present too great a contrast between 
the wet and dry seasons to insure perfect uniformity of the fibre. 
This, however, can undoubtedly be accomplished by the intro- 
duction of the proper forage plants. In dry seasons, such a;? 
that of 1876-77, the mortality among the larger flocks has some- 
times amounted almost to annihilation. The sheep-owners of 
the plains, in order to save something, have driven their flocks 
to the foot-hills and valleys of the high Sierras, leaving their 
route marked with the festering carcasses of the weaker animals, 
and sweeping every green thing before them, to the dismay of 
the dwellers in the invaded regions, who were thus sometimes 
themselves reduced to extremities. In ordinary seasons, this 
migration has its regular methods and routes, the herds ascend- 
ing the mountains in the wake of the summer's drought, and 
returning to the foot-hills or plains to winter. 

" Of other fleece-bearing animals the Angora or Shawl goat has 
attracted considerable attention, and seems to succeed well ; but 
the industry has not as yet assumed large proportions, chiefly, it 
seems, on account of the want of a regular market sustained by 
competition among the purchasers. 

''Of Horses. — The Mexican mustang, a rather undersized yet 
hardy and serviceable, but proverbially tricky, race, descended 
from the Spanish breed, and therefore far from being inferior 
blood, still forms the greater portion of the horses in common 
use in California. The larger American horse brought from the 
Eastern States, although preferred for heavy work, is not so 
well adapted to the mountains, and requires higher feeding. 

39 



6 10 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The two varieties are, of course, rapidly mixing, and better 
blood than that of many California studs it would be hard to find 
anywhere. Fast horses and fast men have here, perhaps, more 
than elsewhere been the bane of the ao-ricultural fairs, whose 
real and important objects have, until lately, been most 
frequently swallowed up in that of an opportunity for betting" 
and horse-racing, to the disgust of the agriculturists. The in- 
troduction of the more useful breeds has not, however, been 
neglected, as is evidenced by the fine Norman and Percheron 
dray-horses seen on the streets of San Francisco. A tolerable 
riding-horse can probably be bought for less money in California 
than anywhere else in the United States, the mustangs (which 
are generally of light build) being bred in large herds on pas- 
tures, with little care and therefore little expense. But when 
the excursionist pays twenty or thirty dollars for his steed he 
must not expect to find it trained to gentleness and affection, for 
the ' breaking-in ' process which these animals undergo on the 
ranches has but few of the features that Mr. Rarey would recom- 
mend. The unwary horseman will pay for his experience by 
many an unexpected nip or kick, or by being left on foot at in- 
convenient distances from his destination, in consequence of a 
dexterous slip of the rein from his arm, a sudden rush under a 
tree with low branches, or a 'bucking' process of exceptional 
suddenness and violence. The mustang will, ordinarily, abandon 
these practices in proportion as it feels that the rider is 'up to' 
its tricks ; but the latter should never be found altogether off his 
guard against them, as he might safely do with a well-educated 
horse. 

" The neat cattle of California, previous to the American occupa- 
tion, were chiefly of a type whose ancestry may still be seen on 
the pastures of Andalusia — a middle-sized race, lightly built, 
bearing medium, long, but aggressively-pointed horns, which, 
combined with an irritable temperament and a fair capacity for 
speed, render the proximity of a herd of these cattle not 
altogether pleasant to the novice. Like its cousin, tb- Texas 
Long-horn, now familiar to the West, it is a hardy, prolific race, 
yielding a fair quality of beef, and a thick and tough hide, well 



NEAT CATTLE OF CALIFORNIA. 6ll 

adapted eidier to the production of sole leather or to that of the 
strong rawhide thongs, which serve the Mexicans in place of 
rope, twine, nails and other domestic appliances deemed indis- 
pensable by more pampered nations. As milkers, however, its 
cows are a failure ; nor are its oxen remarkable for either docility 
or disposition to engage in agricultural pursuits, being the natural 
result of a nomadic life on wild pastures, from which they were 
driven in and ' corraled,' for branding or slaughtering, only a few 
times in the course of the year. All this, of course, has mate« 
rially changed since the advent of the American. The immi- 
grants brought their cattle with them over the plains, and found' 
no reason to exchange the progeny of these for the pugnacious 
natives. The latter have, therefore, greatly diminished in num- 
bers, and are little seen In the more populous regions, retiring 
before the advance of culture like their original masters. The 
gentler race that accompanied the Americans across the Rocky 
Mountains now dots the plains and foot-hills of the Great Valley 
of California ; and since their weaker brethren mostly perished' 
on that trying and weary voyage, a process of selection has taken 
place, as a result of which the worst breeds of ' scrubs ' are rarely 
seen in the State. Moreover, the tendency to improvement that 
is so apparent in tlie use of perfected appliances of every kind 
has manifested itself at least equally in the Importation of the 
best breeds of neat cattle, among which the Short-horn, Jersey, 
Alderney and Ayrshire, and to some extent the Devon, have 
found especial acceptance, and are represented by some of their 
best strains. Much discussion prevails as yet in regard to the 
relative merits of the various breeds under the peculiar climatic 
conditions of California ; but already they are beginning to be- 
come localized In accordance with their several adaptations to 
local climates, which can be found to suit all ; and perhaps in^ 
time the tawny race of the Swiss Alps will find a congenial range 
on the Sierra Nevada. 

"The production of beef is as yet limited by the requirements 
of home consumption; but the dairy Interest Is rapidly assuming 
a wider range, and with an increasing knowledge of the modifi- 
cations of the processes demanded by climatic conditions, the 



5t2 . OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

quality of dair)^ products is improving so much tliat as a market 
for all but the choicest kinds, California will soon be closed to 
the Eastern producer, and will, perhaps, compete with him in 
foreign markets. The average quality of the milk supplied to 
San Francisco and Oakland, from the numerous ' dairy ranches ' 
on the coast and bay and in the Coast Range, is greatly superior 
to that generally found in Eastern cities ; one obvious reason 
being that in the absence of distilleries there is no opportunity 
or temptation to feed the cows on unhealthy offal ; nor do the 
sleek and healthy cows that range the breezy hills of the coast 
ever need to be propped or slung up in order to enable them to 
stand the milking process. ,It is believed that an undue increase 
of bulk from a too free use of the pump is all that the milk con- 
sumers of these cities ever have to complain of. 

''Builcr is now very generally of fair quality, some brands 
being quite up to the 'gilt-edge' standard. It is usually sold in 
rolls supposed to weigh two pounds, but in reality always several 
ounces below that weight — a circumstance so well understood,, 
however, that the practice hardly amounts to deception. The 
price per roll rarely falls below fifty cents to the consumer, and 
rano-es more generally from sixty cents to $i.io about Christmas 
time, when even that which has been packed in casks with salt 
during the spring and summer brings seventy cents. 

"The intimate connection (to the housekeeper at least) of 
butter with eggs suggests a few words on that subject in this 
place. The demand for eggs is unusually large in California 
cities, in consequence of the commonly prevailing practice of not 
only single men and women, but also small families in moderate 
circumstances, living in lodgings, and taking an easily made 
breakfast of eggs, bread and coffee, thereafter going to the res- 
taurant for dinner, and thus avoiding the pains and pleasures of 
housekeeping. Whatever may be said of the desirability of this 
practice in a social point of view, it manifests its effects in the 
price of eggs, which rarely falls below thirty cents per dozen to 
the consumer, and is more frequently among the fifties and up- 
ward ; even so, fowls cannot often be bought at less than eighty 
cents apiece, and ^i is a common price. Poultry-keeping is 



BEES IN CALIFORNIA. 5j>, 

therefore a very remunerative pursuit when judiciously managed, 
since feed is as cheap as elsewhere ; and it is one of the indus- 
tries which have not, as yet, been overdone. There are no 
special difficulties to be overcome in poultry-raising in Califor- 
nia ; yet a great deal of money has been lost in attempts made 
by persons unfamiliar with its proper management. There is no 
lack of the improved breeds, but among them the Leghorns seem 
to enjoy the widest acceptance at this time. 

'' Apiaculture is common throughout the State, and nowhere is 
the product of the bee of finer flavor, or marketed in a more 
attractive form. The best of improved hives are in common use, 
and the market is always supplied with the frames filled with the 
delicate, almost white, comb. Of course the improved varieties 
of bees have been introduced, and in the southern part of the 
State especially this industry is practised on a scale not often tb 
be met with elsewhere, as can readily be seen from the figures 
showing the export, amounting in 1878 to no less than three and 
a half millions of pounds. How kindly the honey-bee takes to 
even the desert region of that country is well illustrated in what 
has been supposed by many to be a ' snake ' story, but what is 
an unquestionable fact; namely, that some miner?, prospecting^ 
in Arizona, struck a regular 'fissure vein' of honey in a rock^ 
ridge, where the bees had been making deposits for years, and, 
although the vein-contents were not what they had been search- 
ing for, they took to it kindly and worked it, extracting therefrom 
\\ fabulous amount of honey. Another adventurous colony took 
possession of the court-house cupola at San Bernardino, and had 
accumulated several hundred pounds of honey when discovered. 
The bee is very fond of the flower of the mountain sage {Arte- 
misia), as well as of a number of odier desert plants, and is thus 
afforded unlimited pasture through three-fourths of the year. It 
seems that certain kinds of flowers, not yet identified, impart to 
the honey a tendency to become turbid after straining, from the 
separation of minute white crystals, whose nature has not as yet 
been ascertained. Such honey, whose other qualities are gener-- 
ally of the highest, has been unjustly suspected of adulteration 
in Eastern and English markets. The prejudice arising from 



^j . OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

(his merely conventional defect will soon be overcome, and South 
California will doubtless become one of the largest, if not the 
largest, honey-producing country of the world. 

''Silk-culture is at present almost extinct in California in con- 
sequence of the reaction against the mania for this industry that 
i^eean in the State some eig^hteen years agfo and raofed with 
unabated fury for several years, inflicting severe losses upon 
those who indulged in the popular delusion that the silk-worm 
would thrive in the State without any special precautions in the 
way of shelter and such intelligent care as can be given only by 
those versed in its treatment. Some of the airy sheds that were} 
supposed to be an adequate protection against the compara- 
tively slight changes of temperature are still extant, as monu- 
ments of that flush period when mulberry trees were thought to 
t>e the only nursery stock worth having. It can hardly be 
■doubted that the advantages offered by a climate in which th(i 
food of the worm is available during all but two or three months 
in the year, yet free from the excessive heat that elsewhere mili- 
tates against the insect's well-being, will ultimately assert them- 
selves in the resumption of silk-culture in a calmer mood. It 
has been very successfully kept up, on a small scale, by Mr. 
^ustavus Neumann, of San Francisco, showing pretty conclu- 
sively that it is not the nature of the climate, but adverse com- 
mercial and industrial circumstances that at present keep the 
rise of silk-culture in check," 

The tables on page 615 show the leading agricultural products 
of the State (except grapes and wine) for the year 1878 as esti- 
mated by the Agricultural Department; the statistics of 1879 
are not yet received. They give also the estimated live-stock 
of the State in January, 1879. 

In regard to items not entering into these statistics, we may 
say that in 1877 California had 30,000,000 grape vines, most of 
them in bearing, one county (Los Angeles) alone having over 
16,000,000 ; of fruit trees, common to temperate climates, 340,000 
in bearing, and of sub-tropical fruit trees, the almond, lemon, 
Drange, olive, fig, etc.. 500,000. Of wine 6,400,000 gallons were 
exported in 1S77 over the Central Pacific Railway, and about 



C/i:OPS AND LIVE- STOCK JN CALIFORNIA. 615 

45,000,000 pounds of wool, beside die large amount retained for 
home consumption. Of salmon, mostly in tins, 7,841,680 pounds 
were shipped eastward in 1877 ; of borax 536,000 pounds. 



Crops. 




Quantity 


Av'ge yield 


Number of acres 


V.ilue per 
bushel or 




Products. 




produced. 


per acre. 


cf each crop. 


ton. 




1 Indian corn 


bushels 


3,467,250 


34-5 


100,500 


.60 


$2,080,350 


Wheat . 




41,990,000 


17- 


2,470,000 


1.03 


43,240.700 


Rye . . 




195,000 


15- 


13,000 


•75 


146,250 


Oats . . 




4,350,000 


30- 


145,000 


.69 


3,001,500 


Barley . 




14,950,000 


23- 


650,000 


.65 


9,717,500 


Potatoes . 




4,377.600 


114. 


38,400 


.98 


4,290,048 


jHay . . 


tons 


1,271,000 


2.05 


( 20,000 
4,036,900 


12.61 


16,027,310 

$78,512,658 


i 











Li ve-stock . — Ani mals. 


Number. 


Average price. 


Value. 


Horses .... 

Mules 

Milch cows . 

Oxen and other cattle 

Sheep 

Swine 


273,000 
25,700 

459,600 
1,010,000 
6,889,000 

565,000 


;^43-95 
66. 24 

25.90 

18.91 

1.61 

5-95 


$11,998,350 

1,702.36s j 

11,903 640 

19,099,100 

I 1,091.290 

3.361,750 

^59.156.498 



Mmiufacturing Products. — California, not content with being 
the richest agricultural State and one of the best minini^ States 
of '* Our Western Empire," aspires also to a high rank as a manu- 
facturing State, for which, indeed, she has many facilides. Her 
earliest manufactures were connected with her mining interests, 
mining implements and machinery, and generally, miners' sup- 
plies. In these she has been remarkably successful, and at the 
present time some of the best mining machinery known is pro- 
duced at San Francisco, and in other California cities ; the excep- 
tional size and excellence of her forest trees led to the produc- 
tion of lumber for mining, building, and railroad purposes, and 
to the finer manufactures of wood as furniture, etc.; the vast 
herds of cattle and the great quantities of hides placed upon her 
market led to the establishment of tanneries and to the produc- 
tion of leather for harness, saddles, hunters' trappings, etc., a 
class of manufactures very greatly to the taste of her Hispano- 



(5 J 6 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

American population ; and her vast flocks of sheep made her 
chief city one of the best wool markets in the country and stimu- 
lated manufactures of several classes of woollen goods, in which 
she has attained great excellence. Her immense production of 
wheat led to the establishment of extensive flouring mills, and 
the San Francisco flour has a great reputation. The develop- 
ment of grape culture naturally led to the manufacture of wine 
and brandy. Carriages and wagons, and iron manufactures and 
iron castings were the outcome of the production of mining 
machinery and miners' supplies. Of other manufactures, most 
have grown out of her commerce. She buys largely of unmanu- 
factured tobacco, which is made up there into cigars, chewing 
and smokino- tobacco. The raw surar received from the Sand- 
wich Islands is manufactured into refined sugar, syrup, and can- 
dies ; and the bags in which her grain is exported are manufac- 
tured in her own mills. Gunpowder, dynamite, giant-powder, 
and chemicals, which also figure among her products, are mostly 
in demand for the mining districts and miners' supplies. What 
amount of capital is invested in her manufactures, and what is 
the annual value of the products now, it is difficult to say. In 
1870 the amount of capital reported (and very much under- 
stated) by the census was ^39,728,202, and the annual product 
stated was ^66,594,556. It would undoubtedly be three times 
the amount, if not more, in both cases at the present time. 

Mining Products. — The official statement of the production of 
gold and silver in California in 1879 gives $18,190,973 as the 
amount, but this does not include considerable sums forwarded 
to the East in private hands, nor the amount used for manufac- 
turing and other purposes in the State, nor what was on hand 
at the mines, mills, and smelting works at the close of the year, 
but only what was either deposited at the mint or passed through 
the express com.panies. There is to be added to this also about 
5^1,000,000 worth of lead (5.55 per cent.), parted from the silver 
in the smelting works. Dr. Rossiter W. Raymond, late United 
States Mining Commissioner, and now editor of the Mining 
Excha7ige yournal, the highest authority on this subject, esti- 
mates that, throughout all these mining States and Territories, 



JiAILlVAYS IN CALIFORNIA. 617 

and especially in California, the gold and silver product is only 
about one-tenth of all the mineral products of the State ; that 
the quicksilver, platinum, copper, lead, iron, tin, coal, borax, soda, 
salt, sulphur, gypsum, marble, granite and other building stone, 
mineral waters, etc., together aggregate nine times as much as 
the precious metals. However it may be with the other mining 
States and Territories, this estimate probably very closely ap- 
proximates the truth in California ; so that we may put the entire 
amount of mining and mineral products for the year 1879 ^^ 
about ^181,900,000. 

Raihuays. — The present railway system of California is very 
simple, though it traverses almost the entire State. The Central 
Pacific and its branches, one of which stretches up almost to the 
Oregon boundary, and others extend to Calistoga, San Jose, 
Santa Cruz, Soledad, and Monterey; and the Southern Pacific, 
«:omposed mainly of the same stockholders and directors, extend 
from Redding on the north to Fort Yuma in the southeast and 
from the Nevada line to a dozen places on or near the coast. 
The Central Pacific extends to Ogden, where it joins the Union 
Pacific ; and the Southern Pacific, crossing the Colorado at Yuma, 
has nearly traversed Arizona, and is making its way as rapidly 
as possible to El Paso on the Rio Grande. The Southern 
Pacific is now pressing forward its construction with all speed, 
intending by arrangements with roads already built, to make its 
eastern terminus within a twelvemonth at Galveston, Texas, 
and thus find an outlet for the rich products of Southern California, 
by way of the Mexican gulf, and the Atlantic. Two other roads 
are proposing to enter California at the south; the Atchison, 
Topeka, and Santa Fe, or its extension, the St. Louis and San 
Francisco, already beyond Santa Fe, will probably cross Arizona 
on or near the thirty-fifth parallel, and, sending one branch 
through the rich Mexican State of Sonora, make one terminus 
at Guaymas on the Gulf of California, and another either at 
Santa Barbara or San Diego ; while the Texas Pacific, following 
the valley of the Gila river, will also make its western terminus 
at San Diego. With the exception of the completion of the 
Oregon Railway and the extension of some two or three 



5i8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

branches to the coast, these seem to be nearly all the railways 
whicli are practicable for the State. 

Commerce and Navigation of iJie State. — The two customs 
districts of San Francisco and San Diego (the latter, however, 
being of only small account) stand third in the United States in 
the amount of their imports, which in 1879 were $35,105,639, sixth 
in the amount of their exports, which were in 1879 $35-575-838, 
and second in the amount of foreign exports, which were the 
same year $4,1 1 7,886. 

The number of vessels entering these two seaports from for- 
eign countries in 1879 was 579, having a tonnage ot 645,262 
tons; the number which cleared for foreign ports was 676, 
having a tonnage of 752,431 tons, in both cases about equally 
divided between American and foreign vessels. 

The vessels engaged in the coasting trade and fisheries are 
not reported at the custom houses, except when they have for- 
eign goods on board, so that the greater part of the coasting 
trade is not reported. But of the number which come under 
the conditions, there were 382 vessels entered of 417,992 tons, 
and 3S9 vessels cleared with an aggregate of 378,627 tons. The 
number of registered, enrolled and licensed vessels in the two 
districts was 918, their tonnage 200,319 tons. 

But the greatest commerce of the State is conducted over her 
railways. We have no returns of this commerce later than the 
close of 1878, and these only over the Central Pacific and its 
branches, which, however, carries the greater part of the freight. 
The freiglit over this road in that year was 3,575,573,390 pounds 
= 1, 787, 7S6TV(fo tons — and the freight received therefor was 
1^10,802,276. 

The ocean steamers from the port of San Francisco ply be- 
tween that port and Panama, between that port and the Sand- 
wich Islands, and those crossing the Pacific go to Hong Kong and 
Yokohama. There is also an indirect steamer trade, and a 
direct one with sailing vessels with the South American ports on 
the west coast, and with Australia, New Zealand and the islands 
of the southern seas. 

Bajiks. — There are seven national banks in California, all re- 



CALIFORNIA AS A HEALTH RESORT. 5t0 

deeming their own notes in gold, as all the California banks 
have done since 1861. These banks have a capital of ^4,000,000 
and a circulation of ^1,534,000, and a large amount of deposits. 
There are besides these 115 State banks and trust companies, 
private banking houses and savings banks, with an aggregate 
capital of ^31,707,107, and deposits in December, 1879, of 
•^81,019,951. Some of the private banking houses do an im- 
mense business. 

California as a Health Resoi^t. — The data which we have 
already given show conclusively that the coast region of Cali- 
fornia from San Francisco southward, with its small annual 
range of temperature, and the very slight mean difference be- 
tween the averages of the winter and summer months, its clear, 
dry and bracing air, and its abundant nitrogenous food and lus- 
cious fruits, is the best region to which an invalid with weak lungs 
or a tendency to predominance of the white tissues could pos- 
sibly come. What has been deduced theoretically from these 
premises proves to be true in practice ; there is no better cli- 
mate for consumptives, scrofulous persons, or those of ansemic 
tendency than the coast of California from the 38th parallel 
southward. The ocean winds may be a little harsh at San Fran- 
cisco, though the temperature is otherwise unobjectionable ; but 
at San Jose, Santa Cruz, Monterey, Soledad, Santa Barbara, San 
Buenaventura, Los Angeles, Florence, Anaheim, Wilmington, 
San Bernardino and San Diego, the climate is simply perfect. 
Farther north, from the 39th to the 42d parallel, the mountains 
come closer to the coast, the shores are forbidding and very 
sparsely inhabited, and the rains are too many and too heavy to 
make it pleasant. The valleys between the Sierras and the Coast 
Range are very pleasant in winter, but the summers are intensely 
hot and dry. On the mountain slopes there is every variety of 
climate, but Lake Tahoe, the Yosemite and the Sequoia groves, 
though healthful and pleasant summer resorts, are not spe- 
cially adapted to invalids of this class. Many of the mineral 
springs of the State have a high reputation for rheumatic and 
cutaneous diseases. The Warm Springs of Calistoga, in Napa 
county, and the Sulphur Springs and waters at the "Geysers," 
not far distant, are largely visited by invalids. 



520 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Population. — The population of California in 1870 was, ex- 
cluding tribal Indians, 560,247 ; with these Indians, 582,031. Of 
these 499,424 were whites, 4,272 colored (/. <?., of African de- 
scent), 49,310 Chinese and Japanese, 7,241 civilized, and 21,784 
tribal Indians. Of the 560,247 inhabitants (exclusive of tribal 
Indians), 349,479 were males, and 210,768 were females. The 
census of 1880 makes the population, exclusive of tribal In- 
dians, 864,686, or with them, about 875,350. The number of 
persons of African descent has probably moderately increased; 
the Chinese are stated by the census as only 51,000, but the 
largest accessions to the population have been from the Eastern 
States and from Great Britain, Germany, the Scandinavian States, 
and other European countries. 

Of late years there has been violent opposition on the part of 
a portion of the workingmen and some other classes in the State 
to the influx of Chinese immigrants, of w^hom considerable num- 
bers had come into California as house-servants, mechanics, rail- 
road laborers and miners. The Chinese have been very useful 
in all these capacities, and have unquestionably added materially 
to the wealth of the State, but it is objected, that they work for 
lower wages than other workingmen ; that they send back their 
money and their bones to China, and many of them return 
thither themselves carrying their earnings with them ; that they 
are addicted to opium-eating and other vices ; that the Chinese 
women do not migrate hither, and that their habits and modes 
of life are uncleanly. Moreover they are idolaters or at least 
heathen, and are under the control of the six Chinese companies 
in San Francisco, who contract for their labor, and govern and 
rule them absolutely. There are, undoubtedly, valid objections 
to the admission of a class of laborers in a community, who are 
wholly foreign to our religion, Innguage, customs and authority, 
who are reallythe subjects of a foreign and irresponsible power,and 
especially when the greater part of them are coolies, or in reality 
the slaves of the Chinese companies, who exercise over them a 
really absolute authority. The difficulty is enhanced when these 
foreigners do not, and cannot, become nor seek to become 
citizens. As General Garfield has well said, their coming " is too 



THE CHINESE IN CALIFORNIA. 521 

much like an importation to be welcomed without restriction, too 
much like an invasion to be looked upon without solicitude. 
We cannot consent to allow any form of servile labor to be 
introduced among us under the guise of immigration." Still 
the objections urged against the Chinese as a race, and which 
have led to serious riots and great injustice against them, seem 
at this distance trivial. Our country boasts, that it is the refuge 
and home of the oppressed of all nations, and if some of these 
objections are to be regarded as valid against the Chinese, it 
might be well to inquire whether most of them might not be 
urged with the same propriety against other nationalities, some 
of which are now the bitterest persecutors of the Orientals. 

It is rather because of the danger of the introduction of 
a servile class wholly irresponsible to our laws and institutions , 
than from any regard to the demonstrations of the hoodlums an^I 
dangerous classes of the Pacific coast, and the demagogue 
leaders who have urged them on, that our government, recog- 
nizing its duties and responsibilities to a nation, with whom all 
our relations have been as friendly as they have been with China, 
have sent a commission composed of three of our most eminent 
citizens to treat concerning these and other matters, with the 
Chinese government, and while preventing this coolie immigration, 
to encourage the coming of respectable Chinese citizens and 
their families. We must admit these, and, admitting them, we 
are firmly persuaded that the dawn of the twentieth century will 
see a population of not less than ten millions of Chinese in 
"Our Western Empire." 

Education. — ^The educational position of California is worthy 
of all praise. No child in the State need grow up in ignorance. 
She has a permanent school-fund of about ^2,000,000, but her 
annual expenditures for her public schools alone exceed ^5,000,- 
000, and include a tax of ten cents on every hundred dollars of 
taxable property. Her teachers are well paid, and somewhat 
more than ^2,000,000 is expended annually for teachers' wages. 
There are, besides these public schools, which are free to the 
children of the whole State, a great number of private and 
endowed academies, institutes and high schools for secondary 



^22 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

instruction ; many of them of the highest character. A State 
university, well endowed both by the State and United States; 
a State normal school, an agricultural college, and a military 
academy, all well and efficiendy managed, and thirteen other 
universities and colleges, mostly sustained by the different reli- 
gious denominations. These have i8o professors and about 
2,500 students, and property, including their permanent funds, 
to the amount of about $2,500,000. There are also professional 
schools of law, medicine, theology and science, and there is now 
building an observatory in an eligible site, endowed most liber- 
ally by a former citizen of California, Mr. James Lick. 

CJuirches. — Every denomination known in the United States 
has its representatives in California. The Roman Catholics 
have several dioceses and one arch-diocese there, nearly 200 
priests, and an adherent population (estimated) of somewhat 
more than 100,000 persons, made up of Mexicans, Spanish, Irish, 
Germans, Italians and some Americans. The Methodists are 
probably quite as numerous, having about 225 churches and a 
still larger number of preachers. The Presbyterian churches 
have somewhat more than 100 churches and ministers. The 
Baptists about ninety churches. The " Christian " connection 
and the Disciples about fifty churches. The Protestant Episco- 
pal about fifty-five churches; the Congregatlonallsts about 
seventy churches. There are also " Friends," Jewish Syna- 
gogues, " Evangelical Association," Lutherans, German Re- 
formed "United Brethren in Christ," Unitarians, Unlversallsts, 
New Jerusalem Church, Second Adventists, Greek Church, six 
Spiritualist organizations, four Mormon churches, seven Chinese 
congregations with five temples, etc., etc. 

Counties and Cilics. — There are fifty-three counties in the 
State, some of them of great extent, but sparsely inhabited. 
The most populous counties (most of them also the smallest in 
area) are San Francisco, Alameda, Sacramento, Santa Clara, 
Sonoma, San Joaquin, Nevada, Los Angeles, Solano, Placer, 
Butte, Humboldt, Yuba, Amador, Napa, Yolo, Mendocino, Mon- 
terey and Contra Costa. Of cities and towns San Francisco 
has, by the census of 1880, 233,956 inhabitants. It is much the 





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TH£ FUTURE OF CALIFORNIA. 623 

largest city on the Pacific coast and has an extensive commerce 
and a large amount of manufacturing. Sacramento, the capital 
of the State, had 16,283 inhabitants in 1870, and the census of 
1880 gives it 21,420. Oakland, across the bay from San Fran- 
cisco, had 34.556 in 1880 ; San Jose, 1 2,567 ; Los Angeles, 1 1.31 1 ; 
and Stockton in the San Joaquin valley 10,287 inhabitants; Marys- 
ville, Santa Cruz, San Diego, and Santa Barbara are the other 
towns of importance. 

California, as the gateway of the Pacific, holds a different 
position to " Our Western Empire " from any other State or 
Territory in it. With its fine climate, its vast extent ol fertile 
soil, its rich and abundant pasturage, its great mineral wealth, 
its extensive commerce, and its growing manufactures, it has a 
career before it much like that of the State of New York on the 
Atlantic coast. If it shall shake off the death-grapple of the 
horde of political communists and demagogues, the miserable 
miscreants, who call themselves " workingmen," but most of 
whom never did an honest day's work in their lives, who are 
now trying to throttle it, it will have a great and glorious future 
as the leading State of this great Western Empire ; but if not — 



CHAPTER IV. 
COLORADO. 



Situation, Boundaries, Area — Topography — Mountains, Valleys, Plains, 
Parks, Rivers, Lakes, Canons — Climate, Soil, and Vegetation — Geol- 
ogy, Mineralogy, Animals — Mines and Mining Industry — The Extra- 
ordinary Development of Mining in the Staie since 1875 — Mining Dis- 
tricts — Farming — Stock-raising — Wool-growing — Railroads — Com- 
merce — Population — Increase since 1870 — Counties — Education — 
Churches — The Future of Colorado. 

Colorado, often called " the Centennial State," because it was 
admitted to the Union in 1876, the year of our Centennial 
celebration of our national existence, is situated very nearly in 
the centre of " Our Western Empire," the distance in a direct 



524 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

line being about the same to St. Louis and to San Francisco — 
to the frontier of British America and to that of Mexico. It Hes 
between the thirty-seventh and the forty-first parallels of north 
latitude, and between the load and the 109th meridians of longi- 
tude west from Greenwich. Its width from north to south is 
about 280 miles, and its length from east to west about 370 
miles. Its area is 104,500 square miles, or 66,880,000 acres. 

The great plains which stretch from the Missouri river to the 
foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, rising slowly but steadily with 
each mile of their advance westward, have attained, when they 
reach the mountains, an elevation of between 6,000 and 7,000 
feet above the sea. Eastern Colorado, for about three-sevenths 
of its extent, from east to west, consists of the most elevated 
part of these plains, which reach as far as Denver. West of the 
105th meridian come the Rocky Mountains, which here attain 
their greatest breadth. The mountains consist of several prin- 
cipal ranges (which, however, do not extend continuously from 
north to south, but are broken off and made irregular by the 
great parks which are a feature of the mountains in Colorado), 
and of numerous spurs or short ranges extending westward, 
southwestward and northwestward, and terminating usually in 
broad plateaux, which are suddenly broken off by the deep 
canons of the Green, Grand, and other tributaries of the Colo- 
rado of the West. It is a feature of the Rocky Mountains, and 
perhaps of all mountain chains on this continent, that the eastern 
slope of each range is generally much more gradual than the 
western, and that the ascent, even of its highest summits, is less 
difficult on the eastern than the western face. The western 
slope of each range is generally precipitous and sometimes im- 
practicable. The ranges in their order, beginning with the east- 
ernmost, are the Colorado Front Range, which, though adopting 
some local names in the southern part of its course, extends from 
the northern to the southern bounds of the State. It has several 
lofty peaks, among which are Mount Evans, Mount Rosalia, Pike's 
Peak, and Chief Mountain. The first three are over 14,000 feet 
in height. The next in order is the Northern Colorado or Main 
Range, which joins the Front Range at the northern face of the 



COLORADO MOUNTAINS. 535 

South Park. It has three summits above 14,000 feet, and three 
above 13,000; the first three are Gray's Peak, Irwin's Peak, and 
Long's Peak ; the second three, Arapahoe Peak, Mount Guyot, 
and James Peak. Bald Mountain, in Gilpin county, 10,322 feet, 
is also in this range. The Park Range, between which and the 
preceding are situated the three gr^at parks, North, Middle and 
South, extends from the northern border of the State nearly to 
the Arkansas river, in latitude 38° 40'. This range has six sum- 
mits of 14,000 feet or above, viz. : Buckskin Mountain, Mount 
Cameron, Horseshoe Mountain, Mount Lincoln, Quandary Peak, 
Silverheels, and Sheep Mountain, 12,589 feet. 

The Sawatch or Saguache Range, which is reckoned a part of 
the Main Range, begins at the Grand river and extends south as 
far as the Saguache river, where it sends out a spur to the south- 
west, known as the Cochetopa Hills — has ten summits, all but 
one of them over 14,000 feet ; these are : Mount Antero, Mount 
Elbert, Mount Harvard, Holy Cross Mountain, La Plata, Mas- 
sive Mountain, Mount Princeton, Shavano and Mount Yale, 
while Mount Grizzly is 13,956 feet in height. 

Between the Saguache and the Park ranges is interposed, in 
Southern Colorado, the Sanorre de Christo Rangfe, which has 
four summits over 14,000 feet; one of them, Blanca Peak, the 
highest in Colorado, and the highest, except one, in the whole 
West. Besides Blanca, Baldy Peak, Culebra and Hunt's Peak 
are above 14.000 feet, and the two Spanish Peaks are 13,620 
and 12,720 feet respectively. 

In Southwestern Colorado there is a confused group of moun 
tains, consisting of the main or dividing range and numerous 
spurs, known as the Uncompahgre Mountains, San Miguel 
Mountains, Dolores, La Plata, etc. There are thirteen principal 
peaks in this group, eleven of them over 14,000 feet, several of 
which are within a few feet of the altitude of Blanca Peak. 
These summits are. Mount vEolus, Handle's Peak, Pyramid, 
Pridgeon's San Luis Peak, Simpson's, Mount Sneffles, Stewart's 
Peak, Uncompahgre, Wetterhorn, Mount Wilson, and the two 
lower summits, Blaine's Peak, 13,905, and Engineer Mountain, 
1 3.076 feet. On the west, these mountains terminate in broad. 
40 



526 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

and elevated plateaux and mesas, which extend to the river banks 
and there are riven by the deep canons of the affluents of the 
Colorado. Among these plateaux are the Grand Mesa, north of 
Gunnison river, the Uncompahgre Plateau, between the Gunni- 
son and the Dolores, and extending to the Grand river; the 
Dolores Plateau, between the Dolores and the San Miguel 
river, and the Southwest Plateau, between the Dolores and the 
Rio Mancos, and extending to the San Juan river. 

In Western Colorado, in what is known as the Gunnison 
country, there is another mass of mountains, probably spurs from 
the Saguache or Sawatch range, which trend northwestward, 
westward and southwestward. There are many summits in this 
group which is known as the Elk Mountains ; more than twenty 
being visible from the summit of Castle Peak, but only four rise 
to 14,000 feet, and one, Teocalli, is but 13,113. 

Besides those which we have named, there are several hun- 
dred peaks in the State ranging from 10,000 to 12,000 feet above 
the sea, which would be noticeable in any other State, but rising 
from elevated table-lands 6,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea, they 
seem much less lofty than they otherwise would. Of the twenty 
most famous passes over the Rocky Mountains in this State only 
two are below 9,000 feet, and only five, of which the noted Veta 
Pass is one, are below 10,000, while five are above 12,000 feet, 
and one, the Argentine, is 13,100 feet above the sea, and is only 
practicable in summer. 

Of the great numbers of lakes scattered in the mountain val- 
leys, only one group, the San Luis lakes, situated in the beauti- 
ful San Luis Park, are below 8,000 feet in altitude, while the 
Green Lakes are 10,000 feet, and the Chicago Lakes 11,500 feet 
above the sea. 

Of seventy-three important towns or locations in Colorado, 
only twelve are below 5,000 feet, and ten are above 10,000 feet, 
the Present Help Mine on Mount Lincoln being 14,000 feet. 

" The parks of Colorado are a distinct and remarkable feature 
of this mountain system. They are generally composed of level 
or rolling lands, covered with luxuriant grasses, and dotted here 
and there with groves of timber. They are walled about with 



THE PARKS OF COLORADO. 5^- 

mountains grand and high, and are watered by streams of the 
purest character." * 

The North, Middle, and South Parks, and the San Luis Park 
form an almost continuous belt across the State from north to 
south, varying in width from thirty to fifty miles, and only sepa- 
rated from each other by mountain chains. The North Park 
has a diameter of about thirty miles, an area of somewhat less 
than 1,000 square miles, or over 600,000 acres, and an average 
elevation of about 9,000 feet. The Middle is much larger, hav- 
ing a length of sixty-five miles by a breadth of forty-five miles, 
an area of about 2,800 square miles, or 1,900,000 acres, and an 
altitude of about 8,000. The South Park is closed in by moun- 
tains on all sides, except the east ; its elevation is nearly 9,000 
feet, its area about 1,200,000 acres. The San Luis is lower 
(about 7,000 feet above the sea), but as large as all the rest, 
having an area of about 4,000,000 acres. The North Park is 
drained by the north fork of the Platte; the Middle by tributa- 
ries of the Grand river ; the South by affluents of the South 
Platte, and the San Luis by the Rio Grande del Norte, and its 
tributaries, and by streams flowing into the San Luis lakes. 

Egeria, Estes, Animas, and Huerfano Parks are also of con- 
siderable size and of great beauty. Monument Park and the 
Garden of the Gods adjacent, are not so much parks as natural 
phenomena illustrating the erosion of the rocks. It is the opinion 
of geologists that these parks were ages ago the beds of vast 
lakes, but that by some volcanic or other cosmical convulsion 
they were upheaved and drained of their waters, though their 
relative position to the mountains was not disturbed. 

The mountains of Colorado are covered with pine, fir, spruce, 
aspen, and other forest trees up to elevations varying from 
10,800 to 12,800 feet. Above the timber line all is bleak and 
barren rock, varied by the occasional presence of grass and 
Alpine flowers. 

Rivers and Streams, — Though within the meridians of longi- 
tude which but five years ago were declared to be those of the 
" Great American Desert " par excellence, it cannot be jusdy said 

* Frank Fossett's "Colorado." 



528 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

that Colorado is not well watered. Its higher lands may require 
some irrigation, but the streams are there to irrigate them. On 
the east of the " Great Divide " the South Platte river, with about 
twenty tributaries on each side, rises far up among the summits 
of the Park Range, and pursuing a north-northeast, and then an 
easterly course, drains ten of the central and northeast counties ; 
while the North Platte, taking its rise in the Rabbit Ears Range, 
drains the whole of the North Park. Returning to the eastern 
part of the State the Republican river, an affluent of the Kansas, 
with its four principal tributaries drains the eastern portion of 
Weld, Arapahoe, and Elbert coundes. But the royal stream 
of Eastern Colorado is the Arkansas, which rises in the Saguache 
or Sa watch range, its sources interlacing with those of the Grand 
river, the largest affluent of the Colorado of the West, and in 
its passage downwards to the eastern boundary of the State 
receives more than sixty tributary streams. It is a noble river, 
and, in its passage through the mountain chains, cuts deep and 
frio-htful canons almost to the base of the mountains themselves. 
Some of its tributaries, like the Purgatoire, Big Sandy creek. 
Horse creek, Apishapa, Huerfano river dind Fontaine qui Bouille, 
are themselves rivers of considerable magnitude. The Rio 
Grande del Norte rises in the San Juan Range, where it inter- 
laces with the sources of the Gunnison, Dolores and San Juan 
rivers, and flowine east-southeast receives numerous tribu- 
taries from San Juan, Hinsdale, Rio Grande, Saguache, Conejos, 
and Costilla counties, turns south near Alamosa and passes out 
of the State very nearly midway of its southern border. 

The western slope of the " Great Divide " is drained wholly 
(except for some small streams which fall into the San Luis 
lakes) by the principal affluents which go to make up the Rio 
Colorado of the West. All of these except the main stream 
and some of the tributaries of the Green river have their sources 
in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, and most of them either 
in the Park, the Saguache, the Elk or the San Juan Mountains. 
The tributaries of the Green river are, the Yampah or Bear river, 
with its branches. Elk and Elkhead creeks, Litde Snake river 
and Vermillion creek, and the White river with its numerous 




CANON OF THE COLORADO. 



CANONS OF COLORADO. 539 

tributaries. The Grand river has its sources in the North Park, 
traverses with its tributaries the Middle and Egeria Parks, and 
by its affluents, Eagle river and Roaring Fork, distributes its 
waters through all the valleys of the northern Sangre de Christo 
Mountains and the Elk range, while its two great affluents, the 
Gunnison and the Rio Dolores and their numerous tributaries, 
the Uncompahgre, the San Miguel and Disappointment creek, 
drain all the western slope lying between 40° and 37° 30' north 
latitude. In the extreme southwest the Rio San Juan and its 
numerous branches drain the whole of La Plata, San Juan, Hins- 
dale, and the western part of Conejos counties. All these rivers 
have scores of creeks and streams tributary to them, so that 
there are but few square miles in the State which are destitute 
of one or more living streams. 

Mr. Frank Fossett, a recent able writer on Colorado, thus 
speaks of the canons of these rivers : 

" The river canons, or deeply cut ravines that are found in all 
of the more elevated portions of Colorado, constitute a peculiar 
and striking feature of the great Rocky Mountain system. In 
the countless ages of the past, the waters of the streams have 
worn channels deep down into the hearts of the mountains, 
leaving the perpendicular granite or sandstone standing on either 
side for hundreds, and in some localities for thousands of feet. 
Nowhere are the grand and beautiful in Nature more effectually 
illustrated than in these mountain canons. The glories of 
Boulder, Clear Creek, Cheyenne, and Platte canons, and the 
Grand canon of the Arkansas, all on the eastern slope of the 
Continental Divide, defy description. The walls of the Colorado, 
Gunnison, and Uncompahgre rivers, in the western part of the 
State, are still more massive and wonderful. In many sections 
they rise without a break or an incline to heights of thousands 
of feet, and along the Colorado continue in that way with hardly 
an outlet of any kind for hundreds of miles. The Grand canon 
of the Gunnison is one of the world's wonders. Its walls on 
either side of the stream, and bordering it for miles, are 
usually not far from 300 feet in width, and are composed of 
stratified rock. In places these perpendicular sides, rising from 



Q.Q OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the water for distances of from one to three thousand feet, ter- 
minate in level summits surmounted by a second wall of pro- 
digious height, thus forming a canon within a canon. Through 
the chasm between these giant formations and huge bastions and 
turrets one above another, dashes the river, its surface white 
with foam. The heights of these perpendicular canon walls and 
their elevations with that of the river above sea-level at several 
points, are as follows : Level of the Gunnison at mouth of 
Mountain creek above sea-level, 7,200 feet; of top of wall or 
plateau on north side, 8,000 feet; height of wall, 1,600 feet; 
height of wall at point below on east side, 1,900 feet; on west 
side, 1,800 feet; height of wall in gneiss rock, 900 feet. Some 
distance below, the canon wall rises directly from the river, 
3,000 feet, of which the 1,800 feet nearest the water is gneiss 
rock; total elevation of top of wall or plateau above the sea, 
9,800 feet." 

Climate. — The great elevation of most of the places of resi- 
dence in Colorado insures a temperate climate, rather too cool 
than too hot. The mean annual temperature of most of the 
towns, which are 5,000 feet or thereabouts above the sea, is not 
far from 50° — perhaps for a long term of years 48.5° to 49.3''. 

The summer mean ranges from 64.6° to 69.2°, and the winter 
mean from 31.3° to 32.8°, so that the mean difference or range 
does not exceed 2,1° o^ 38°. The extremes are 93° to 99° max- 
imum in summer, with from six to thirty days, according to the 
elevation, above 90°, and the minimum in winter — 3° to — 12° 
with an average of six to ten days with the mercury below zero. 
There is, therefore, an extreme range in the whole year of from 
96° to 110°. 

The rainfall averages about 18.84 inches, and is increasing. 
The dry and bracing character of the air at 5,000 to 6,000 feet 
above the sea renders the climate a desirable one for invalids 
with weak lungs, where the disease is not too far advanced, 
and thousands who have resorted thither have been temporarily, 
and many of them permanently benefited. Generally it is not 
safe for persons who are suffering from pulmonary diseases to re- 
turn to the East, at least not for four or five years, however 



CLIMATE, SOIL AND VEGETATION OF COLORADO. 



631 



complete may seem to be the recovery, as the return of the 
disease at the East is almost sure to follow even a brief visit 
thither. Those whose lungs are diseased should also avoid the 
higher elevations. An altitude exceeding 7,000 feet is danger- 
ous, because the rarefaction of the atmosphere makes respira- 
tion more difficult, and will often bring on hemorrhage of the 
lungs. We give below the Signal Service reports — the averao-e 
from three points, one of them the station on the summit of 
Pike's Peak, 14,147 feet above the sea, for the sake of comparison : 



PLACES. 


> 


^ . 

c « 

l) 
■" J= 
> 

s 


J 1 


It 

If 


11 

c 0- 


c . 

S 2 

3 3 

S s 


c - 

II 


lii 

IP 




i_ «J 
^ 6 <^ 


lis 

•3 2 = 

1 a* 


■a ii 

e N 


u 

01 

>> 


1) 

c 
rt 


;2| 

2 3 

c 

< 


Denver 

Colorado Springs 

Pike's Peak 


5.197 ft- 

6.023 ft- 
I4.r47 ft 


49-5° 
47.8° 

18.7° 


48.1° 
45.° 

13.6° 


69.2'^ 
64.6° 

35-5° 


49-5° 
48.8° 

206° 


31-3° 
32.8° 

5-03° 


99° 
93° 

58.2° 


32 

6 

above 50°. 

25 


-3° 
—23.6° 


9 

2 

86 


111° 
96.° 

81.8° 


18.63^ 
19.48-^ 

27.82° 



West of the mountains the snow comes earlier and lies longer 
and the mean temperature of winter is lower. The averao-e 
elevation of the towns is higher, averaging at least 8,000 feet. 
These towns ar so new that we have not statistics of their 
climate which can be depended upon. 

The quantity of the snow-fall is not great except on the moun- 
tain ranges and higher elevations. In the mountain towns it 
begins early and lies late, blocking the trails and passes over the 
mountains, and requiring often a circuitous journey to reach 
them. The railways now building will be protected from these 
heavy snows generally by snow sheds. The snow never entirely 
disappears from altitudes of from 12,000 to 14,400 feet. 

Soil a7id Vegetation. — Of the 104,500 square miles which con- 
sdtute the area of Colorado, it is difficult to estimate very accu- 
rately what proportion should be considered as arable land, for 
several reasons. But a small portion, comparatively, of the 
State has been surveyed ; only one-third in all, including the 
great area of pasturage, mining and dmber lands. The great 
amount of land included in railroad grants, and the still greater 
quantity in Indian reservations, most of which are now in process 



5^2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of extinction, the uncertainty whether land at first regarded as 
desert, or, at most, as sterile grazing lands, may not prove to be 
arable land of the very best quality when irrigated ; and the 
almost daily discovery of new means of irrigation. It was roughly 
estimated in 1878 that there were about 15,000 square miles of 
arable lands, or lands which would become arable with irrigation, 
in the State. With the great increase of irrigating canals con- 
structed since that time, and the large body of good lands which 
will be thrown on the market by the treaty with the Utes, con- 
firmed by Congress in June, 1880, which sets free nearly 
1 1,400,000 acres, and the cultivation of the great parks which is 
just beginning, there can hardly be less than 25,000 square miles 
endtled to that designation to-day, or in round numbers, 1 6,000,000 
acres. Probably not more than one-fifth of this is under cultiva- 
tion, though the amount is rapidly increasing. "The soil at the 
first glance does not look promising. It is composed of a fine, 
dark-brown mould mixed with gravel, very compact, but at the 
same time very porous and friable. When the gravel has been 
completely decomposed, or the soil consists of fine dust, blown 
or washed from the higher portions of the plains (called bluffs), 
it inclines to clay. Near the surface the earth is darker than 
lower down, but the quality is essentially the same and very uni- 
form throug^hout. The soil is indeed so rich in the mineral con- 
stituents of plants, and its depth so great, that with a proper 
supply of water, it yields larger and finer crops of wheat, barley 
and oats than any other State in America. Water, however, is 
necessary, except in the bottoms of the shallower valleys trav- 
ersed by streams ; and the cultivable land is thus limited to the 
area that the water of the mountain streams will suffice to irri- 
gate. The agricultural portion of the State is now mainly the 
strip of land, ten to thirty miles broad, which extends from north 
to south, the whole width of the State, along the plains at the 
base of the foot-hills. Owing to the general fiatness and gradual 
sloping character of the ground the land can be irrigated at small 
cost. Between Denver and the northern boundary of Colorado, 
six principal streams, besides the river Platte, flow from the foot- 
hills across the plains. The water from these streams is con' 



IRRIGATION IN COLORADO. 633 

veyed in canals or ditches, which are sometimes as much as fifty 
miles long. Some of the smaller canals have been built by co- 
operation among the farmers. In other cases they are owned 
by local joint-stock companies, of which the shares are held prin- 
cipally by the farmers themselves. The largest of all — the Lari- 
mer and Weld Canal — is the property of the Colorado Mortgage 
Company of London. It is fifty miles long, from twenty-five to 
thirty feet wide at the bottom, and carries water to irrigate 40,000 
acres. The company itself owns 20,000 acres, which, with a right 
in perpetuity to sufficient water for irrigation, it is selling at $13 
to $15 per acre. The land is sold in quantities of eighty acres 
and upwards. At this rate the land is freely purchased, payment 
being taken in five installments for the convenience of buyers. 
Setders on the public lands can buy water for $5 per acre. By 
homesteadinof a settler can become owner of 1 60 acres for a few 
dollars, but he must reside on it for five years before he can get 
a title. The settler may choose to pre-empt, in which case resi- 
dence for six months, together with the execution of certain im- 
provements, gives a title. By pre-emption the land may be 
obtained for $1.25 an acre if distant from a railway, or $2.50 an 
acre if in the vicinity of a railway. A settler can only homestead 
or pre-empt once. Railways are owners of land along their 
lines, in square miles alternately with the public lands, which are 
subject to homesteading and pre-emption. Railways sell their 
bind at prices varying from ^3 to |,6 an acre, according to cir- 
cumstances. 

" The undulation of the plains makes plowing and irrigadon 
very easy. The water is supplied to the farmer, not directly 
from the main canal, but from a subsidiary ditch, formed with a 
plow along the surface of the plain, on a nearly uniform slope. 
The farmer excavates with his plow a similar smaller trench 
along the top of the land he intends to plow^ and then, making 
breaks in the lower side, allows the water to flow over the whole 
surface of the field. After two or three days the land is ready 
for plowing, and the water is turned &ff. After irrigation, a pair 
of light horses will turn over the soil at the rate of an acre a 
day, or a gang-plow, drawn by four or six horses, will break up 



534 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

ten acres in the same time. Cereals require to be watered once 
or twice in the season. The custom is to break new land in 
August, September, and October, turning the sod two or three 
inches deep, and the winter frost pulverizes it, and makes it into 
a good seed-bed by spring. Old stubble-land is irrigated in a 
similar manner before being plowed, either in autumn or spring, 
and the seed is sown as soon after plowing as possible. The 
soil, once thoroughly wet, is very retentive of moisture, and no 
more irrigation is necessary till June, when the water is again 
turned over the crops for a day or two. The land is very easily 
tilled and cleaned, and irrigation is a simple process, as may be 
easily understood from the fact that one man alone (exchanging, 
it may be, help with a neighbor in harvest) can cultivate eighty 
acres under crops in rotation, and that, too, without working so 
hard as a small farmer in this country (England). Self-binding 
reaping machines are in general use, and give complete satis- 
faction. Threshing macliines, driven by steam or horse-power, 
are driven from farm to farm as at home. 

" Colorado produces all kinds of crops and vegetables grown in 
England, with the addition of many that flourish only in a 
warmer climate, such as Indian corn, sugar-beet, tomatoes, etc. 
Grapes and peaches ripen in the open air, and in the southern 
parts of the State grapes and plums grow wild. Flax is also 
occasionally met with, growing wild. The wheat and barley 
raised on the irrigated lands are as fine as any in the world. 
The average crop of wheat is from twenty to twenty-five bushels 
per acre ; of barley, about thirty-five bushels ; and of oats, it is 
asserted that in the uplands the yield is occasionally as high as 
from eighty to ninety bushels per acre. Specimens of cabbages, 
mangolds, swedes, and beet root of enormous size, are exhibited 
at the State fair ; but as cattle-feeding is not yet practised, they 
are raised chiefly for domestic use. But the average of crops is 
not much indication of what the soil, in the hands of a skillful 
farmer, may be made to yield. The majority of those who have 
taken to farmine in Colorado, knew little or nothino- of the busi- 
ness when they settled, and their cultivation would generally be 
considered slovenly at home. When the soil is well cleaned 



CROPS OF COLORADO. ga-, 

and tilled, and the supply of water adequate, a return of thirty- 
five and forty bushels of wheat per acre may be reasonably ex- 
pected ; and in several cases last season (1879), although the 
crops are not considered generally large, over forty-five bushels 
of wheat have -been threshed out.* The prices to be obtained 
are, and must continue to be, tolerably high. The quantity of 
land as yet under cultivation is not sufficient to supply the fast 
increasing mining population, and as the nearest competitor is 
about 500 miles away, the Colorado farmer has the cost of car- 
riage in his favor. The demand for poultry, butter, eggs, and 
milk is great, and in supplying it the industrious farmer's wife 
can add very materially to his income. Wheat sells at from 
$8 to $9 per quarter (eight bushels) ; barley, from $6.25 to 
$7.50 ; oats from $4.38 to $5 per quarter. Hay is sold at from 
$12.50 to $15 per ton of 2,000 pounds; butter from 25 to 38 
cents per pound, and eggs from 25 to 31 cents per dozen. 
Farm labor of satisfactory quality can, without difficulty, be 
obtained. Wages are about $25 per month, with board and 
lodging, which cost as much more. The laborer is engaged by 
the month, and, although he is dispensed with from October to 
April, he finds employment at the stock-ranches or the mines, 
and the farmers easily get hands when they need them. As a 
general rule, however, farmers in Colorado work on their farms 
themselves ; but they have the satisfaction that the land is their 
own, and that in such a climate, and with such a soil, labor is 
much lighter and more agreeable than is dreamed of in this 
country (Great Britain). For the same reasons the cost of labor 
per acre, although the wages paid to the laborer are high, is 
scarcely, if at all, greater than the farmer has to pay in Scotland, 
and by those who have capital, farming is being prosecuted on a 

* Mr. Barclay is, as he should be, wisely conservative in his statements concerning the crops 
in Colorado as affected by irrigation. Where, as in Greeley, Evans, Longmont, etc., and still 
more in the south of the State, the farmers are skillful, and apply the water judiciously, crops of 
wheat of eighty or one hundred acres have turned out sixty to seventy bushels of wheat to the 
acre for the whole crop, and in some instances even more; while Indian corn, which our British 
friends do not fully appreciate, yields, under irrigation, not the fifty or seventy bushels which are 
elsewhere considered a good crop, but two hundred bushels and more, over large tracts of land, 
and oats yield seventy-fiye to one hundred bushels. Barley is not so largely grown in Colorado 
as to make the amount raised at all certain, but it would doubtless do quite as well as wheat. 



6tt^ OUK WESTERN EMPIRE. 

large scale with great profits. During two or three months in 
the year there is little, if any, work to be done on farms, but a 
pushing man may hire out his team and make a good bit of 
money in the winter months."'"'' 

In 1871 the amount of wood-land and forest gj'owths in Colo- 
rado was estimated, by the United States Land Office, at 
6,667,000 acres, or one-tenth of the area of the State. The esti- 
mate was, of necessity, a mere guess, since at that time not more 
than one-sixth of the area of the State had been surveyed, and 
much of it was entirely unexplored. Very large quantities of 
the timber have since been sacrificed for railway ties, buildings, 
and machinery, for mining supports and machinery ; for dwell- 
ings and fuel, for flumes, aqueducts and bridges, and the thou- 
sand uses to which wood is put. It is hardly probable that the 
present forest area of the State exceeds one-fifteenth of its sur- 
face. Much of the timber on the mountains is large, but it 
ceases before the snow-line is reached. The principal forest 
trees are the pines of six or eight species, including the white, 
the yellow (a large fine tree, much like the Georgia), the mit- 
phie, and some others ; several species of fir and spruce, large 
and beautiful trees, the cypress in Southern Colorado, several 
species of oak, the chestnut and the chinquepin, the hickory, 
black walnut, horse-chestnut, etc., etc. 

The great parks in the spring and early summer are resplend- 
ent with beautiful wild flowers. 

Geology and Mineralogy. — Within the limits of the State, on 
its varied surface, down the precipitous sides of its lofty moun- 
tains, and on the deeply eroded sides of its great canons may 
be found every geological formation known on this continent. 
In general it may be said that the plains of Eastern Colorado 
are tertiary and alluvial, being formed largely of the loess which 
has for ages washed down from the mountain summits. The 
axis of the Rocky Mountain ranges is eozoic, and yet it has been 
so completely upheaved that the granite strata are completely 
broken and reversed, and form the surface rock of the summits 
of the highest mountains. In the valleys between the ranges 

*Hon. J. W. Barclay, M. P., in the Fortnightly Review, January, 1880. 



THE NATURAL WONDERS OF COLORADO. 637 

the great parks are tertiary. At numerous points on the moun- 
tain sides and in the canons the coal crops out, sometimes ter- 
tiary Hgnites, but as often from the upper coal measures, and in 
the southwest from the lower coal measures. Sandstones, lime- 
stones, slates and shales of every geologic age crop out, espe- 
cially in Western Colorado, and triassic and Jurassic rocks appear 
both in the San Juan country and in the region lying between 
Pueblo and the Spanish peaks. In the vicinity of many of the 
coal beds the rocks are cretaceous ; while the Devonian and 
Silurian systems are largely represented in the south and south- 
west. In the upper valleys of the Rio Grande del Norte, and in 
the vicinity of some of the affluents of the Grand river, there 
are evidences of extensive volcanic action. 

The erosive action of large streams having a rapid descent 
and perhaps also of glaciers (though this is not quite setded) 
has nowhere produced such remarkable results as in Colorado, 
It is not only manifest in those deep canons which are only 
rivalled in Arizona, but in such wonderful productions as the 
" City of the Gods," in the White river region, in the northwest 
part of Summit county, where a tract large enough for a citv is 
cut into the semblance of cathedrals, castles, towers, and dwell- 
ings, in ruins indeed, but glorious in their ruin — the spires, domes, 
terraces and many storied temples set in such regular order and 
with such broad avenues between that it seems impossible that 
it should be other than the work of human hands ; or the similar 
though less extensive wonders of Monument Park, Talbott HiJl 
and the Bottle Rocks ; or the remarkable arrangement of the 
rocks (which may or may not have been the result of erosion) 
in the " Garden of the Gods ;" or the Royal Gorge, or the Grape 
Creek and Temple canons, or the Grand canon of the Arkansas, 
and farther west the Great canon of the Gunnison. 

For an interesting account of some of these wonders, especially 
those of Fremont county, as well as of the remarkable bones of 
the gigantic Camarasuras and other fossils, reptiles and mam- 
mals of the Jurassic period which, in size as well as geologic age, 
surpass all previous discoveries, we are indebted to Mr. J. G. 
Pangborn, author of the " New Rocky Mountain Tourist," a part 



5^8 '^^'^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of whose very vivid description of a tour through this true won- 
derland we here introduce to our readers. 

" RattUng over the bridge spanning the Arkansas at the city's* 
feet, we speed on through clumps oi richly foliaged trees, and in 
a few moments are at the entrance of the canon, catching a 
glimpse, just as we enter between its towering walls, of the 
Grand canon of the Arkansas and the cosy-looking bath-houses 
at the springs near by. A quick word of wonder at the height 
and the closeness of the walls, a sharp turn of the road, and look- 
ing back, the way is lost by which we came. Here in the solitary 
mountains we are alone. No world behind ; no world before. 
Turn upon turn, and new walls rise up so abruptly before us as 
to cause an involuntary cry of terror, soon relieved, however, as 
our excited senses become more familiar with the new tension 
upon them. Awe still holds us bonden slaves, but the eye drinks 
in such beauty as fairly intoxicates the soul. On either hand the 
walls loom up until only the slender opal of a narrow strip of 
sky forms exquisite contrast with the pine-covered heights. 
Rifled boulders every now and then wall in the road on the 
river side, their base washed by the creek, wild and beautiful 
in Its whirl and roar. Here the perpendicular piles of rock are 
covered with growths of trees that ascend in exact line with the 
wall and cast their shadows on the road below. Nature's grape- 
vines trail along the ground and cling around the trunks of the 
trees, hanging like Arcadian curtains and making bowers of the 
most exquisite character imaginable. Between these, we catch 
bewitching glances of the creek on its merry, tempestuous way 
to the Arkansas, its sparkling surface throwing back rapid re- 
flections of masses of green foliage and trailing vines. Deep 
pools give back the blue of the cloudless sky, and as base accom- 
paniments come in the dark shadows of the canon walls with their 
sharply drawn ridges and truncated cones. Here and there, all 
along the wild way, are rushing cascades, tortuous twists of the 
stream, gayly lichened or dark beetling rocks, mossy nooks or 
glowing lawns, and overhead the cottonwoods mingling their 
rare autumnal splendors of red and gold with the sombre green 

* Canon City. 



GRAPE CREEK CANON. 639 

of pine and cedar. The canon is beyond question the most 
beautiful in marvellous coloring, wondrous splendor of foliage, 
picturesque cascades and winding streams of any in Colorado. 
The Grand canon of the Arkansas is deeper, but it is awful as 
seen from the only point of view, that from the top, and the sen- 
sations caused in strongest of contrast with those experienced in 
Grape Creek canon. The walls of the latter are so gorgeous a 
variety of colors as to fairly bewilder with their splendor : red — 
from the darkest tinge of blood to the most delicate shades of 
pink ; green — from the richest depths to the rarest hues of the 
emerald ; blue — from the opal to the deepest sea, variegated 
until almost defying the rainbow to excel in exquisite blending. 
These glorious transitions of color meet one at every turn, and 
the contrast formed every now and then by tremendous walls of 
bare, black rock, or broad seams of iron ore set in red or green, 
render all the more striking the singular beauty of the canon. 
Over the walls on either side, the grapevine, from which the 
canon takes its name, climbs in wonderfully rich profusion, and 
in autumn, when the leaves become so delicately tinted and the 
vines hang thick with their purple fruit, the effect is something to 
call to mind but never to describe. Added to the indescribable 
beauty of the vines are the many-colored mosses which paint the 
rocks in infinite variety of hue, ofttimes growing so high and rank as 
to reach to the very pinnacle of the topmost rocks and fringe their 
craggy brows so lavishly as to render them almost symmetrical 
in appearance as seen below. At different points these moss- 
covered walls rise to the height of i,ooo feet, and so completely 
do they hem one in on all sides that with but slight stretch of im- 
agination the place could be viewed from below as a gigantic, 
moss-covered bucket, but one that never 'hung in the well.' 
Just above Temple canon, and where Grape creek enters the 
canon of its name, the walls are exceedingly high and precipitous, 
and in the coolest nook of their shadows, where sunlight can 
never reach, is a quiet, placid pool of water clearer than a crys- 
tal, and so faithfully reflecting back the curiously and brilliantly 
colored rocks overhanging it, as to have gained the name of 
Painted Rock Pool. It is a very gem in itself, and its setting 



,640 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

and the rare grandeur of die surroundings, is well in keeping. 
Those visidng the canon should not fail to follow up the course 
of the creek from the point where it debouches into the canon. 
It will have to be done on foot, but the wholly unexpected sur- 
prises of the hour or two's ramble will more than repay the ex- 
erdon. The walls of the sides of the parent caiion are fully 
1,500 feet in height, and so narrow that the tall pines and cot- 
tonwoods keep the gorge in a tender half-light, broken at mid- 
day by glaring rays that give a magical charm to the scene. On 
all sides from points in the walls of rock, tufts of grass and blue- 
bells grow, forming, with the grapevines, most pleasing pictures 
in contrast with many-tinted rocks, in the crevices of which their 
roots have found nourishment. The walls are of almost as many 
colors as there are sharp turns in the creek's course, and rarr. 
and perfect in beauty is the amphitheatre of black rock with 
pearly-white veins running in every direction, the whole over- 
hung by climbing vines and their pendant berries. Just at the 
entrance to Temple canon is a little grove of cottonwoods. 
Their pendant swinging boughs meet in perfect arches over- 
head, and the profusion of their polished, brilliant leaves renders 
complete the most charming of bowers in which tQtake the noon- 
day lunch and prepare for the climb into Temple caiion, which 
must be done on foot. Temple is a side canon, with entrance 
from Grape Creek canon, some four and a half miles from Canon 
City, and was discovered but a year or two ago. 

"The climb is not steep, though rather rough, especially to 
effect an entrance into the Temple proper, which is to the right 
of the little canon, and can only be accomplished by clambering 
over several-huge boulders, which, if removed, would render the 
illusion of a temple and stairway all the more striking. Once 
passing in through the great rifts of rock, for all the world like 
the stairway to some grand place of amusement, the body of the 
Temple is reached, and to the tourist's astonishment, before him 
is a stage with overhanging arch, with 'flats' and 'flies,' with 
dressing-rooms on either side, and a scene already set as if for 
some grand tableau. If so intensely realistic from the parquet, 
as the broad circling floor might aptly be termed, or from the 



TEMPLE CANON AND THE TEMPLE, 5^1 

parquet or dress-circles, as the higher ledges would suggest, the 
clamber up to the stage itself renders it all the more so, for 
there is found ample room for a full dramatic or operatic com- 
pany to disport upon, while in the perpendicular ledges and 
caves on either side, twenty-five to thirty people might retire and 
not be observed from the body of the hall. The stage is at the 
least thirty feet deep, and some sixty to seventy broad ; the arch 
above fully one hundred feet from the floor of the canon, the 
stage itself being about forty feet above the floor. The arch is 
almost as smooth and perfectly proportioned as if fashioned by 
the hand of man, and during the wet season the water from a 
stream above falls in a great broad sheet over its face to the 
floor of the canon below. At such times the effect from the 
stage of the Temple is, as can be imagined, exceedingly fasci- 
nating, for there, entirely protected from the water, one looks 
through the silvery sheen out upon the scene below. Upon the 
rear wall of the stage quite an aperture has been hewn out by 
some action, and the shape it is left in is peculiarly suggestive 
of tableaux preparation. Away up in the very highest crevice 
under the arch a pair of eagles have mated for years, and though 
most darinof efforts have been made to reach the nest none have 
succeeded. The coming of visitors is almost invariably the 
occasion of a flight from the nest, and breaking in so suddenly 
upon the supernatural stillness of the place is apt to cause a 
shock to the timid not readily forgotten. There is absolutely 
not a solitary sign of vegetation about the Temple ; all is bleak, 
bare and towering walls, and a more weird spot to visit cannot 
possibly be imagined. Coming out from the Temple itself the 
tourist should by all means clamber up to one of the lofty pinna- 
cles in the adjoining canon, for the sight from them down upon 
the mighty masses of rock below, the cottonwoods, the stream 
in Grape Creek canon and the lofty walls beyond is one to be 
treasured up among the brightest recollections of the tour. 

" One could spend days in Grape Creek and Temple canons 
alone, but our week demands that we should spend the second 
day in Oak Creek canon, with its wonderful formadons of arches, 
deep tints of evergreens and w^lth of wild flowers. 
41 



(,A2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

" Oak Creek canon is left with unfeigned regret, and as we 
toil up the ascent on the return trip we cast many glances back to 
aid memory in fixing its beauties upon the mind. A couple of 
miles over a road the tamest imaginable, after the three miles 
of down grade, brings us to the base of Curiosity Hill, well 
named, as is speedily proven by the discovery of all sorts of odd 
and beautiful little specimens of ribbon moss and linear agate 
crystals and the like. The surface of the hill is one vast field of 
curiosities, and so plentiful and varied are they that even those 
usually wholly indifferent to such things soon find themselves 
vying with the most enthusiastic in exclamations of delight upon 
finding some particularly attractive specimen. By blasting, 
large bodies of the most perfect crystals are obtained, invariably 
bedded in ribbon agate of the most beautiful colors and shapes, 
and polishing readily, they form beyond all comparison the love- 
liest of cabinet attractions. Many very valuable specimens of 
blood agate have been found on Curiosity Hill, and for agates 
of all hues and forms it is possibly the most satisfactory field for 
the specimen-seeker in Southern Colorado. Trotting homeward 
we watch the blazing splendor of the sunset upon the lofty heads 
of the rocky monarchs around us, while the cool twilight of the 
open park between us and Canon City envelops all about our 
road. 

"Next morning we are off for Oil Creek canon, which is wholly 
different from others seen thus far. The windings of the road 
in following the heavily-wooded stream are decidedly of a ro- 
mantic character, running now through a bewitching little grove, 
and the next moment joining with the merry waters and keeping 
them close company until another cluster of aspens or firs causes 
a separation of sight only, for the music of the foaming stream 
comes to us through the leaves, thus rendering the meeting all 
the more delightful. A half mile from the mouth of the canon 
we come upon the oil wells from which the stream takes its 
name, and about which its perfect purity is polluted by the pe- 
troleum that lies thick upon its surface. Some considerable 
surface work has been done at the wells in the way of tubing 
and the like, and they have been yielding more or less oil for 



7 HE TIVIN J^OKJS. 643 

the past fifteen years. Preparations are now being made, how- 
ever, for boring for liowing wells, and the probabihties are that 
more oil will be taken from them this year than ever before since 
the first discovery. Beyond the wells the road winds around and 
about in enticing proximity to the stream, and then leaving it, 
winds high above, crossing picturesque bridges, and finally 
emerges into the open known as Oil Creek Park, hemmed in on 
all sides by ranges of sandstone that show a countless succession 
of rock sculptures, the effect heightened by the brilliancy and va- 
riety of the coloring. High up on the ridges are the crumbling 
ruins of castellated battlements, formidable bastions suo-crestive 
of frowning guns, lofty and imposing sally-ports, portcullis, moats 
and drawbridges. Great cliffs have fallen, and avalanches of 
rock have plunged their way down the hillsides; yet here and 
there and everywhere upon the walls stand the grim battlements, 
as if defying wind, storm and time. The most imposing of 
these tremendous ruins are the Twin Forts, standing upon the 
very verge of a precipitous wall of 500 feet of alternate layers 
of creamy yellow and brilliant red. One looms up a hundred 
feet or more above the wall, but the other is sadly battered and 
rapidly crumbling away. Along the wall are numberless 
towers of rock worn by the action of the elements into fantastic 
shapes, and many of them looking as if the breath of a child 
would topple them over. Progressing on through the park we 
fancy in each transformation of rock some familiar thing, while 
the mighty tiers extending toward us ofttimes call vividly to mind 
the bulwarks of great ships of the sea stranded here to be worn 
away to dust. Directly ahead of us, as we near the centre of 
the park, we catch full glimpses of new and singular rock sculpture, 
the entire south end of the park showing tier upon tier of rock 
so striking in resemblance to stockades and outlying fortifica 
tions as to cause one to involuntarily seek not only for the colors, 
but the soldiers defending them. Back of the stockades, stern, 
dark and cold, rises Signal Mountain, and still back of it the long, 
wave-like lines and great snowy domes of the Sangre de Christo 
range, their stupendous proportions dwarfing all below into little- 
ness. 



^^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

" The road, as it nears the head of the park, abruptly dashes 
into a thickly grown grove of pinon trees. We halt for a mo- 
ment to get a full view of the largest pinon tree in Colorado, 
and probably in the country, and after entertaining something of 
a contempt for the scraggy little trunk of the average pinon 
tree, it is quite refreshing to behold one fully three feet in di- 
ameter, though all the more uncouth and ugly for its unwonted 
circumference. The pifions bear extraordinary quantities of the 
sweetest litde nuts, but outside of this they are of no possible 
worth. Around the sharpest and steepest of curves, a dash 
across the madly-surging stream, and a helter-skelter scramble 
up a low but exceedingly rocky ascent, and we are at the mouth 
of Marble Cave, so near in fact as to barely escape falling into it 
in looking for it. The ragged, jagged crevice by which the cav..- 
is entered is anything but enticing, and the sensation experienced 
as on-Ss head is all there is left above ground is far from the 
pleasantest. 

"The descent is almost perpendicular for a hundred feet or 
more, and the staircase formed by the broken ledges on eithei- 
side of the chasm far from soothing to one's nerves, especially as 
all the lights obtained are the meagre glintings which steal 
through the three-cornered opening above and struggle faindy 
half way to the bottom of the rift of rocks. Stumbling over un- 
seen boulders, and barely escaping serious contact with the en- 
compassing walls, we grope to the point w^here our guide has 
kindled a fire, and find it the intersection of the two main halls 
of the cave. The ghastly flare thrown upon the walls by the 
burning pine chills us to the bone, and a tremulous inspection 
of the situation adds no warmth. We are in a strange and 
awful rift in some buried mountain, the walls so narrow that our 
elbows touch on either side, and so weird and terrific in height, 
as seen through the heavily-rolling smoke, as to look ten times 
tiie 1 50 feet our guide informs us is the distance to the roof. 
The pine burns brighter, the smoke grows thicker, but we press 
on, now crawling on all-fours into some wondrous chamber of 
stalactite and stalagmite, and anon tugging up a strand of rope 
over frio-htful boulders that have fallen from thv-- dizzy height 



MARBLE CAVE AND TALBOTT HILL. gj^C 

above, to obstruct man in learning the secrets of this awful con- 
vulsion of nature. We penetrate into Satan's Bower, we look 
shudderingly into his Punch Bowl, and gasp as we throw our- 
selves into his Arm-Chair. We draw longest of breaths in 
Queen's Grotto, and the shortest when thoughts of the way back 
over those fearful rocks crowd in and demand consideration. 
Certainly the clear blue sky never was half so lovely as when we 
finally stand under it again. The cave is, as its name implies, 
encompassed by marble walls, and the specimens of marble 
brought from its innermo'St recesses, as seen in the full glare of 
the sun, are exceedingly beautiful in their mottled surface of red 
and white. The marble is susceptible of the highest and richest 
polish, and parties in Canon City use it for artistic as well as 
practical purposes. All about the hill, from the low crest of 
which the cave is entered, are the finest specimens of jasper, 
agate and shell rock, and not far distant are immense trees 
petrified to solid rock, and where broken often showing beauti- 
ful veins of agate and crystals. On the return trip we take 
more notice of the cosy and comfortable farm-houses scattered 
throughout the park, and become much interested in the details 
of the yield of grain — principally wheat — secured through the 
system of irrigation practised so extensively in the State ; in fact, 
no grain whatever can be successfully cultivated in Colorado 
without irrigation. Midway in the park we pull up at the pleas- 
ant home of the gentleman who is to show us to the top of Tal- 
bott Hill, where Professor Marsh, of Yale College, and Professor 
Cope, of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, have 
parties at work exhuming the recently discovered bones of ani- 
mals, compared to which in proportions and importance the 
mastodon sinks to insignificance. We at once leave the road 
and make direct for the wall of blood-red rock on the west side 
of the park, and a short drive bringing us to its base, we alight. 
Reaching- the summit, the long-drawn breath of relief is half 
choked by the indescribable magnificence of the view, and for 
the first time we appreciate the sublimity and grandeur of the 
Sangre de Christo range. A few more steps and we are at the 
tent of Professor Cope's party, and all within and without is 



5^6 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

heaped-up bones, rocks now, and many of them so perfectly 
agatized that at a casual glance it would stagger any but a 
scientist's belief that they were ever covered with flesh. As 
seen, here, however, it is so palpably apparent that the seeming 
rock and agate are bone as to leave no room for shadow of 
doubt. Before us are perfect parts of skeletons so huge as to 
prepare one for the belief that Noah's Ark was a myth ; sections 
of vertebrae three feet in width ; ribs fifteen feet long ; thigh-bones 
over six feet in leng-th — and the five or six tons of bones thus 
far shipped East comprising only the parts of three animals. In 
one pit the diameter of the socket of the vertebrae measured fif- 
teen inches, width of spinal process forty-one inches, and depth 
of vertebra; twenty-nine inches. In another place there was a 
thiorh-bone six feet and two inches in lengrth ; a section of back- 
bone lying just as the monster rolled over and died, with eleven 
ribs attached, the back-bone twenty feet long and from sixteen 
to thirty inches deep, and the ribs five to eight feet in length and 
six inches broad. Just showing upon the surface was a part of 
a thigh-bone twenty-two inches in width and thirty in length, and 
near it a nine-foot rib four inches in diameter, a foot wide at six 
feet, and where it articulated with the vertebrae, twenty-three 
and a half inches in width. The entire rib was fifteen feet in 
length. All over the hill we come upon little piles of broken 
bones which will require days of patient labor and skillful hand- 
ling to properly set in place. The first discovery of the fossils 
was made in April last by a young graduate of Oberlln College, 
who, teaching a country school in the park five days in the week, 
spent his Saturdays about the hills hunting deer, and occasion- 
ally getting a shot at a grizzly. Immediately upon satisfying 
himself of the character of the discovery, the young man wrote 
to his old Professor in Ohio, and subsequently to Professor Cope, 
of Philadelphia. Hardly had the latter organized his party of 
exploration before Professor Marsh had his, under the leadership 
of Professor Mudge, of Kansas, duly equipped, and by the mid- 
dle of May both parties were actively engaged excavating, 
setting up and preparing for shipment the bones which Professor 
Marsh declares are seven million years old. 



GIGANTIC CHARACTER OF FOSSILS. 647 

"The first animal discovered was of entirely new genus and 
species in scientific circles, and was named the camarasuras su- 
premus, from the chamber of caverns in the centres of the 
vertebrae. Of the first petrifactions exhumed was a femur or 
thigh-bone six feet in length, scapular or shoulder-blade five and 
a half feet long, sacrum, or the part of the backbone over the 
hips — corresponding to four vertebrae united in one — forty inches. 
Vertebrae immediately in front of this measured in elevation 
two feet six inches, and the spread of the diapophyses was three 
feet. Professor Hayden, the widely-known chief of the United 
States Geological Survey, upon visiting this place and inspecting 
these and other parts of the animal, declared it his conviction 
that the beast must have been fully a hundred feet in length. 
The thigh-bone, measuring some six feet, stood over the hips 
eighteen to twenty feet. The animal was undoubtedly shorter of 
front than of hind legs, and Professor Marsh thinks it had the 
power to raise up like a kangaroo on its hind legs and browse 
off the leaves of the trees from sixty to eighty feet in height. 
The professor also gives it as his opinion that the 'critter' fed 
entirely upon grass and leaves, the vertebrae of the neck being 
some twenty-one inches in length, and the spread of the 
diapophyses three feet, this being understood of cervical vertebrae. 
The skeleton is not completely exhumed, though between 7,500 
and 8,000 pounds of bone have been shipped to Professor Cope. 
A part of the jaw of a laelaps trihedrodon, ten inches long, and 
containing eight teeth varying from five to eight inches in length, 
has also been shipped. Recently a leg bone of this same animal 
was exhumed and found to measure a little over four feet, and 
with a portion of the head all crushed into small pieces, sent on 
to the professor. A part of the femur of another animal has 
been found, measuring six feet, but somewhat lighter than the 
others. The vertebrae are three feet six inches in eleavtion, 
showing a very tall brute, but not so heavy as the camarasuras. 
When found, it was lying on the right side with vertebrae and 
ribs of that side in place, the ribs measuring over six feet in 
length, and the prongs where they join the back fifteen inches in 
width. Many of the bones of the camarasuras are misplaced 



(5^8 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

and broken up, quite a pile being found at the spot where 
several of the teeth of the trihedrodon were discovered, thus indi- 
cating the preying of the one upon the other. While the general 
estimate of the age of these huge fossils among American geol- 
ogists is seven million years, English scientists declare them 
fourteen million years old. Both the camarasuras and the 
trihedrodon were of the Jurassic period, being found in beds, 
which, according to Professor Marsh, correspond with the 
Wealden beds of England. All this section of the country must 
have been a plain when so much of Colorado was covered by an 
ocean, and before the mountains were formed. The fossils are 
found in rock long upheaved, its character now a sort of shale or 
marlite, which upon being dug out and exposed to the air crumbles 
to pieces. In most instances it is free from bone decay, the parts 
of animals taken out being remarkable for their clean and per- 
fect solidity. Marsh and Cope agree that the camarasuras was 
the largest and most bulky animal capable of progress on land 
of which we have any knowledge, it being very much larger than 
the mastodon, which was of a much later period. 

"Professor Mudge, with his party, is working about three- 
quarters of a mile distant from Professor Cope's camp, and very 
recently discovered portions of an animal of even more monstrous 
proportions than those already referred to, and of entirely dif- 
ferent genus and species from either. The explorations of the 
Marsh and Cope parties will be pushed with all possible vigor, 
the entire scientific world being intensely interested not only in 
the work here on Talbott Hill, but in the setting up of the gi- 
gantic skeletons at Yale College and the Academy of Natural 
Sciences at Philadelphia. Excursions from several of the leading 
colleges to the scene of the discoveries are planned for the sum- 
mer, and the season's work promises to add to the lively in- 
terest in scientific circles. 

•' The next morning our way is southward ten miles or more to 
the coal mines, stopping at the iron spring a little over three miles 
from town. It is up a short, dry gulch leading off from the road, 
and quite peculiar, inasmuch as the water springs from and has 
worn its tiny channel up the very edge of a long, thin ridge that 



COAL DEPOSITS OF CAA'OX CI'lY. 640 

juts out into the gulch. Over the face of the ridge the water 
has scattered its iron sediment with lavish freedom, but only in 
this is there anything that to the eye indicates aught but spotless 
purity in the wonderful clearness of the spring. To the taste, 
however, the iron at once asserts itself, and the water is so 
strongly charged with it as to render it the healthiest of bever- 
ages. We drink our fill, and are off for the coal mines. An 
hour, and we are bowlincr alono- in a coal truck attached to a 
blind mule, through a vein of solid coal something over five feet 
in diameter. It is a weird ride, this mile or more into the inky 
bowels of the earth, the faint shadows from our diminutive lamps 
causing a ghastly effect not at all lessened by the blackness of 
the coal on either side and overhead. Every few feet we peer 
into the dusky depths of the apparently unending series of side 
chambers, catching quick glimpse of the little fire-bugs, as the 
miners look to be, as we pass so swiftly on. We see not the 
forms of the men, their faces, nor their hands, only the lamp- 
wicks' sickly flaring from the unseen hats. Every now and then 
piles of powder in canisters almost block up the entrance to the 
chambers, and at one point we are shown the very fuse that sent 
a poor miner to his death but a day or two before. But still the 
old, blind mule trots on, and the passing through and rapid 
closing behind us of the heavy, oaken door, that preserves the 
little of wholesome air left in the drift, is as if it barred us for- 
evermore from the world behind. The ride in appears an age ; 
/he ride out but of a moment's time in comparison. There are 
eighty-six side chambers, or rooms, as the miners know them, in 
the main entry, fifty-seven in another entry, and in all, four miles 
of track upon which the coal is carried to the outer world. The 
veins average five feet two inches, and run three and one-half 
miles east and west, and ten miles north and south. A hundred 
miners are at work, and the yield averages 400 tons per day. 
The gigantic, solid lump of coal eight feet nine inches long, six 
feet across and four feet four inches high, that attracted such 
great attention at the Centennial, being beyond all comparison 
the greatest single piece of coal on exhibition, was taken from 
this mine. It weighed seven tons, and was cut and brought out 



(3rQ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of the mine in three days. Caiion City coal is probably the finest 
bituminous coal in the world, and is so extensively used through- 
out the West as to require the running of special trains for coal 
alone, on the Denver and Rio Grande road, which has its own 
track to the mines. The supply is beyond all human calculation, 
for the valley of the Arkansas is one vast coal bed for mile upon 
mile. 

"On the return trip we make quite a detour to the east, to 
spend a little time at the gypsum beds, which are twelve feet in 
thickness. 

" Leaving the hotel immediately following an early breakfast, 
next morning, a drive of twelve miles brings us to the Grand 
Canon of the Arkansas. Disappointment is bitter, and feelings 
of resentment almost beyond control, as nowhere can" the eye 
discover the caiion. In the immediate foreground the pinon 
growth is rank and dense ; just beyond, great, bleak ridges of 
bare, cold rock contrast strongly with the profusion of foliage 
hiding everything beneath from sight, while away in the dim dis- 
tance the snow-crowned peaks of the continental divide are out- 
lined sharp and clear against the solid blue of the morning sky. 
Though grand beyond anything we have seen in amazing extent 
of vision, the mind is so wrapped up in the anticipation of full 
realization of the gloom, and vastness, and solemn grandeur of the 
Grand Canon, as to resent almost angrily their apparent absence. 
A half dozen steps from the clump of pinon trees where the 
horses have been fastened, and all thoughts of resentment, of 
disappointment and chagrin vanish, and a very cry of absolute 
terror escapes us. At our very feet is the canon — another step 
would hurl us into eternity. Shuddering, we peer down the 
awful slopes ; fascinated we steal a little nearer to circum.vent a 
very mountain that has rolled into the chasm, and at last the eye 
reaches down the sharp incline 3,000 feet to the bed of the river, 
the impetuous Arkansas, forty to sixty feet in width, yet to us a 
mere ribbon of molten silver. Though surging madly against 
its rocky sides, leaping wildly over gigantic masses of rock and 
hoarsely murmuring against its imprisonment within these lofty 
walls, it finds no avenue of escape. Every portion of these marble 



THE ROYAL GORGE. ^c\ 

bastions Is as smooth as if polished, and as stationary as the 
mighty walls that look down upon them from such fearful height. 
" Fairly awed into a bravado as reckless as it is strange to us, 
we crawl out upon tottering ledges to peer into sheer depths of 
untold ruggedness ; we grasp with death-like clutch some over- 
hanging limb and swing out upon a promontory beside which the 
apex of the highest cathedral spire in the world would be as a 
sapling in height. We crawl where at home we would hardly 
dare look with telescope, and in the mad excitement of the hour 
tread, with perfect abandon, brinks, the bare thoughts of which, 
in after recollection, make us faint of heart and dizzy of head. 
Eager now for still greater horrors of depth, blind to every- 
thing but an intolerable desire to behold the most savage of 
nature's upheavals, the short ride to the Royal Gorge is made 
with ill-concealed impatience. If our first experience upon the 
brink of the Grand Canon was startling, this is absolutely terrify- 
ing, and the bravest at one point become the most abject of 
cowards in comparison at the other. At the first point of obser- 
vation the walls, though frightfully steep, are nevertheless sloping 
to more or less extent ; here at the Royal Gorge they are sheer 
precipices, as perpendicular as the tallest house, as straight as 
if built by line. So narrow is the Gorge that one would think 
the throwing of a stone from side to side the easiest of accom- 
plishments, yet no living man has ever done it, or succeeded in 
throwing any object so that it would fall into the water below. 
Many tourists are content with the appalling view from the main 
walls, but others, more venturesome, work their way 600 to a 
1,000 feet down the ragged edges of a mountain, that has parted 
and actually slid into the chasm, and as we have come to see it 
all, the clamber down must be accomplished. For some distance 
we scramble over and between monstrous boulders, and then 
reach the narrow and almost absolutely perpendicular crevice of 
a gigantic mass of rock, down which we must let ourselves 100 
feet or more. As we reach the shelf or ledge of rock upon which 
the great rock has fallen and been sundered, we glance back, 
but only for a second, the thought of our daring making us grow 
sick and dizzy But a step or two more, and the descent just 



6^2 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

made sinks into utter insignificance compared to what is before 
us. Then we had the huge walls of the parted rock as the rails 
of a staircase : now we have naught but the smooth, rounded 
surface of the storm-washed boulders to cling to, and on either 
side of our narrow way, depths, at the bottom of which a man's 
body could never be discovered with human eye. Behind us 
the precipitous rocks, over and through which we came ; ahead 
of us the slender barrier of rock overhanging the appalling 
chasm, and all there exists between us and it. Cowards at heart, 
pale of face and with painful breath, we slowly crawl on hands 
and knees to the ledge, and as the fated murderer feels the 
knotted noose fall down over his head, so feel we as our eyes 
extend beyond the rocks to catch one awful glimpse of the eter- 
nity of space. Few dare to look more than once, and one glance 
suffices for a comprehension of the meaning of the word depth 
never before even dreamed of, and never afterward forgotten. 
The Gorge is 2,008 feet sheer depth, the most precipitous and 
sublime in its proportions of any chasm on the continent. The 
opposite wall towers hundreds of feet above us, and if possible 
to imagine anything more terrifying than the position on this 
side, that upon the other would be, were its brink safe to ap- 
proach. Overhanging crags, black and blasted at their summits 
or bristling with stark and gnarled pines, reach up into pro- 
foundly dizzy heights, while lower down monstrous rocks threaten 
to topple and carry to destruction any foolhardy climber who 
would venture upon them. Among all the thousands who have 
visited the Grand Cailon and the Royal Gorge harm has befallen 
none, for, despite the seeming horror of the situation, the appall- 
ing depths and rugged paths, the fascination of the danger 
appears to give birth to greatest caution. The Canon, except in 
the dead of winter, is approachable only from the top, the w^alls 
below being so precipitous, and the river such a torrent, as to 
defy all access. When frozen, as the waters are for brief periods 
during the coldest months, the way up the canon may be accom- 
plished, but only at the risk of personal comfort and not a litth^ 
danger. Mr. Talbott, the photographer at Canon City, ventured 
into the canon last winter with his apparatus, and, after infinite 



THE WET MOUNTAIN VALLEY. 65, 

trouble, secured the excellent views which afford us some con- 
ception of the grandeur of the gorge from the bottom. 

"Returning to Canon City, we conclude to remain about the 
hotel for a day resting, and deciding upon the route of a 
tour through Southern Colorado, taking in the San Juan country. 
Chalk Creek, California Gulch, Twin Lakes, South Park, etc. 
We have enjoyed to the fullest the jaunts of a day, and now long 
for a month on the road with headquarters wherever night may 
overtake us. The reader may be inclined to ask if there are no 
more comparatively short trips, with Canon City as the base, 
and the reply would be, there are, and so many in fact as to be 
almost beyond enumeration. A most enjoyable four to five 
days' tour is that from Canon City to the wild and picturesque 
region of the Sierra Mojada, or Wet Mountains, thirty miles via 
Oak Creek Canon to Rosita, altitude 8,600 feet, and return via 
Wet Mountain valley and Grape Creek canon. This is a ' tim 
ber liner,' as an old prospector would denominate so wide and 
high a range of altitude, and affords capital opportunities for the 
enjoyment of life ofttimes above the clouds. Near Rosita are 
several distinct craters, and in the very accessible grass-covered, 
cone-shaped hills that rise 500 feet or more above the town 
are innumerable mines. About them are found the most beau- 
tiful specimens of crystallization, different kinds of spar and 
pyrites of most brilliant hues. The ride down the little grassy 
gulch or glade to obtain a nearer view of the Wet Mountain 
valley, and the Sangre de Christo range beyond its western limit, 
is a very delightful one, looking at sunset time like some grand 
painting with the point of view at the small end of the vista, and 
the eye, ranging down the timber-girted glade to mountains 
1 3,500 feet in altitude, beholds the massive and majestic peaks 
rolling and swelling against the clearest sky ever mortal eye was 
gladdened with. Many Englishmen have made homes in the 
valley, often called ' The Britons' Paradise,' a name which seems 
appropriate to the tourist, after leaving the grayish green of the 
foot-hills and reaching its bright green meadows, starting up 
here a prairie dog and there a rabbit, and crossing and recross- 
ing its trout-filled silvery streams. In the valley is the famous 



(^CA OU/: UESTERN EMPIRE. 

Lake of the Clouds. The fourth night ends at Canon City, and 
the expense of the trip hardly averages ^5 per day, including 
everything. Another exceedingly pleasant trip from Canon City 
is to Poncho Springs, sixty-five miles up the Arkansas river, for 
which a running description of the drive through the Upper 
Arkansas canon will suffice. Engaging a seat in the regular 
buckboard line leaving Canon City every other day, the start is 
made immediately after early breakfast, and the sun is hardly 
over the mountains before the sublimely grand confines of Grape 
Creek canon are reached. A word as to the buckboard, for 
beyond all comparison the most comfortable and enjoyable of 
all vehicles for mountain travel, it deserves at the least a passing 
mention. Built expressly for Barlow & Sanderson, the great 
stage men of Colorado, the buckboard of their lines is a roomy, 
double-seated, open vehicle, the slatted bed lying directly upon 
the axles, and the seats set well up on fish-plate springs, the jar 
consequent upon striking rock or stone is almost lost before it 
reaches the seat. There is none of the rolling, swaying motion 
of the bulky coach, or of the short, jerky action of the apdy 
named ' Jerkee.' There being no top, the eye ranges at will, 
and the bed of the conveyance is so near the ground one can 
readily spring out and walk when so inclined, many preferring 
so to do when climbing long hills. 

'• Emerging from Grape Creek canon the road winds through 
Webster Park, thence into Copper Gulch, at the head of which 
is a towering gateway of solid rock, and passing through it to 
the top of the divide the scene is grand beyond all conception. 
Directly ahead is the snowy range, with its white-capped crests 
looming high above the clouds, which hang about the rocky 
breasts below as if loth to leave their ample resting-place. To 
the left is the Greenhorn range, to the right the great conti- 
nental divide, and imagination could not picture sight more sub 
lime. Through Seven-mile Gulch the road enters Pleasant Park, 
with its rugged rock sculptures, its densely-wooded slopes and 
grassy lawns. On every side are most curious monuments 
formed of monster boulders one atop the other, and holding 
position, by apparendy so frail a thread, that the gust of a mo- 



THE CLIFF HOUSES OF THE SAN JUAN. 5- c 

ment's duration would hurl them from dizzy heights to the level 
of the park. While in the park, magnificent views are obtained 
of Mount Blanca and Pike's Peak, either of them not less tl.an 
eighty miles away, and at the summit of the divide between 
Pleasant Park and the South Arkansas — altitude 7,800 feet — the 
view in all directions is beyond description. From this the 
descent is commenced ; at nightfall the solid, comfortable and 
roomy old stone house, known, Colorado over, as Bales', is reached, 
and with it the South Arkansas. Twenty miles farther is the 
Chalk Creek region, with its hot springs, fishing and hunting, 
and thirty miles beyond are the noted Twin Lakes. Fifteen 
miles from the lakes is California Gulch, with the wonderful 
Mount of the Holy Cross to the north." 

There are, in the southwestern part of the State, in La Plata, 
Conejos, and San Juan counties, and around the head-waters of 
the sources of the San Juan river, many of those ruins of houses 
cut in the rocks of the perpendicular cliffs, or on the summits of 
the isolated mesas or table-rocks, of which there are so many 
hundreds of examples in New Mexico, Arizona and Southern 
Utah. This whole region was densely populated ages ago, and 
by races far superior to the existing tribes of Indians. The 
Moquis, already described in our account of Arizona, may possi- 
bly belong to the same race with these cliff-dwellers, for they 
have similar ideas in regard to their dwellings and languages, 
customs, habits and religion, entirely diverse from any of the 
other Indian tribes, but some of these ruins are many centuries 
old. They were in their present condition of ruins when the 
Spaniards first penetrated here, 330 or 340 years ago. That 
they had formidable enemies, whose attacks they evaded by 
their fortified dwelling-places, seems evident ; but w^hether those 
enemies were Apaches, Aztecs, or other tribes or nations, now, 
like themselves, extinct, does not clearly appear. The extent 
of these ruins, often 250 by 600 or 700 feet, the massive blocks 
of stone of which some of them are constructed, and the vast 
labor by which others were hewn out of the solid rock, are well 
fitted to excite our admiration. The Estufas or chapels, for 
their worship of the sun in these buildings, were very large and 



ge6 <^^'^^' yy^S'Ii^^i<N EMriRE. 

elaborately constructed. It is believed that they were so unwar- 
like as to have no offensive weapons. They probably burned 
the bodies of their dead. (See Arizona.) 

The mineral wealth of Colorado does not consist alone in the 
amount of the precious metals contained in its broad mineral 
belt, though this will eventually be found, we think, greater than 
that of any other State, but includes also copper, lead, zinc, 
platina, tellurium, iron in vast quantities and of all kinds of ores, 
coal, gypsum, salt, kaolin, and pottery clays, etc., etc. 

The coal of Colorado is worthy of special remark. It is widely 
distributed, being found and worked in Weld, Boulder, Jefferson, 
El Paso, Fremont, Huerfano, Las Animas, and La Plata coun- 
ties, and is known also to exist in San Juan, Ouray, Gunnison 
and Summit counties. It is of very different qualities and of 
different geologic ages. In the north it is a lignite of the terti- 
ary period, of very good quality. Toward the centre of the 
State it is a lignite of the cretaceous period, but of still bettei 
quality. In the south, in the vicinity of Trinidad, Las Animas 
county, the true coal measures have been reached, and the coal 
is a bituminous coking coal of great value. West of the Rocky 
Mountains, in La Plata county, it is from the true coal measures, 
semi-bituminous or semi-anthracite. Volcanic action in Las 
Animas and La Plata counties has probably affected the quality 
of the coals, much as it has in some parts of New Mexico, mak- 
ing, what would otherwise have been a soft, bituminous coal, a 
hard and dense anthracite. It is believed that the coal mines of 
Gunnison county, which are known to be anthracite, have been 
changed in the same way, but the quality is not inferior to that of 
Pennsylvania and a coking coal of the best quahty. The area 
in this county is about 600 square miles, and the beds are from 
ten to fifty feet or more in thickness. There are two distinct 
beds, separated only by four feet of iron shale. Some of it is 
said to be a true anthracite of excellent quality, whether affected 
by volcanic action or not is not fully settled. The coal mines of 
Colorado will eventually be sufficient to supply the entire West. 

Zoology. — The wild animals of Colorado are usually those of 
the plains, though there are a few not found in any considerable 



ZOOLOGY Of COLORADO. 657 

numbers on the plains or elsewhere in the Rocky Mountains. 
The black and brown bear occur in considerable numbers 
both in Eastern and Western Colorado, and are hunted to some 
extent. The grizzly bear is not common even west of the Rocky 
Mountains, and is unknown in Eastern Colorado. He is a for- 
midable customer in a close fight, but is easily frightened away 
by shouts or yells, when uninjured. The puma, cougar or panther 
is somewhat rare, except in the northwest of the State, but his 
congener, the jaguar, American or mountain lion, is found 
west of the Rocky Mountains, in the San Juan countr)', though 
his habitat has been generally supposed to be limited to Texas 
and Arizona. The gray or black wolf is found west of the 
Rocky Mountains, and, perhaps, east of them ; the prairie wolf, 
usually, though perhaps incorrectly, called coyote, is frequent 
enough in Eastern Colorado, but not plenty in the west. Thv; 
lynx, ocelot, wild cat, martin, fisher, and skunk are here, as else- 
where, in considerable numbers. The buffalo still frequents, 
though in greatly decreased numbers, the elevated plains of 
Eastern Colorado, but never appears in the mountains or west 
of them. His rare congener, the mountain or wood buffalo, is 
occasionally found, solitary, in the Rocky Mountains. The elk 
{wapiti), the finest game animal of the West, has been thus far 
very abundant in the West and especially in the great parks ; 
but it has been so destructively hunted that its numbers are fast 
diminishing. The Virginia and mule-deer are numerous, and 
the antelope is found on the plains, while in the mountains the 
bighorn, or Rocky Mountain sheep and, more rarely, the Rocky 
Mountain goat, are plenty enough to make hunting of them rare 
sport. The smaller rodents and munchers, squirrels o\ many 
species, beavers, minks, muskrats, rats, mice, moles, gophers, 
marmots, rabbits, sage, and jackass hares, etc., etc., are, in the 
agricultural districts, more plentiful than desirable. 

Birds, though not as numerous as in California, are yet 
abundant and of many genera and species. Of birds of prey, 
there are two, possibly three, species of the eagle, several of the 
vulture, and hawks and owls In abundance. In and around the 
lakes. In the parks and elsewhere, and on the plains, are a great 
42 



grg OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

abundance of game birds, the wild goose migrating southward, 
ducks, brant, teal, and other water and marsh birds, including 
cranes, ibises and English and jack-snipe. The prairie-hens and 
other species of grouse, partridges, ptarmigan, quail, and, more 
rarely, the wild turkey and pheasant, are found in countless 
numbers on the plains and in the parks. In the mountains are 
many song birds.* 

Reptiles are not very numerous nor formidable. There are 
lizards, horned toads and frogs, terrapins and turtles of the 
smaller kinds, one species of rattlesnake, and many harmless 
snakes. 

Fish abound in the rivers and lakes, most of them edible. 
Trout are plentiful, and of large size in all the mountain streams, 
and grayling, black bass, pickerel, etc., are found in the lakes 
and larger streams. Many of the streams have been stocked 
with fish from the United States Fish Commission. The insect 
tribes, though numerous enough, are not as annoying as in 
some sections. Even the fly, which, in the West, accompanies 
civilization, has been known to the hunters in the Rocky 
Mountains less than ten years. The mosquito does not " pipe 
his soft note," nor present his formidable bill as ferociously as in 
Arkansas, nor are the other insect pests troublesome. The 
Rocky Mountain locust, rather contemptuously called "grass- 
hopper," and the ten-lined spearman, generally known as the 
"Colorado beetle" or potato-bug, are both popularly supposed 
to be natives of Colorado. We doubt whether the State is en- 
titled to the honor or the reproach. Many circumstances seem 

* Mr. S. Nugent Townshend, an eminent English sportsman and correspondent of The Field 
(London), thus speaks of some of the rarer game birds and animals he had shot in Northern 
Colorado : 

" A few of the rare species we have seen in the Rockies, all of which are worth preservinr;, 
are the blue hares (white in winter) ; the gray-crowned finch, supposed to be the rarest bird in 
America, because he is always above timber-line, where few go to look for him ; Clarke's crow, 
.or the noisy chatterer, also living only at great altitudes; the pine grosbeak, also found only at 
high, elevations, red in summer, in winter gray, with yellow head; long-crested jay, black head 
and crest, blue and black transverse, ribbed wings and tail ; red-shafted woodpecker, rather 
rare and a beauty, body cuckoo-marked, with regular gray woodpecker head and breast, red under 
the wings. Great horned owls are, though handsome, very common, as is the towhee finch. 
The cross-bred foxes, between red and gray, are large, abundant, and very pretty when 
stuffed. " 



MINES AND MINING IN COLORADO. 650 

to indicate the origin of the latter from some part of the Great 
Basin, possibly in Western Utah ; while the locust, according 
to its usual habit of making its original home in the desert, prob- 
ably made its way into Colorado from the arid plains and 
mesas of Southern Utah and Southern Nevada, or possibly from 
Arizona. At all events, they have never proved as destructive 
to the crops in Colorado as they have in States farther east and 
northeast. 

Mines and Mini7tg Industry. — Though Colorado is likely to 
achieve some distinction and reputation for her agricultural and 
horticultural productions, and a much larger measure for her large 
stock-raisin or and wool-orrowinor interests, which are now attaininof 
such a wonderful development; yet she is and will h^ par excel- 
lence 2i mining State. About 100,000 minine claims have been en- 
tered upon her county records, more than 80,000 of which have 
been filed since 1875. Of these, of course, a considerable propor- 
tion have lapsed from not being worked during the time prescribed 
by law, and others perhaps from the poverty of the veins or 
lodes ; while of the placers some are exhausted, and others have 
been turned into hydraulic mines. But every day adds largely 
to the recorded claims. Those of Lake county, in the vicinity 
of Leadville, are many of them in litigation, claims having been 
abandoned or forfeited, or jumped and re-entered over and 
over again. Just now the drift of the mining population is 
mainly to Western and Southwestern Colorado, the San Juan 
and the Gunnison resfions in the mountains and basins, and the 
streams having their sources in the Elk, Uncompahgre, San 
Miguel, San Juan, Dolores and La Plata Mountains. Most of 
the streams in these mountains — all of them, indeed, except the 
highest sources of the Rio Grande del Norte, and the Sag- 
uache, which falls into the San Luis lakes — flow westward ; 
here are found the Roaring Fork, the Gunnison, the Uncom- 
pahgre, the San Miguel, the Dolores, and numerous affluents of 
each, all tributaries of the Grand river, one of the two constit- 
uents of the Rio Colorado of the West, and in the extreme 
southwest, the Rio Navajo, Rio Blanca. Rio Piedra, Rio de los 
Penos, Rio Florida. Rio de las Animas (a large stream), Rio la 



55q our western empire. 

Plata, Rio Mancos (also an important river), McEImo, Hoven- 
weep and East Montezuma creeks — all tributaries of the San 
Juan river, another of the principal affluents of the Rio Colorado. 
This whole region of Western and Southwestern Colorado, com- 
posed of the spurs and outlying ridges of the westernmost range 
of the Rocky Mountains, is full of veins and lodes of gold and 
silver, and unless portions of Arizona may be excepted, there is 
no richer region for the precious metals in the whole West. 

But let us go into the mining history of the State somewhat 
more in detail. Gold was discovered in the Colorado Territory, 
not far from Pike's Peak, in 1859; it was in refractory forms, 
mosdy sulphurets of iron and gold, a pyrites of iron and gold 
reduced with great difficulty, though in the placers there was 
some free gold. The production for ten years after 1859 was 
on an average about ^3,000,000 per annum, exceeding that 
amount by $300,000 or $400,000 each year of the first five, and. 
fallinor short of it by about the same amount in the last five, 
All of this product was gold except about $330,000 of silver 
and $40,000 in copper, both parted from the gold. 

The entire production of the Colorado mines and placers up 
to the close of 1869 was esdmated at $27,583,081, and as it was 
apparendy diminishing and was difficult of reduction, while that 
of Nevada and California was increasing, the population did not 
greatly increase and many of the miners migrated to Nevada 
and elsewhere. Thus far all the gold and silver had been pro- 
duced either on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains or at 
least on the slopes of the front or lower range and east of the 
Main, Park, or Sangre de Christo range. But in 1870 the silver 
product began to increase, moderately at first, but soon more 
largely. Lake county had been among the earliest gold pro- 
ducing coundes, and its placers, though yielding from $100,000 
to $230,000, yet seemed to be gradually diminishing, till, in 1876, 
they yielded but about $91,000; then came the wonderful dis- 
coveries of silver at Leadville and its vicinity, and the large silver 
and gold developments elsewhere. The following tables show 
first the metallic producdon of the State up to the close of 1879, 
classed first as gold, silver, copper and lead, and total for each 



STATISTICS OF MINING PRODUCTS. 



66 1 



year; and second by counties in each year since 1870, so far as 
they have been officially reported. 



COLORADO'S MINING PRODUCT PRIOR TO 1880. 
{Coin Value. ^ 



Year. 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 


Lead. 


Total. 


Previous to 1870 .... 
1870 


^27,213,081 00 
2,000,000 00 
2,000,000 00 
1,725,000 00 
1,750,000 00 
2,002,487 00 
2,161,475 02 
2,726,315 82 
3,148,707 56 
3,490,384 36 
5,700,000 00 


$330,000 00 
650,000 00 
1,029,046 34 
2,015,000 00 
2,185,000 00 
3,096,023 00 
3,122,912 00 
3,315,592 00 
3,726,379 33 
6,341,807 81 
13,100,000 00 


$40,000 00 
20,000 00 
30,000 00 
45,000 00 
65,000 00 
90,197 00 
90,000 00 
70,000 00 
93.796 64 
89,000 00 

150,000 00 


$5,000 00 

28,000 00 

73,676 00 

60,000 00 

80,000 00 

247,400 00 

636,924 73 

829,584 61 


$27,583,081 00 
2,670,000 00 
3,059,046 34 , 
3,790,000 00 
4,028,000 00 
5,262,383 00 
5,434,387 02 j 
6,191,907 82 j 
7,216,283 53 
10,558,116 go j 
19,679,584 61 


1871 

1872 

•873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 


1878 

1879 

Total 


S53,9» 7.450 76 


$38,911,760 48 


$782,993 64 


$1,960,584 34 


$95,472,790 22 



COLORADO'S MINING PRODUCT BY COUNTIES, 1870-'71-72-'73. 



Names. 


1870. 1871. 


1872. 


1873. 




$1,552,000 00 
481,354 08 
125,000 00 
60,000 00 
130,000 00 
150,000 00 
171,645 92 


$1,400,000 00 
869,046 34 
100,000 00 
100,000 00 
250,000 00 
66,000 00 
274,000 00 


$1,389,289 00 
1,503,291 00 
133,000 00 
250,000 00 
346,540 00 
125,000 00 
50,000 00 


$1,340,502 00 
1,205,761 00 
230,000 00 1 
459,000 00 1 
390,000 00 I 
106,000 00 
297,737 00 


Clear Creek 


Lake 

Park 


Boulder 




Oiher Products 

Total of Colorado 


$2,670,645 92 


$3,059,046 34 


$3,790,000 00 


$4,028,000 00 



COLORADO'S MINING PRODUCT BY COUNTIES, 1874-'75-'76. 



Counties. 


1874. 


1875. 


1876. 


Clear Creek 

Gilpin 


$2,203,947 00 
1,531,863 00 
596,392 00 
539,870 00 
223,503 00 
126,108 00 


$1,780,054 31 
1,520,677 13 
716,258 62 
605,000 00 
104,258 62 
122,413 78 
294,827 58 
90,517 24 
200,380 55 


$1,982,548 28 

2,105,544 78 

550,044 84 

547,085 20 

90,900 00 

350,000 00 

251,121 06 

244,663 66 

70,000 00 


Park 




Lake 




Frdmont 


The San Juan Region 




Other sources and unaccounted for. . . 
Totals 


40,620 00 


$5,362,383 00 


$5,434,387 02 


$6,191,907 82 





552 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

COLORADO'S MINING PRODUCT BY COUNTIES, 1877 -'7 8-79. 



Col'NTIRS 

L^ke 

Gilpiii 

Clear Creek 

Boulder 

Custer 

Park 

Cunnison 

Summit 

Chaffee 

The San Juan Region, 
Other sources 

Totals 



1877. 



^555.330 30 
2,208,037 09 
2,206,577 91 

593.325 35 
354,oSi 34 
616,459 32 

190,000 00 

377,47^ 52 
1 18,000 00 



^2I6,283 53 



53.152,925 44 

2,280,901 II 

2,511,105 85 

679.123 50 

452,500 00 

426,698 00 

320,774 00 

534,089 00 
200.000 00 



^10,558,116 90 



1879. 



512,032 

2,608 

1,912 

800 

720 

434 
300 

295 
71 

4S3 
12 



808 61 
055 00 
410 oc 
,000 00 
000 00 
749 00 
,000 00 
,717 00 
,240 00 
,500 00 
,940 00 



^19.679.5^4 61 



The first of these tables is remarkable as showing the won- 
derful development of silver production in the last ten years, 
and especially in the last five or six years. The carbonate silver 
lodes of Leadville and its vicinity, and the silver production in 
other counties in 1879 brought the aggregate of silver product 
to 5^13,100,000, and will probably bring it to ;^i 7,000,000 or 
$18,000,000 the present year. Meanwhile, the production of 
gold is not only not diminishing, but last year was almost double 
what it had previously been, and the present year will probably 
advance still more rapidly. Gold production has passed through 
three successive stages in Colorado. From 1859 to 1869 it was 
obtained very largely from placer deposits ; and later from 
hydraulic mining, which is only placer mining on a larger scale ; 
then came the era of the sulphurets of gold and iron, and the 
tellu rides, refractory ores, but rich in gold ; now the mines of the 
San Juan region (the counties of Hinsdale, San Juan, Ouray, and 
La Plata) as well as those of the Gunnison, so far as they are 
gold, are mosdy free-milling gold, easily extracted, and yielding 
large amounts to the ton of ore ; the mines of Silver Cliff and 
Rosita, in Custer county, so far as they yield gold, which many 
of them do, differ from all the other gold mines of the State, but 
are not specially difficult of reduction. The mining product of 
Colorado seems likely to be, when it shall be well developed, of 
nearly equal values of gold and silver ; while its mines of copper, 
lead, zinc, iron, and coal are of great and constandy increasing 



MINING TOPOGRAPHY. 55^ 

value. Nevada, a much older State, has produced much more 
silver thus far, but, with her rapid and scientific development, 
and her wide diffusion of the precious metals (the western half 
of the State being a vast series of ore beds), Colorado bids fair 
within twenty years to pass her sister of the " snowy plume." 

The Gunnison region, though but little explored as yet, o-ives 
promise of immense mineral wealth, as does also the whole of 
the San Juan country, and, when the Ute reservation is opened 
to settlers under the new treaty, there will be such an abundance 
of mineral wealth that the old story will be revived, " that the 
miners are completely discouraged, because they have to dia 
through four feet of solid silver to get down to the o-old." 

Let us take another glance at the mineral wealth of the State 
from the topographical point of view. The only part of the 
State which has not, up to the present time, given indications of 
deposits of the precious metals, is the region lying east of the 
meridian of 105° west from Greenwich, and extending eastward 
to the eastern boundary of the State on the i02d meridian. 
This embraces the large grazing and, to some extent, farmino- 
counties of Weld, Arapahoe, Elbert, Bent and Las Animas, as 
well as parts of Huerfano, Pueblo, El Paso and Douglas, and 
small fractions of Fremont and Larimer. It is about three- 
sevenths of the State, and is a part of the great plateau or plain 
which extends with a very gradual slope to the Missouri river, 
and includes the whole of Kansas and Nebraska. There are 
not as yet any manifestations of mineral wealth in Costilla 
county, which includes the great San Luis Park, and is largely 
inhabited by Mexicans, nor very much in Conejos, both counties 
being largely inhabited by Mexicans. But the whole region 
west of the 105th parallel, except the two counties named, is a 
congeries of mountains, all or nearly all of which are rich in gold, 
silver, copper and lead. 

"A belt," says Mr. Fossett, "showing but slight interruptions, 
has been traced from the North Park and the northern part of 
Boulder county, south through Gilpin and Clear Creek, thence 
southwesterly through Summit, Park, Lake Chaffee, and into 
Gunnison county. It approaches the point where the p^reat 



5^4 0^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Sawatch (Sag-uache) or main range divides into the Sangre de 
Christo on the southeast, and the San Juan Mountains on the 
southwest. The belt appears at intervals in each of these moun- 
tain systems or their outlying spurs and valleys down to the 
New Mexico boundary, and across it. 

" In the San Juan Mountains, which form the Continental 
Divide in the south, it is rich in silver veins, extending all 
through the counties of Hinsdale, San Juan and Ouray. Gold 
is also found there, as well as in Rio Grande county. The gold 
and silver bearing deposits of the Sierra Mojada and of the hills 
and valleys skirting the Sangre de Christo range are fast bring- 
ing Custer county into notoriety. 

" The Sawatch (Saguache) range extends from the point of 
union of the more southerly mountain systems northward to the 
Mount of the Holy Cross and the headwaters of the Arkansas, 
and is but another name for a portion of the main Rocky Moun- 
tain divide. It forms the dividing line between Gunnison county 
and Chaffee and Lake counties, and also separates Summit from 
the latter. Rich mineral discoveries have been and are still 
being made on both its eastern and western slopes, silver being 
the predominating metal. 

"East of this, and of the upper Arkansas valley, is the Park 
range of mountains, separating the latter from South Park, and 
unitine with the main rangre at Mount Lincoln. This, with its 
foot-hills, is enormously productive. On the western slope are 
tUe world-renowned carbonate deposits and veins of Leadville, 
immeasurably rich in silver and lead, and the gold veins and 
alluvial deposits of California Gulch. On the range itself and 
its eastern slopes are vast numbers of deposits and veins. Sil- 
ver predominates there, but gold, copper and lead are mined. 
Down in the park are gold placer mines." 

Northward extends the main range which, all along its course 
between Summit and Grand counties on the western slope and 
Park, Clear Creek, Gilpin, and Boulder on the east, is more or 
less rich in silver veins. Its extending foot-hills possess veins 
and alluvial deposits rich in gold. The outlying mountain spurs, 
hills and gulches are also ribbed with metalliferous veins, some 



MOUNTAINS FULL OF GOLD AND SILVER. 665 

producing silver and copper, others silver and lead, and others 
gold and silver, with one or both of the baser metals. Close 
beside each other, on this eastern slope, are the famous mining 
districts of Clear Creek and Gilpin. The latter has produced 
most of Colorado's gold, and the former gave much the larger 
part of its silver for years, up to the time when Leadville came 
to the front. Both counties, however, have gold and silver 
mines, and so has Boulder, whose telluride veins, carrying the 
precious metals, are something rarely encountered elsewhere. 
Ouray, and indeed all the San Juan counties, and Gunnison, 
possess rich deposits of both metals, and will henceforth take a 
prominent place among the gold and silver producing counties. 

Westward, over among the mountains and valleys of Summit, 
Grand, and Routt counties, are numerous argentiferous and 
galena veins and gold-producing gulches and placers. Some of 
these have been worked for years, and others are of recent dis- 
covery, such as those of the "Ten Mile Range." Some are in- 
cluded in the great Ute Reservation, and cannot be explored or 
wrought until the recent treaty, which will open this vast tract 
to the market, is fully settled. 

The orreat central mineral belt of Colorado has a width of 

o 

fi'om twenty to eighty miles, but often branches off to the right or 
l(^ft, and again contracts, so that the breadth is by no means uni- 
form. Continued discoveries indicate that its extent is not yet 
ascertained. It is impossible to make anything like a close esti- 
riate of the wealth that lies imbedded in these mountains, where 
constant developments show that only the beginning of it has yet 
been found. 

Let us then briefly pass in review the mining counties, and 
classify as far as we may their mineral wealth. 

We begin with 

Bouldei'' county, as the first in which gold was discovered as 
early as 1858. Boulder county is not only rich in mineral wealth 
but possesses a large amount of fertile lands under a high state 
of cultivation. Its combination of mountain, valley and plain 
renders it admirably adapted to farming and horticulture as well 
as to mining, while its mineral deposits are of great extent and 



(556 O^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

variety. Flourishing towns and beautiful farms dot its surface, 
and mines and mills are profitably operated all over the moun- 
tain sections, from the sunny plains at Boulder back to the snow- 
barren summit of the snowy range. On the plains are extensive 
coal measures, and on hill-slope and in valley are rich and pleas- 
ant farms. The mineral deposits of Boulder are very extensive, 
and embrace a wonderful variety. First, there are alluvial 
deposits in creeks and gulches, but these are of limited extent 
and mostly worked out. The gold and silver lode veins and 
the coal measures are the main sources of mineral wealth. The 
former are located on the mountains and the latter on the plains. 
The lode veins may be classed under three heads : silver, gold 
and telluride ; the latter carrying both metals. They are gen- 
erally of the kind denominated true fissure veins, very many oK 
them having well-defined walls, and seemingly unending deptlu 
They commonly occur either in gneiss or granite rock or between 
the two. There are exceptions, however, in regard to forma- 
tion, regularity and continuity. Several thousands of locations 
have been recorded, and the number profitably worked is large. 
Here, as in California, the placer deposits were first worked, but 
some large gold-bearing lodes were discovered as early as 
1859-60, and the quartz mills for several years turned out a 
great deal of bullion. After a time more difficulty was experi- 
enced in reducing the ores and extracting the gold than was 
usual with free gold ores in other counties. Many processes 
were devised of reducing these refractory ores, but none of them 
were very successful. In 1869 silver ores were discovered near 
Arapahoe peak, in and about what has since been known as the 
Caribou mine. This has proved one of the most uniformly pro- 
ductive silver mines in Colorado for the past ten years. Many 
other silver mines have been opened on the same or adjacent 
veins. 

The prospectors searching for new gold or silver lodes in 
1871, 1872 and 1873 often encountered mineral of great weight 
but of a peculiar appearance, which they passed over as worth- 
less. In 1873 Professor J. Alden Smith and others began to 
test this mineral and found it to be tellurides of gold and silver, 



GOLD AND SILVER IN GILPIN COUNTY. (£y 

and especially the former, and that it was remarkably rich in 
gold. The combination of tellurium with gold prevented its 
yielding well in the stamp mills, and it was found necessary to 
smelt the ores. By smelting they were found very profitable. 
With the exception of one mine each in California, Montana and 
North Carolina, the telluride compounds of the precious metals 
are only found in Boulder county. They are somewhat difficult 
to reduce, and only in Colorado and in Boulder county has their 
working been found profitable. The tellurium itself has no 
economic value, and many of Its compounds are intensely poison- 
ous and foetid. The silver mines have proved profitable. The 
amounts of gold and silver taken iron the mines of Boulder are: 
of gold about two-thirds, silver one-third, in value. There are 
eight mining districts, viz. : Caribou or Nederland, Boulder, 
Ward, Gold Hill, Central, Orodelfan, Salina and Sugar Loaf. 
The actual production of gold and silver in the county in 1878, 
was ^704,123.50 ; that of 1879 about ^800,000. The coal mines 
of Boulder county are lignites of the tertiary period, but are of 
excellent quality though not coking coals. 

Gilpin county is the smallest county in the State, and is mainly 
Important for its mines, though it has some good farming and 
grazing lands, and some which are of very little value. It lies 
directly south of Boulder, and is bounded by that county, Jef- 
ferson, Clear Creek and Grand. Most of its population is con- 
centrated in Central City, Black Hawk and Nevadaville, while a 
few are gathered In Smith's Hill, Empire City and Lawson's. 
The remainder of the county consists of farms and scattering 
mining camps. The gold belt of Gilpin county is a continuation 
of that in Boulder, and extends into Clear Creek county south 
of It, crossing the county diagonally. Its greatest development 
and most valuable deposits are in the immediate vicinity of the 
almost continuous city known under the names of Black Hawk, 
Central City and Nevadaville, though there are some valuable 
gold lodes outside of this. These mines have proved very rich, 
though owing to the combination of iron and sulphur with the 
gold, there has until within a few years been a difficulty in 
reducing them. The new silver belt in the county extends to the 



^3 ^^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

north and northwest of Black Hawk, across North Clear Creek 
and other hills from York Gulch to the Day Hill. Some of the 
silver lodes here rank with the best in the State. The production 
of the precious metals began in Gilpin county in 1859, and has 
steadily increased in value, except in 1861 and 1866, to the 
present time. More than 5^30,000,000 of gold and silver have 
been produced in the county in that time. The yield in 1878 
was *^2, 280,871, and in 1879, ^2,608,159. Of this about nine- 
tenths is gold, eight per cent, silver, and the remainder copper 
and lead. The ores are not rich, but for the most part are now 
easily reduced. Most of them are treated by the stamp mill 
processes, though a few of them are more readily and profitably 
reduced by the smelter. 

No other county in the State has given so uniform and ample 
returns in gold mining as Gilpin, and recent developments, both 
in gold and silver lodes, give good reason to believe that its 
past production will very soon be doubled and perhaps quad- 
rupled. The richest gold lodes on Quartz Hill and elsewhere 
are being consolidated, and contrary to usual experience are 
found to yield more largely the deeper they go. At a thousand 
feet depth the ore is very rich. There are now in the county 
over 1,000 stamps and all are kept busy. The mines are splen- 
didly equipped, have a large capital, and the universal practice 
now is, to have large reserves of ore constantly on the dump, so 
as to avoid stripping the mine at any time of ore. In 1878 and 
;V879, new discoveries of silver ore were made of exceptional 
richness, yielding at the rate of several thousand dollars to 
the ton. 

Clear Creek county includes the region drained by South Clear 
creek, south and southwest of Gilpin, and bounded by that 
county on the north, Jefferson county on the east, Park on the 
south, and Summit and Grand on the west. The western part 
of the county is covered with lofty mountains rising to a height 
of 11,000 to 14,000 feet. There are twelve or fifteen of these 
summits, spurs of the Colorado Front Range, and the streams 
which descend from their snow-clad heights cut deep canons 
and long narrow valleys and ravines, which are ribbed with veins 



SILVER IN CLEAR CREEK COUNTY. 66g 

of silver. In these valleys most of the inhabitants of the county 
have their dwelling-places. Clear Creek county, until the recent 
wonderful discoveries at Leadville, was considered the best 
known and best developed silver district in Colorado. Mining 
for gold commenced there in 1859, and the first silver discovery 
was made late in 1864 on McClellan Mountain. At first the sil- 
ver ores could not be reduced in the county, and it was not till 
1868 that smelting was carried on to any great extent in the 
county. Since 1871 the annual product has averaged ^2,000,000, 
reaching ^2,206,578 in 1877; ^2,511,106 in 1878, and falling off 
to ^1,912,410 in 1879. About nine-tenths of this was silver and 
the remainder gold, lead, and copper, the value of the two base 
metals nearly equalling that of the gold. There is a probability 
of an increase in the gold production in the future, as the Free- 
land, Hukill and some other lodes, carrying gold, silver and cop- 
per in nearly equal quantities, have .now come into the posses- 
sion of an energetic and wealthy California company which is 
driving them forward to their utmost limit of production. Many 
of the silver mines, especially those on Sherman, Republican, 
Democrat and Brown Mountains, are yielding very large quan- 
tities of silver ores which are easily reduced. There are eight 
extensive reduction mills and works in the county, six of them 
in Georgetown. 

Lake County and Leadville. — Lake county is not new as a gold- 
producing region. In i860 Gilpin county miners had penetrated 
there and found rich gold placers in a ravine which they named 
California Gulch. So abundant was the yield of gold and so 
easily and rapidly was it washed out that claims were staked 
out in a continuous line for the whole length of the gulch, about 
33,000 feet or six miles. At one point the hills which bordered 
the ravine partially broke away, and the trade of the mining vil- 
lage, which soon had about 5,000 inhabitants, partly concentrated 
at this point, which was called Old Oro. This is partly on the 
site of the Leadville of to-day. Another centre of trade was 
two and a half miles farther up the gulch and is still known as 
Oro. The water supply was limited, and the site was so ele- 
vated, over 10,000 feet above the sea, that little could be done 



(j-jQ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

in placer mining from the middle of October to May or June. 
The greater part of the miners went to Denver or to the States 
on the approach of winter, and stayed till the next summer, most 
of them squandering their gains before their return. 

But the placers were very rich. Some claims yielded over a 
thousand dollars a day, and one firm was said to have taken out 
$100,000 in sixty days. Careful estimates give $1,000,000 as 
the yield of the first summer, and $4,000,000 as the production 
of the six years ending with December, 1865. Subsequent to 
that date the production was light — $100,000 or so for a year 
or two — dwindling to $60,000 in 1869, and to $20,000 in 1876. 

Meantime placer and lode mines had been developed in other 
parts of the county, and some gold lodes were discovered near 
Old Oro. At Granite, seventeen miles away, and now the 
county-seat of Chaffee county, some gold was discovered, and at 
Homestake, thirty miles north, on the Tennessee fork of the 
Arkansas river, mines were opened, which were at first rich in 
lead but poor in silver. In all up to 1873 the mines and placers 
of Lake county had yielded about $6,400,000, almost entirely 
gold. After that time, for three years the yield was light, a part 
of it silver, and up to the close of 1876 only amounted to 
$343,200. 

Some time in 1874 Messrs. W. H. Stevens and A. B. Wood, 
practical men and experienced miners, had bought up a con- 
siderable portion of the California Gulch placer claims, which 
had been carelessly and imperfectly worked, and commenced 
building a twelve-mile ditch from the headwaters of the Arkansas, 
to re-work them by the hydraulic process. This required con- 
siderable time, and the ditches and hydraulic apparatus were 
not ready till 1878. But Messrs. Stevens and Wood were too 
shrewd to let any chances of bettering themselves pass. The 
placer miners had from the beginning complained of the great 
weight of the boulders they were obliged to move over and 
over in the creek, but it had never occurred to them that these 
boulders might owe their weight to their metallic constituents. 
Messrs. Stevens and Wood ascertained that these boulders con- 
cained a large amount of carbonate of lead carrying silver, and 



THE SrORY OF LEADVILLE. 5-7 1 

very quietly secured government titles to nine claims, each com- 
prising 1,500 feet by 300, or in all about 100 acres, crossing 
California Gulch and extending high up on the hills. The names 
of the principal locations made by them were the Dome, the 
Rock, Stone, Lime, Bull's Eye and Iron. Ihe "Rock" claim 
was first worked, and proved to be rich in lead but poor in sil- 
ver. Soon others located claims, and considerable activity in 
mining began. 

As yet, however, there were no great discoveries of silver 
to attract people to the as yet unnamed site of the great silver 
city. The agent of the St. Louis Smelting and Refining Com- 
pany in April, 1877, commenced the establishment of sampling- 
works in what is now Leadville, and In May began the erection of a 
smelter, and by October had a blast furnace in operation. So 
doubtful was he of success, that he made a contract before 
the smelter was completed with Messrs. Stevens and Wood for 
the delivery of a thousand tons of their lead ore from the Rock 
mine. Before this was entirely delivered, so many discoveries 
had been made, and such development of mines had taken place, 
that the only difficulty experienced in both the sampling and 
smelting works was that of handling the rich ores which were 
forced upon them. In the summer of 1877, the now growing 
villasfe received its name of Leadville from what seemed thus 

o 

far to be the staple ore of its mines. 

It was during this summer that Mr. A. B. Wood, the partner 
of Mr. Stevens, despondent perhaps at the small yield of silver 
in his nine claims, sold his half Interest In them to L. Z. Leiter, of 
the great Chicago firm of Field, Leiter & Co., for the sum of 
$40,000. At that time the " Iron" mine, one of the best in Lead- 
ville, was undeveloped, and Mr. Leiter was thought to have paid 
all the claims were worth. A year later he refused a million 
dollars for his property, and now It Is said that five millions 
would not purchase his Leadville interests, which, however, 
Include other mines as well as these. 

Discovery and development went forward with a constantly 
accelerating force. The Iron mine yielded its hundreds of 
thousands of dollars of silver, and scores of others In the same 



5^2 ^^-^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

vicinity were equally prolific. The town had grown to be more 
than a mere mining camp by January, 1878, and its production 
for the previous year was $555,000. hi April, 187S, George H. 
Fryer began to sink a shaft on the hill east of Stray Horse Gulch, 
now known as Fryer's Hill. His shaft struck at first low grade 
carbonates, and he gave his mine the name of New Discovery, 
A month later August Rische and George T. Hook, two pros- 
pectors without money, persuaded Mr. H. A. W. Tabor to fur- 
nish them what are called in Colorado " the grub stakes; " /. e., the 
necessary money outfit on the chance of a third interest in whatever 
they might discover. In this case the "grub stakes" amounted 
to $17. They struck ore very near the surface, sold their first 
wagon load for between $200 and $300, and found it grov/ing 
richer as they went down. They named the mine the Little 
Pittsburgh. In September of the same year. Tabor and Rische 
bought out Hook, paying him $98,000 for his one-third in- 
terest in the mine. This mine was now consolidated with the 
New Discovery, the Winnemucca and the Dives, and RIsche's In- 
terest was bought about the first of November, 1878, by J. I?. 
Chaffee and Moffat for $262,500. In the next seven and a half 
months the consolidated mines yielded of ores actually sold 
$2,184,586. Other mines on the same hill, the Little Chief, the 
Chrysolite, Vulture, Colorado Chief, Amie, etc., etc., etc., proved 
nearly as rich. The production of the Leadville mines in 1878 
was $3,152,925. 

The process of development went on still more rapidly in 
1879, and what was originally a mere mining camp became a 
city of no mean pretensions, having in June, 1880, a population 
of over 30,000 inhabitants. Its yield of silver and gold for 1879 
exceeded $12,000,000. It has sixteen smelting establishments 
and two sampling works, which together in 1879 produced 
$10,500,000. Besides this was the amount sent by private par- 
ties to foreign smelters, and the large yield of gold from places 
worked by hydraulic mining — making in all between $12,000,000 
and $13,000,000 for Leadville alone. 

As we have said elsewhere, the silver at Leadville is a car- 
bonate of lead and silver, and does not occur in placers nor in 



CHAFFEE AND PARK COUNTIES. 67^ 

fissure veins, but in broad strata of ore between strata of rock, 
which have received the name of " contact lodes." 

The " Eagle River country " and the " Ten Mile District," 
north and northwest of Leadville from fifteen to twenty-five 
miles, are also engaging the attention of miners as exceptionally 
rich in the carbonates. They may prove formidable riva^ls to 
Leadville. The completion of railroad communication witii 
Leadville by two routes, will give that wonderful city a still more 
rapid development. 

There are, of course, seasons of depression in all these mining 
interests. The Comstock Lode in Nevada, after years of un- 
rivalled prosperity, has come to a time when the yield of its 
mines does not pay expenses, and the Little Pittsburgh and 
Amie have had a somewhat similar, though fortunately a less 
protracted, experience of the same kind; but the prosperous 
days will return, and the wealth, hoarded up for geologic ages in 
these mountains, will be put at the service of man. 

Chaffee county, a new county set off from Lake, and includ- 
ing the southern part of that county, has some mining impor- 
tance and will have more. Granite is its county-seat. The Ar- 
kansas river traverses it from north to south. The Park range 
forms its eastern wall, and the Sawatch or Saguache its western 
boundary, and from the latter the bold and lofty peaks. La Plata, 
Mount Harvard, Mount Yale, Mount Princeton, Mount Antero, 
and Mount Shavano stand forth as sentinels of the main range. 
Both ranges are silver-bearing, and the county, which in 1879 
produced ^71,000 of the precious metals, may be relied upon to 
do much better in 1880. 

Park comity, enclosing as it does the great South Park, with 
an area of nearly 2,200 square miles, ranks more appropriately 
as a grazing than a mining county ; but a county which in twenty 
years has furnished more than ^6,500,000 of gold and silver 
products has some claim to be regarded as a mining region also. 
The South Park is between 9,000 and 10,000 feet above the sea; 
but the Mosquito range, which connects the Colorado Front 
range with the Park or Main range, has several summits in its 
main line and spurs which are between 4,000 and 5,000 feet 
4^ 



5^4 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

higher. Mount Lincoln, Mount Evans, and Mount Rosalie, three 
of these peaks, are only a few feet lower than Blanca Peak, the 
king of the Colorado Mountains, their highest summits measur- 
ing 14,297, 14,330, and 14,340 feet respectively; while at the 
south and southwest of the Park, but still in this county, the 
Buffalo Peaks, Thirty-nine Mile Mount, and Black Mountain 
rear their lofty heads. The climate here is cool but pleasant in 
summer, while the winters are long and severe. 

The whole of this mountain region is rich in gold and silver. 
The mineral belt is about thirty-five miles long and fourteen 
wide. The gold mines are mostly high up (above the timber 
line on Mount Lincoln and Mount Bross), and are very produc- 
tive. There are very many of these mines near the summit of 
Mount Lincoln, one of them (the Present Help mine) being 
14,200 feet above the sea, and said to be the highest mine in 
North America. The Phillips mine, in the Buckskin district, is the 
ereat orold mine of this section. It was discovered in 1862, and in 
four or five years yielded over ^300,000. Then the ore began to 
be largely mixed with pyrites, and the miners not understanding 
how to work it abandoned it for a time, but it is now worked 
again with great success. There are some placers in the county 
which have yielded largely, and are again doing well under the 
hydraulic process. Nearly all the silver mines and some of the 
gold mines of Park county are, like those in Leadville and its 
vicinity, contact lodes or level deposits and not fissure veins. 
Since 1862 Park county has yielded ^6,559,601 in gold and sil- 
ver, about equal quantities of each. There are more than fifty 
silver mines actively employed and the number is increasing. 
The production averages about ^500,000 a year. With the 
advent of the railways and the Leadville branch of the Denver 
and Rio Grande, the county is well supplied with railway com- 
munication, and its mining products will be largely increased. 
Fair Play and Alma — the latter far up the slope of Mount Lin- 
coln — are its principal towns. 

Fremofit county is a region containing much arable land and 
fine orchards of fruit. So far as we are aware, there have not 
yet been any discoveries of gold or silver within its boundaries; 



FRFMONT AND CUSTER COUNTIES, ^yt 

but it is rich in bituminous coal of excellent quality, in iron, 
marble, gypsum, lime, alum, and petroleum, and has the most 
remarkable fossils and the greatest natural wonders in the whole 
western country. 

Here are those gigantic skeletons of extinct animals dis- 
covered by Professors March and Cope ; in this county also are 
the Grand canon of the Arkansas, Temple and Grape Creek 
canons. Oil Creek canon, and the Oil Springs, and numerous 
mineral and medicinal springs. The Atchison, Topeka and 
Santa Fe Railway bisects the county. Canon City is its prin- 
cipal town. 

Ctister coimty has for its western boundary the summits of the 
Sangre de Christo Range, which is in this part of Colorado the 
main range of the Rocky Mountains. In the eastern part of the 
county is the Wet Mountain range, running parallel to the Sangre 
de Christo, and between them is the Wet Mountain valley, a 
beautiful meadow-like stretch, surrounded by dome-like hills on 
one side, covered with verdure, and on the other with sombre but 
graceful pines. The county has much arable and grazing land, 
but it has been found within the last five or eight years that it 
possessed very remarkable and varied mineral deposits. 

The Senator gold lode at Rosita, now the capital of the county, 
was discovered in 1872 by Messrs. Irwin, Robinson, and Pringle, 
but was not much worked before 1874. The site of Rosita 
{Spanish, "Little Rose"), in the Wet Mountain valley, is very 
beautiful, and its mines have been very productive. In 1874 the 
Pocahontas, Humboldt, and other lodes began to produce silver, 
and have since yielded some ^750,000. 

In 1877 and 1878 came new developments, Mr. E. C. Bas- 
sick, then working at a tunnel at Tyndall Hill, noticed some 
blossom rock on his way which had a peculiar appearance. He 
had it assayed, and finally took some of the material to the re- 
duction works, and soon found that he had a mine of chlorodized 
gold and silver of great value. This was new in Colorado, 
though it had been found in California, and was subsequently 
discovered in Utah. Within twelve months after the first ship- 
ment ^423,608 was received for ore shipped, and large amounts 



6^6 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

remained on the dump. In August, 1878, another discovery 
tvas made about seven miles west of Rosita, on the eastern slope 
of Wet Mountain valley, at Silver Cliff: a long, sloping mountain 
rising from the plain, terminates abruptly at its farther end, 
which was known as the Cliff A miner, named Edwards, broke 
off a piece of the cliftand had it assayed. It yielded $2^ silver 
to the ton. This would not pay. Some four months later he re- 
turned thither with a fellow-workman and broke off another 
piece which assayed ^1,700 to the ton. They began work and 
found it profitable. Soon others came in ; it was discovered that 
there had been volcanic action there, and that in the lava there 
was horn silver (chloride of silver), assaying from $10,000 to 
$20,000 to the ton, and the Racine Boy, Silver Cliff, Plata Verde, 
and Horn silver mines were started. The yield was enormous. 
The ores can easily be reduced by the wet amalgamation pro- 
cess, and at a very low rate. The Bassick, or main mine, and 
the Silver Cliff mines have now passed into the hands of capital- 
ists, the first on a basis of $1,500,000 and the others at equally 
liberal terms. 

A recent visitor to these mines, Mr. Zimri L. White, the ac- 
complished correspondent of the New York Tribune, has, in 
some letters to that paper in July, 1880, described more fully the 
peculiar character of these mines, which are, as he says, the most 
interesting if not the most important in the West. We subjoin 
some paragraphs of this description which are very clear and 
satisfactory : 

" The boundaries of the rich mineral belt are very sharply de- 
fined, not by the formation of the rocks, for, as I shall presently 
show, that is not uniform, but by the developments and explora- 
tions that ha/e been made upon it in mines and prospect holes. 
The Wet Mountain valley at this point extends northwest and 
southeast, and the two mining camps of Silver Cliff and Rosita, 
seven miles apart, are situated about equally distant from Grape 
creek, which flows through it ; the latter, which is the further 
south, being a little further up upon the foot-hills than the 
former. The altitude of Silver Cliff is 7,900 feet, and that of 
Rosita 8,736 feet above the sea. No valuable bodies of ore 



MINES AT ROSITA AND SILVER CLIFF. ^yy 

have been found south (that is, on the valley side) of a line con- 
necting these two camps. As the valley is approached, what 
miners call ' the wash,' that is, the deposit of sand, gravel, broken 
rock and soil that 'has been brought down from the neighboring 
hills, becomes deeper, and the ' bed rock ' or ' rock in place,' 
which lies beneath, is more difficult to reach. The southern or 
southwestern boundary of the mineral belt may be said, there- 
fore, to lie along the edge of the foot-hills and about two miles 
above the creek. The northern or northwestern boundary is a 
line drawn from the Bull-Domingo to the Bassick mine, which 
are respectively two and a half miles north of Silver Cliff and 
Rosita. A rectangle, therefore, of which the Bull-Domingo and 
Bassick mines, Silver Cliff and Rosita form the four corners, ex- 
tending in its longest direction northwest and southeast, being 
seven miles long and two and a half wide, includes within its 
boundaries all the best mines of this region. 

" The geological formation of this rich mineral belt is peculiar 
and very interesting. ResUng upon and against the granite of 
the Wet Mountain Range and its higher foot-hills, and extending 
down into the valley beyond the southern line of the belt, lies an 
enormous deposit of porphyry or trachyte, a volcanic rock, which, 
according to Professor Newberry, w^ho visited the district last 
autumn, was poured out and consolidated during the tertiary 
period. 

" How great the extent of this deposit from northwest to south- 
east is, I do not know, but its width is at least five miles and its 
length is probably fifteen or twenty. Extending into the trachyte 
formation from the southwest and following its general direction 
is a tongue-shaped mass of granite about three-fourths of a mile 
wide and at least seven or eight miles long. When the trachyte 
was poured out, this granite apparently formed a ridge which rose 
above the level of the fluid mass of the surrounding volcanic rock, 
and therefore was not covered by it. That it does not now stand 
higher than the surrounding country does not disprove this theory, 
because there are everywhere to be found evidences of terrible 
convulsions since the trachyte was deposited which have com- 
pletely changed the face of this entire region. The mines here 



5^8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

are found both in the granite, and also in the trachyte. Winding 
through the porphyry in a serpentine course, there is also a stream 
of obsidian, as it is called here, or volcanic glass, mixed with 
trachyte and quartz boulders. This stream, where it has been 
examined, varies from a few feet to many rods in width, and in 
crevices of the boulders which form the mass of it were found 
last week, on the Hecla claim, some very rich specimens of horn 
silver. 

"The natural color of the trachyte is a yellowish-white. When 
it contains silver it is also generally stained with black oxide of 
manganese and red oxide of iron. This rock in many places 
seems to me to have been subjected to the action of water be- 
tween the time it was thrown out by volcanic action and the 
period when it was broken up and impregnated with mineral 
solutions. I am led to this conclusion by the fact that in several 
mines and prospect holes which I have visited, I have found por- 
tions of the rock as distinctly stratified as any clay slate I ever 
saw. The layers of rock came apart one from another, in the 
hand, and presented smooth faces of stratification, I have never 
seen this fact mentioned in any report I have read about the 
mines of this region, and it may not be important, though it cer- 
tainly is interesting. 

"At Silver Cliff and north of here, especially, the trachyte rock 
has been shaken up and fractured in all directions, and in m.any 
places the crevices have been filled with iron and manganese, 
which had become oxidized, and with chloride of silver. This is 
the free milling ore which is found in the Racine Boy and Silver 
Cliff mines, owned by the Silver Cliff Company, in the Plata 
Verde, and in all the mines that lie directly north of this town and 
adjoining it. I shall write detailed descriptions of several of the 
more important of them in letters that are to follow. Generally 
the chloride of silver is so widely distributed through the rock 
and is so small in quantity that it cannot be seen with the naked 
eye, nor even with a powerful magnifying glass. That it is there, 
however, is conclusively proved by assays. Captain Turner, of 
Galveston, Texas, an old California miner, who has spent several 
months here superintending the development of a mine for a 



TRACHYTE ORES OF CUSTER COUNTY. 6^q 

Galveston company, told me the other day that he had caused 
assays to be made of at least one hundred samples of the trachyte 
rock found in what is known here as the 'chloride belt,' and 
never failed to find that it contained some silver. He selected 
some of the most barren-looking pieces of rock he could find, 
material that no miner would think of saving, and which showed 
no metallic stain of any kind, and even this was found to carry 
from two ounces upward of silver, to a ton, 

" Where the rock is stained with oxide of iron and manganese, 
it is invariably rich in silver, which can frequently be seen upon 
the surface of a fracture in the form of a green scale, which on 
beingr rubbed with a knife-blade shows a metallic lustre. Occa- 
sionally the mass of chloride of silyer is so great that it appears 
in little globules of horn silver, and I found in the workings of 
the Racine Boy mine an accretion of this horn silver, in a cavity 
two or three inches long and half an inch wide, that, if collected 
together in one mass, would be as large as a lady's thimble. 
This mass, if broken off from the rock to which it is attached and 
assayed by itself, would ' run,' as the miners say, more than 
twenty thousand ounces of silver to a ton, and a ton of it at the 
current rates for silver bars would be worth about ^23,000. Such 
specimens are very frequently found in the Racine Boy and other 
mines on the chloride belt. While the rich ore is discovered in 
large masses surrounded by leaner or less valuable rock, there is 
nowhere in the chloride belt anything that looks like a vein. 
The rock just covers the entire face of the country, over an area 
two miles long and half a mile wide, and the whole mass of it 
is ore ; that is, all of it contains at least a small quantity of silver. 
The ore in only a small portion of it has yet been proved to 
be rich enough to make the mining and reduction of it profitable, 
but this pordon covers a great many mines which I believe will 
become very valuable properties. 

" The theory of the geologists, and the one generally accepted 
by the miners here, is that the trachyte, after it became solidified, 
was shaken and broken up by some great convulsion, and that 
simultaneously or afterward, silver, iron, manganese and the other 
metals of which traces are found in the rock were disseminated 



^^ OVK WESTERN EMPIRE, 

throueh the crevices either in water solutions or volatilized — in 
the form of gases. These solutions or gases are supposed to 
have come up through cracks in the earth's crust. Such a de- 
posit is called in the old world ' stockwork,' and Professor New- 
berry, in writing recently of ' The Origin and Classificadon of 
Ore Deposits,' mentions this as one of the two most important 
examples of this kind of deposit that have come under his obser- 
vation. The other is the gold deposit in Bingham canon, Utah. 
None of the oldest miners ever saw before any ore that looked 
like this at Silver Cliff, and this explains their failure to discover 
its value until recently. The same is true of the quartzite gold 
ore in Bingham canon. The miners worked for years there get- 
ting out silver-lead ores, but jhrew aside the gold ore as waste, 
not dreaminof of its value. 

" But the mineral belt which I have described and bounded in 
the earlier part of this letter contains other classes of mines. At 
Rosita (this beautiful name means ' Little Rose ') in the Poca- 
hontas-Humboldt lode, the trachyte, instead of being shattered 
and impregnated, so that the entire mass of rock may be mined 
out and reduced, has been rent asunder, and a true fissure 
formed in it which has been filled with gray copper, galena, zinc 
blende, iron and copper pyrites and heavy spar — all carrying 
sulphide of silver. These form a narrow pay streak from one 
to eighteen inches wide, and the remainder is filled with a gangue 
rock, generally of a trachytic formation. This vein is a re- 
markably persistent one — that is, it extends for a long distance 
through the hills and across the gulches, and is inclosed by walls 
that are as clearly defined as those of a room. Other smaller 
veins of the same character have been found in the country 
north of Rosita, and on some of them valuable mines have been 
located and developed. 

" Still another class of mines in the same mineral belt remains 
to be mentioned. These are what Professor Newberry has 
called the ' mechanically-filled ' veins, and they include the Bas- 
sick and the Bull-Domingo. The former is supposed to be a 
true fissure vein in the trachyte rock, the cavity of which, after the 
rocks were rent asunder, was filled with well-rounded pebbles and 



THE HARDSCRABBLE MINING DISTRICT. 68 1 

boulders, generally similar in constitution to the country rock. 
The interstices in this mass have been filled with tellurides of 
gold and silver, free gold, zinc blende, galena and the pyrites of 
iron and copper carrying silver. These materials surround the 
stones in thin shells, the pebbles and boulders forming nuclei 
about which the metallic substances crystalized. In the Bull-Do- 
mingo, situated in the granite tongue which I have described, 
the stones are generally granite or sienite, and the cementing 
substance is argentiferous galena, which not only surrounds the 
stones, but in many cases entirely fills up the irregular spaces 
between them. In both of these cases it is supposed that the 
metallic matter came up from below in the form of a hot 
solution. 

" From this bird's-eye view of the Hardscrabble mining district, 
it will be seen that it is one of the most interesting, if not one 
of the most important regions in the West. We have here three 
distinct classes of mines, two of which are almost unique. The 
ore which they produce is in some respects different from that 
found elsewhere, and presents questions in mining and reduction 
that are to some degree new. On the successful solution of 
these questions, as well as on the opening up of the large ore 
bodies that are believed to exist, but which have not yet been 
uncovered, depends the future prosperity of these camps and 
of the companies which are investing their capital in them." 

The production of the Custer county mines from 1874 to Janu- 
ary, 1 880, was ^2,1 12,530, of which ^720,000 was the production of 
1879. There are extensive iron deposits on Grape creek near 
the borders of Custer and Fremont counties. The ores are 
magnetic and contain sixty-five per cent, of pure iron and a con- 
siderable percentage of platinum, which causes difficulty in smelt- 
ing, but renders the product much more valuable. 

The San Juan Country. — This general name for Southwestern 
Colorado "includes," says Mr. Frank Fossett,* "the moun- 
tainous counties of Hinsdale, Rio Grande, San Juan, La Plata, 
Conejos, and Ouray; and San Luis Park, with the counties of 
Saguache and Costilla, are often classed under the same head. 

* Colorado: its Gold and Silver Mines, etc., New York, 1879. 



582 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Here Is an area of some 15,000 square miles, or more territory 
than "s included in any one of the States of New Jersey, New 
Hampshire, or Vermont, with Delaware thrown in. West of 
San Luis Park is one mass of mountains thrown too^ether in the 
most chaotic confusion. 

"These mountains contain thousands of silver veins, many of 
them of hugfe size and some of ereat richness. There are also 
gold lodes and placers. The Rocky Mountain range extends to 
the westward in this region. The silver belt is from twenty to 
forty miles wide, and perhaps eighty miles long in an air-line. 
The rugged and almost impassable character of the mountains 
and their vast extent, and the heavy snows and long winters, 
have acted as serious drawbacks to growth and development. 
There is probably more country standing on edge in this section 
than anywhere else beneath the sun. Until recendy no work 
was prosecuted in the winter seasons, except on a very few 
mines and on tunnels. It took years to build roads to the most 
important points — trails or foot-paths being the only thing pre- 
viously afforded. The approach of the railway and the comple- 
tion of many smelting works are bringing the San Juan country 
forward." 

A Southern adventurer named Baker penetrated into this 
region in 1858 prospecting for gold. He had found some indi- 
cations of it, and had commenced operations, when, in i860, he 
became involved in difficulty with the Navajo Indians, and he 
had some bloody conflicts with them. Several of his followers 
were killed, but he held on until he heard of the civil war in the 
spring of 1861, when he returned East and joined the Confed- 
erate army. A bold and desperate man, he took part in several 
severe battles, but at length, at the close of the conflict, with two 
associates, one of them named White, he returned to South- 
western Colorado, and, after several sharp fights with his old 
enemies, the Navajos, persuaded his comrades to go with him 
on a perilous and foolhardy expedition to descend the unknown 
Colorado of the West. Just as they were ready to launch their 
boat on those unknown waters Baker was shot by an Indian and 
died soon after, but enjoined upon his comrades the prosecution 



THE SAN yUAN COUNTRY. 683 

of the voyage. They set out and their journey has become his- 
torical. The partner of White was lost in running one of the 
cataracts, and White, lashed to his raft, was discovered by In- 
dians, unconscious and more dead than alive, a short distance 
above Callville, near where the river emerges from the Grand 
canon. After his escape from this perilous voyage it is said that 
he returned to the San Juan country, and was living there in 
1878. 

After this disastrous ending of the first attempts to penetrate 
this region, few white men ventured thither for several years. 
Adnah French, or J. Gary French, and two others, penetrated up 
the canon of the Las Animas river and located the Little Giant 
gold mine in 1870, They then returned to Santa Fe, and, in 
1 87 1, came back to the San Juan country, and, while French 
worked his mine, the others went on to what is now Silverton. 
There was a fair production from the Little Giant mine for sev- 
eral years, but others have since overshadowed it. The entire 
production of gold, silver, and lead in the San Juan country up 
to January, 1880, is reported as ^1,838,061. In 1880, they 
are likely to largely exceed this amount, as they have stamp- 
mills, smelters, and reduction works, and railways penetrating 
far into the reofion. 

Most of the San Juan region was formerly included in the 
county of Conejos. After several mining districts had been 
located and settled, the counties of La Plata, Rio Grande, and 
Hinsdale were created, and afterwards those of San Juan and 
Ouray. We will take these counties in their order. 

''La Plata county','' says Mr. Frank Fossett, " is the extreme 
southwestern division of Colorado, bordering on New Mexico 
and Utah, and touching the corner of Arizona. This section is 
rich in coal, possesses silver veins, gold placers, and many fine 
fertile valleys ; farming and stock-growing are especially suc- 
cessful. The county is settling up rapidly ; a railway is expected 
from the East, and is nearly completed to Animas City on the 
Animas river, about west longitude 107° 50', in which case La 
Plata would be the smelting depot of San Juan county mines. 

" The stock and agfricultural resources and advantag-es of La 



53^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Plata county and of its valleys along the San Juan river and 
tributaries have already been referred to in part first of this 
volume. The coal measures are deserving of especial mention, 
on account of their quality and enormous size. The area of coal 
land is estimated at over 600 square miles, and is cut or inter- 
sected by the Pinos, Florida, Animas, La Plata, and Mancos 
rivers, which flow southward into the San Juan. The thickness 
of the vein is reported at from ten to fifty and sixty feet between 
floor and roof. There are two distinct beds of coal, separated 
only by four feet of iron shale. In some places the two beds are 
said to aggregate from eighty-eight to ninety-eight feet in thick- 
ness. Those who have tested this coal, pronounce it of a semi- 
bituminous character, and of a better coking quality than any in 
the West except the Trinidad beds. In this same county are 
lodes carrying gold, silver, lead, copper, zinc, iron pyrites, tellu- 
rium, platina, etc. 

''Rio Grande county is composed partly of plain and partly of 
mountain. Del Norte, the main town and county-seat, is located 
on the Rio Grande where it leaves the mountains and enters the 
plains of San Luis Park. There are several mining districts, but 
the only one that has produced much is the gold-bearing portion 
of the Summit Mountains, which has yielded over ^400,000 to 
date. 

" The richest gold district of Southern Colorado is that of South 
Mountain in the Summit Range, twenty-six miles south of Del 
Norte and nearly 12,000 feet above sea-level. The great draw- 
backs are a severe climate, heavy snows, and the altitude — a 
divide of 13,000 feet must be crossed to reach Summit. The 
summers are short and the roads are almost impassable from 
snow or mud during most of the year. But the gold is there, 
and that has built a town and attracted miners, capitalists, and 
stamp mills. 

" These mines are true fissure veins and prove to be very rich. 
There are now several stamp mills, and one of the mines, the 
Little Annie, has yielded about ^350,000 in six years. 

''Hinsdale county is the most easterly of the important silver 
districts of San Juan, Its metropolis is Lake City, dating from 



HINSDALE COUNTY SILVER MINES. ^'^c 

1874-5, located at the junction of Hensen creek with the Lake 
Fork of the Gunnison. Here are two smelting works in opera- 
tion — Crooke & Co. and the Ocean Wave — the Crooke concen- 
trating works and a chlorination and Hxiviation mill — the latter 
not run steadily. The location of the town is grand and beau- 
tiful, and resembles that of Georgetown. There are numberless 
silver lodes in the lofty mountains that rise almost perpendicu- 
larly for a half mile or a mile on every side — many of them 
worked extensively. 

" Promising as were the numerous discoveries of the San Juan 
country in 1873-4-5, they were generally of no immediate bene- 
fit to their owners, on account of the distance from an ore mar- 
ket, wagon roads and railways. The region labored under pe- 
culiar disadvantages. It was made up of almost inaccessible 
mountain ranges, and at that time was so remote from railways 
that capitalists and mill men were not inclined to investigate its 
mineral wealth. The pioneers who had been making discoveries 
of rich veins were too poor to build works for the extraction of 
the precious metals, and it cost too much to get ore to market to 
admit of attempting it, unless it was wonderfully rich and money 
was at hand to defray shipping expenses. 

" This was the condition of affairs when the Crooke Brothers, the 
first eastern capitalists that showed their appreciation of the 
region by putting their money into it — began to buy mines and 
erect mills. They were conducting a smelting business m New 
York city, and inspection and contact with its ores begat that 
confidence in its worth that subsequent experience has in nowise 
abated. The results of their investments in the Little Annie and 
Golden Queen mines and mills in the Summit Mountain gold 
district induced them to look further. 

"An investigation of the Lake City silver district caused them 
to erect a concentrating mill there. This separated the silver- 
bearing mineral from the gangue, or waste rock of the ore. The 
miner then had his value in one ton of concentrates instead of 
having it distributed among five or ten tons as before. This was 
an important item where it cost more to get ore to a market than 
it did to treat it after it reached there. 



586 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

"The Ute and Ule mines were purchased late in 1876, and the 
new owners then erected quarters for workmen and shaft and ore 
houses for the mine. The next spring contracts were let for 
sinking shafts and running drifts, and for the construction of 
works for the treatment of the ore. The stack furnace was not 
completed till near the close of the season, but 2,000 tons of ore 
had been mined and concentrated, and the dressed ore sent to 
New York. It yielded a net profit of twelve dollars per ton. 
The smelting works were completed so that reduction, parting 
and refining began in July, 1878. Up to this time Crooke & Co. 
had expended over ^400,000 on their mines, works, and other 
property of this locality. 

" The Ute mine is situated well up on a mountain, and the Ule 
is located at the foot of the same. The patented surface ground 
of each is 1,500 feet long by 300 wide, and both are in Galena 
mining district near Lake City. There are now several smelting 
works doing a large business there, but as yet no railway nearer 
than Del Norte. From present appearances their first railway 
communication may be from the north by way of Gunnison, 
though this is not certain. The silver production of Hinsdale 
county, in 1878, was ^156,000, and in 1879, considerably more. 

''Sail Juan county is the point where several massive ranges 
of mountains unite ; among them the San Juan, the Uncompahgre, 
the La Plata and the Las Animas mountains. Isolated summits, 
such as Sultan Mountain, Engineer's Mountain, Mount Kendall, 
Pidgeon's Peak, Rio Grande Pyramid and Hendie's Peak are 
scattered over the comparatively small territory of the county. 
Silverton, its capital, was one of the first locations where mining 
was attempted in 1871 or 1872. Its production is almost exclu- 
sively silver, and it has many hundreds of valuable and well- 
developed lodes, and is destined to yield immense quantities of 
silver and lead when it becomes more accessible by railway, and 
capital is led to invest here. It has several reduction and two or 
three concentrating works at Silverton. Several extensive tun- 
nel enterprises are in progress, forcing their way to the silver 
ores through the hearts of the lofty mountains. One of these — 
the Roedel Tunnel, owned by the Midland Mining Company — is 



SAN JUAN COUNTY SILVER VEINS. 63^ 

intended to intersect six or eight of the largest lodes. The ores 
here are in true fissure veins, but the mountains are ribbed with 
the veins of silver ore and adits ; drifts, tunnels and shafts all 
penetrate numerous lodes varying in width from three inches to 
forty feet, yielding from 40 to 500 ounces of silver, and from 60 
to 62 per cent, of lead. There is also considerable free gold and 
chlorides. The formation containing the lodes is chiefly eruptive 
or volcanic porphyry, with granite and occasionally trachyte and 
sand- stone, as the country rock and vein walls." 

The most remarkable of these silver-ribbed mountains is 
King Solomon Mountain, on the numerous veins of which are 
situated the North Star mines. The Graham Silver Mininof 
Company's (fifteen mines), the Alaska, Adelphi, Acapulco, Vic- 
tory, Red River and Saxon are all valuable mines on or near the 
head- waters of the Uncompahgre river. Poughkeepsie Gulch 
in this region has 250 well-defined lodes, all of which are or 
have been worked successfully. Hazelton Mountain has many 
profitable mines just coming into notice. The ore and bullion 
yield of 1878 was over ^250,000, and that of 1879 perhaps more. 
The Denver and Rio Grande Railway, which at first proposed to 
extend its route westward from Del Norte and Wagon-Wheel 
Gap to Silverton, has since changed its plans and goes to Ani- 
mas City, seventy or eighty miles farther south. Both Silverton 
and Ouray vi'ill, however, have a railway connection from some 
quarter before long. San Juan county is not an agricultural 
region, and most of its vegetable and cereal products must be 
brought from other counties. 

Ouray county is on the Pacific slope of the range, and com- 
prises the northwestern portion of the San Juan region. Like 
its neighbors, it is almost entirely composed of rugged and 
almost perpendicular mountains and deeply cut ravines and 
river gorges, among which it is generally an impossibility to 
build roads. The inaccessibility of the section has retarded 
rapid growth, but reduction works having at last been estab- 
lished, future advancement will be much more rapid. Two rail- 
ways have been projected, and may be -built within two years, 
from Leadville, or the Arkansas river through Marshall Pass, or 



5S8 <^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

possibly by way of Gunnison and Grand river. Heretofore it has 
cost ^25 a ton to pack the ore on burros from the mines to Sil- 
verton, or to a wagon road, and as much more to get it to 
Denver or Pueblo. The unusual value of the mineral is all that 
enabled the miners to dispose of their products under such 
disadvantages. 

The county is full of mineral veins of gold, and mineral chan- 
nels or lodes from ten to twenty feet wide, and of every known 
and unknown combination of the precious metals, wdth other 
metals and elements, abound in almost every part of the county. 
The San Miguel river has also immense placer deposits, which 
are now worked by hydraulic mining on a large scale. 

As a mining county, only the eastern portion of Ouray has 
>been much developed, but everywhere the prospector has been 
rewarded for his toil. The whole regions, watered by the sources 
of the Uncompahgre, the Upper San Miguel, the Rio del Codo, 
and the headwaters of the Dolores, is full of lodes of great rich- 
ness and of a most peculiar character. They are believed to be 
true fissure veins, and not contact lodes like those of Lake 
county ; but many of the lodes are very wide, from three to forty 
feet, and contain pay streaks running side by side, and only sep- 
arated by clay or thin slate partitions, in which gold and silver 
in various and unusual forms are found, separate yet in the 
same lode. Sometimes several of these wide and multiform 
lodes run side by side. The " Begole Mineral Farm," now owned 
by the Norfolk and Ouray Reduction Works, is one of these 
singular mineral veins, but they are abundant in all the eastern 
part of the county. Mr. Frank Fossett thus describes the 
Begole Mineral Farm : 

" The Begole ' Mineral Farm ' is one of the wonders of this 
part of the State. It is near the town of Ouray, and at about 
800 feet greater elevation.* It comprises forty acres of ground, 
being four claims 1,500 feet long by 300 wide, and was at first 
supposed to be a horizontal deposit of silver-bearing ore, but 
subsequent developments prove it to contain four mineral chan- 
nels or lodes, from tea to twenty feet wide. One of these lodes 

* Ouray is 7,640 feet above the sea. 



SAN MIGUEL DISTRICT. 5gg 

has a streak of bright, fine galena with heavy spar — the former 
carrying over loo ounces of silver, and forty per cent, of lead, 
and another streak of thirty-ounce galena with much antimony. 
Another lode has a very rich gray copper vein in a ganc^ue of 
quartzite, and often milling from ^400 to $700 a ton. A third 
lode carries sulphurets, and in places chlorides. This property 
was discovered and located in 1875 t»y Augustus Begole, an old 
Arizona miner, and John Eckles, They had worked it in the 
summer seasons up to the fall of 1878, when they sold it for 
|;75,ooo to the Norfolk and Ouray Reduction Company, who 
had built works at Ouray." 

There are numerous other mines of perhaps greater promise 
than this in the immediate vicinity of Ouray. One of them — the 
Grand View mine — yields from ^100 to $150 to the ton in gold, 
and from ^10 to ^20 in silver. The Mount Sneffles District, 
west of Ouray, has no superior among the silver regions of 
Southwestern Colorado. It has many hundreds of lodes now 
actively worked, and most of them are very rich; some — like the 
Chief Deposit, the Yankee Boy, etc. — producing ore that mills 
from 300 to 500 ounces of silver, and one or two, more than that 
to the ton. Most of the Mount Sneffles veins carry large 
amounts of gray copper as well as galena, while ruby silver and 
silver glance often occur. Some of the ores of this, as well as 
the San Miguel district, have heavy galena and zinc ores, 
which carry silver to the extent of $300 to the ton. 

The San Miguel district is developing a body of ores even 
richer and more promising than those of the Mount Sneffles dis- 
trict. The lodes here are in pay streaks of alternate gold and 
silver, or sometimes of both combined, and in all possible forms. 

On the Upper San Miguel, Turkey Creek and Howard's Fork, 
there are many hundred claims already recorded, and most of 
them are worked with profit despite the difficulties and enormous 
expense of transportation. In the summer of 1880 two or three 
smelters and concentration works were set up in this region. 
" Ingham Basin," near Columbia, one of the new towns of the 
Upper San Miguel, is remarkable alike for its mineral wealth 
and its natural wonders. The placer deposits of the San Miguel 
44 



(5oo OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

river are pronounced by California experts the richest that have 
ever been found on this continent, and they are now preparing 
to work them with the largest and best hydraulic appliances. 

An eminent French mining engineer, M. Cuemeyngs, after a 
careful examination of the chief mining districts of Colorado, has 
just decided to purchase for his principals, a Parisian banking- 
house, the Pandora mine, near San Miguel Park, on the upper 
San Miguel river, pronouncing it the richest and most favorably 
situated mine he had seen. Another mining engineer, Mr. E. 
M. Pearce, says of the San Miguel Park region : " This is the 
very heart of the mineral wealth of the Rocky Mountains." 

The Dolores country, of which Rico, the chief town, is not yet 
a year old, is situated in the southern part of Ouray county, and 
is sixty-five miles from Animas City, the latest terminus of the 
Denver and Rio Grande Railway. This is destined to be the 
great attraction of Colorado miners for 1 880-1881, rivalling in 
richness Eagle river or the Gunnison country. Rico has about 
1,500 inhabitants. Senator Jones, of Nevada, and his associates, 
have already purchased a controlling interest in some of its rich 
mines. 

The Dolores Plateau extends over most of Western Ouray. 
Gold and silver are said to exist there, but there is also reason 
to hope that with irrigation these lands may prove arable and 
productive, or at least well adapted to grazing. The ruins 
scattered over all that region indicate that hundreds of years 
ago, this as well as the other plateaux of Arizona, Utah and New 
Mexico were densely peopled by an intelligent, agricultural 
people. 

With the possible exception of the great county of Gunnison, 
whose mineral wealth is as yet but slightly developed, Ouray 
county gives the promise of a greater out-put of the precious 
metals in the near future than any other county of the State; 
Lake county may overshadow it for a time from the great con- 
centration of capital in and around Leadville, but when the con- 
tact lodes of Leadville begin to diminish their yield, the Ouray 
mines, true fissure veins, will be at their best and with a certainty 
of permanency ; while the rich placer deposits will yield for years 



GUNNISON COUNTY. 



691 

to come their millions of free gold. With railway communica- 
tion, and a possibility of large agricultural production and pas- 
toral wealth on the western plateaux, the county has a mao-nifi- 
cent future before it. 

Gunnison county is the latest of the mining regions of the 
State to be explored, and may prove to be the wealthiest. The 
county is very large, having an area of over 10,000 square miles. 
Summit county forms its northern boundary, Lake, Chaffee and 
Saguache bound it on the east, Saguache, Hinsdale and Ouray 
on the south, and Utah on the west. It is traversed by the 
Grand river and its numerous affluents, two of which, the Gunni- 
son and the Rio Dolores, are themselves large and important 
rivers. The Gunnison has more than a hundred tributaries, 
some of them important rivers, and the Dolores has a considera- 
ble number, of which the San Miguel is the largest. In the 
northeastern part of the county, the Roaring Fork of the Grand 
river, with a score of affluents having its sources in the Sawatch 
(Saguache) Range, winds its way among the interminable group 
of peaks which go to make up the mass known as the Elk Moun- 
tains. Each of these tributaries of the Grand river, large and 
small, has, like the parent stream, its canon, sometimes very dark 
and deep, through which it finds its way to join the waters of the 
larger river. The Grand canon of the Gunnison rivals some of 
the most remarkable canons of the Rio Colorado of the West. 

The first discoveries of silver were made in this county in 
1872, though there had probably been surface-diggings there in 
i860 or 1 861. The discoverers, in 1872, were two brothers, 
George and Lewis Waite, who had drifted over the mountains 
from Fair Play in Park county, prospecting for minerals. They 
wandered into the Elk Mountain region, and there found a vein 
of silver that cropped to the surface above the bed of a small 
creek. They carried some of the ore to Denver, then the near- 
est point where a satisfactory assay could be procured, and found 
that it contained both silver and gold in paying quantities. With 
very little means they set about constructing a tunnel through 
Whopper Mountain, the location of their mine. Two or three 
times they were obliged to leave their mine for several months, 



5q2 <^^"^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

and go to Falrplay and work as miners in order to procure the 
means for obtaining supplies for the cruelly cold winters in the 
mountains, but they toiled on faithfully for seven years, when the 
reward came. In 1878 and 1879 the overflow from Leadville 
beoan to come into the Elk Mountain reo^ion, and while the 
brothers had secured for themselves three very excellent lodes, 
called the Whopper, Index, and Teller, very many new claims 
'were entered in their immediate vicinity on the affluents 
of Roaring Fork ; others on East river, a branch of the Gunni- 
son ; Cooper creek, and others still on the Crested Buttes, and 
on Slate creek. It was computed that over 18,000 persons 
visited these mines in the summer of 1879, and 50,000 or more 
in the spring and early summer of 1880. To reach the head- 
waters of the Gunnison from Leadville, fifty miles away, it was 
necessary to cross a lofty range of mountains where the passes 
were filled with gigantic snow-banks. In one place an immense 
deposit of snow was tunnelled and cut through in order to reach 
the land of promise ahead of those who would come with the 
summer. More than two thousand claims were recorded in 
1879. The mines are all high up on the mountains, and the 
winter is long and severe. There are only about five and a half 
months in which work can be done in the open air; but in the 
tunnels work is carried on through the winter. The ore is 
mostly silver, with a moderate amount of gold. It is galena, 
ruby silver, horn silver, gray copper and native silver, and 
ranges from 100 to 500 or even 1,000 ounces of silver, and from 
one to six ounces of gold to the ton. There are now several 
smelters in the mining region, where numerous mining towns have 
sprung up within a year. Gothic City has about 2,000 inhabi- 
tants ; Gunnison, the county-seat, perhaps as many, while 
, Crested Buttes, Irwin, and some other settlements are rapidly 
growing. There is a possibility of a railway — an extension of 
the Colorado Central — to Gunnison, within a year. The mines 
thus far located are about six miles east of the bounds of the 
Ute Reservation. If that reservation reverts to the United 
States under the recent treaty, the whole course of the Gunni- 
son river will be prospected, and probably valuable mines dis- 



SUMMIT COUNTY. 



693 



covered. Gunnison county produced ;^30o,ooo, mostly silver, in 
1879, the first year of its development. 

Summit county has an area of about 5,000 square miles. It 
extends from the crest of the Snowy range westward to Utah, 
and lies entirely on the Pacific slope of the mountains. Clear 
Creek and Park counties bound it on the east, Grand and Routt 
on the north, and Lake and Gunnison on the south. It embraces 
a large amount of country adapted to farming and pastoral pur- 
poses, and is rich in silver lodes and gold placers. The yield 
of the latter has been very great, and that of the lode veins will 
evidently be immense in the near future. In the western por- 
tion are coal measures of excellent quality. 

Its scenery is grand and magnificent. Mountain ranges bor- 
der and intersect it in almost all directions, and among them are 
noble rivers, and hundreds of sparkling streams and dashing 
waterfalls. Vast forests of pine and spruce extend up the moun- 
tain sides, and here and there are broad valleys, green as emerald 
and watered by the purest streams. 

The first silver lode opened in Colorado was the Coaley, in 
Summit county. Its discovery came about in this way: Some 
gulch miners from the Blue river or Georgia gulch were hunt- 
ing for deer in 1861, and getting out of bullets manufactured a 
few from the outcroppings of what they called a lead vein. A 
year or two later they were in Nevada, and found that the silver- 
bearing galena ores of that section very much resembled the 
material which had supplied them with bullets in the Colorado 
Mountains. They wrote to an old friend in Empire and advised 
him to go over and locate the lode. After some delay he did 
so, but never made a fortune from it. Yet it led to a great 
silver excitement and to the development of the Georgetown 
silver district. 

That great natural barrier, the Snowy range, has acted as a 
serious drawback to Summit county's progress and advance- 
ment. The heavy snows blockaded the entire region from the 
outside world in the winter season, and the difficulty of crossing 
mountains from 12,000 to 1^,000 feet hiorh caused freiehtino- and 
travelling to be slow and very expensive. Matters have assumed 



5q4 our IVESTERN EMPIRE. 

a different shape during the past few months. New wagon roads 
have been built at much lower elevations and on better grades, 
furnlshinof connection with Georo-etown and Leadville. Rail- 
ways are also projected and surveyed to both of these points. 
An extension of the Colorado Central Railroad is to be com- 
pleted to Breckenridge and Leadville this year. The leading 
towns of Summit are Kokomo, Carbonateville, and Summit City 
in the Ten Mile section — all founded within eicjhteen months — 
Montezuma and Saints John in the Snake river region, and 
Breckenridge in the Blue river placer country. 

The total mineral production of Summit county from 1861 to 
January, 1880, was $7,336,912, of which $6,360,912 was gold, 
$820,000 silver, $130,000 lead. In the early years of Colorado 
mining, the tributaries of the Blue river in this county were 
among the most productive in placer gold of any in the Terri- 
tory. The Georgia, French, and Humbug gulches, the Blue 
and Gold Run, the Illinois, McNulty, and other placers yielded 
large amounts; for several successive seasons a million a season 
was taken out. The yield continued to be large for several 
years, and has been continued to the present time; and the 
great enterprises in hydraulic mining, inaugurated in 1878 by 
the Fuller Placer Company, and by L. S. Ballou, are on a more 
gigantic scale than any others east of California. The first 
named company have constructed a flume or flumes tliirty miles 
in length, bringing the water from a lake on the eastern slope 
of the " Great Continental Divide," which was over i 2,000 feet 
above the sea, through a pass in the divide 1 1,810 feet above the 
sea, and, after using it in their hydraulic mining, suffering its 
waters to fall into a tributary of the Grand river and thus find 
their way into the Pacific. The product of these placers, in 1879, 
was over $100,000, and, in 1880, will reach at least $500,000. It 
is estimated that from $8,000,000 to $12,000,000 will be realized 
from these placers. They can only be worked for five and 
a-half months in the year on account of the great elevation. 

There are several important mining districts, old and new, 
on the eastern border of Summit count), in the Blue river valley, 
that are attracting much attention. Of these the gold placers 



SUMMIT COUNTY. ggr 

of alluvial deposits of the Blue and Swan rivers and their tribu- 
taries are the oldest. Extending north from these among the 
monntams is a belt of veins carrying silver and lead. The Snake 
river region contains both argentiferous galena and sulphuret, 
and copper-bearing veins. There are some very rich veins in 
the vicinity of Montezuma, Saints John, Peru, Geneva, and Hall 
Valley — all located on the main range or some of its spurs. 
Near the headwaters of the Blue, carbonates have lately been 
found. 

The Snake river mining region comprises Peru and Monte- 
zuma districts, and lies on the western slope of the Rocky Moun 
tains. Its elevation is from 9,000 to 13,000 feet above sea-level, 
and its distance from Georgetown and Ten Mile is from twelve 
to twenty miles. Gray's Peak and other mountains of great 
height overlook and partly enclose it, and with its magnificent 
forests and grassy vales presents a landscape grand and pictur- 
esque in the extreme. Snake river enters the Blue from the 
east at nearly the same point where Ten Mile comes in from the 
south. East of the Montezuma section are the Geneva district 
mines, located on the crest of the Continental Divide, and on the 
line of Clear Creek and Summit. 

The great excitement, however, at the present time is over 
the Ten Mile district. This locality has become famous during 
the past seventeen or eighteen months. Rich galena veins have 
been opened in the mountains west of Ten Mile river, and sev- 
eral thousand men have assembled there. The indications are 
good for one of the leading silver districts of the State. Further 
west valuable mineral discoveries are reported in the Eagle 
river reofion, but these were made this season, and of course 
sufficient time has not yet elapsed for their development. The 
,fame of Ten Mile has brought in people enough to prospect the 
county very extensively, and there is no doubt but that its min- 
eral wealth is of the first order. 

The Ten Mile District comprises the converging slopes ot 
two parallel ranges of mountains and the intervening valley ot 
Ten Mile creek. The upper and settled portion of this valley 
is a mile wide and 11,000 feet above sea-level. The westerly 



(^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

range, containing most of the mines, is from i,ooo to 1,500 feet 
higher, is called the Gore range, and further north is divided 
by the Grand river. On the east Ten Mile range has several 
peaks from 13,500 to 14,200 feet high. The creek was called 
Ten Mile because it was supposed to be ten miles long, but it is 
in reality seventeen miles in length. The two ranges bordering 
Ten Mile valley extend northward from the main divide on 
either side of a depression called Arkansas Pass. This is four- 
teen miles north of Leadville, and from it, waters flow towards 
either ocean. About two miles further west the Eagle river 
starts from Tennessee Pass. 

McNulty gulch empties into Ten Mile creek near its source 
and the site of the new town of Carbonateville. It gave its main 
gold product in i860, 1861, 1862, but is still worked by Colonel 
James McNassar, and turns out from $4,000 to $7,000 a summer. 
Its total yield from i860 is estimated by old miners at nearly 
$360,000. Further down Ten Mile are the Follett placer dig- 
gings. 

This region had been prospected by several different parties, 
but no high grade ore was found in quantity. In the summer 
of 1878, George B. Robinson, a leading Leadville merchant, out- 
fitted an old prospector named Charles Jones, and the Seventy- 
eight, Smuggler, and other mines of the Robinson group were 
found, and subsequently the Wheel of Fortune and Grand Union. 
Then people began to move over that way, and to stake off 
claims sometimes on top of the snow in mid-winter. Leadville 
and Ten Mile have afforded a rich harvest for surveyors. 

In this elevated region snow falls deep and often, and there is 
usually five or six feet of it on the ground from January to late 
in April, but nothing could stop the fever-heat of excitement 
that set in with the year 1879. Men kept coming in over routes 
that were terrible to think of; trees were felled, cabins built, 
tents pitched on top of the snow, and prospecting carried on, 
irrespective of the difficulties in the way. The lack of surface 
indications were made up for by a superabundance of faith. 
The miner would seek for unclaimed ground, clear away the 
snow from a chosen locality, and then commence to sink in 



TEN MILE AND KOKOMO MINES. ^o-r 

search of deposit or vein. This hazardous style of prospecting 
was occasionally successful, and a few good strikes were re- 
ported on Sheep, Elk and Jack Mountains, all of which greatly 
advertised the fame of Ten Mile. Town sites were staked off 
for a distance of six miles down the valley, and the dull roar of 
the miner's blast or the echo of the woodman's axe could be 
heard all day long among the stately forests of pine. 

The embryo cities of Kokomo, Summit, or Ten Mile, and 
Carbonateville presented a strange medley of log cabins, tents, 
and primitive habitations, and the prices of town lots compared 
in altitude with the places in which they were located. There 
were from thirty to fifty arrivals daily all through the spring, 
when the melting snows made the imperfect roads almost im- 
passable. With the opening of the summer of 1S79 Kokomo 
claimed a population of 1,500, and had an organized city govern- 
ment, a bank, hotels, stores, saloons, saw-mills, and the tele- 
graph, where there was not a single settler a few months before. 
A newspaper and several smelters have been sent there, and are 
already in camp. There are over 3,500 people in the entire 
district. Smelting works and a home market for the mining 
product was the great necessity, and this has now been supplied. 
The Robinson consolidated mines, which embrace twelve or 
more distinct claims, all on the same incline vein, are the great 
mines of this section, and are yielding immense quantities of 
silver. The whole mountain side seems to be interlaced with 
these rich veins. The formation of this part of the mountain is 
an indefinite amount of red sandstone, about four feet of shale, 
thirty feet or less of micaceous sandstone, lime, mineral, crystal 
lime, and sandstone formation of unknown thickness. In places 
where this structure maintained the usual depth, the ore is forty 
or fifty feet below the surface. 

On Sheep Mountain, overlooking the valleys of Ten Mile 
creek and Eagle river, vast deposits of silver ore, mostly car- 
bonates, and probably, like those of Leadville, " contact lodes," 
have been discovered and worked. Some of these mines yield 
200 ounces of silver or more to the ton. 

The Eagle river starts from the vicinity of Tennessee Pass, 



5 g OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

west of the head of Ten Mile, and flows northwesterly between 
the Gore and a more westerly range of mountains into the 
Grand. It is the newest mining district of the almost unexplored 
reo-ions of Western Colorado. The mountains that enclose it 
are said to contain many silver veins, some of them assaying 
from one to eleven hundred ounces. Many prospectors went in 
there, in the summer of 1879, and in a beautiful park the embryo 
metropolis, Eagle City, was located. West of the headwaters of 
the Eagle is the Mountain of the Holy Cross, whose eastern face 
always shows vast beds of snow, which have the form of a cross. 
This snow fills two mammoth ravines. The height of the cross 
is about 1,500 feet and the arms are each about 700 feet long. 
The climate of the Eagle river country, and of that beyond, is 
fine. The river valleys form excellent grazing lands, and lower 
portions are adapted to farming. The country is full of wild 
game, and the streams abound in fish. 

Stimmit county, west of the 107th meridian, is now included in 
the Ute Reservation ; but when, as is now confidendy expected, 
that vast tract is released to the United States government, a 
great extent of arable and grazing lands, and many rich deposits 
of the precious metals will be opened to the setders who will 
soon fill the region. 

Grand county includes the Middle and North Parks, and the 
slopes of bordering mountains, together with the Rabbit Ears 
range. Some silver veins have been discovered in the latter, 
but are generally of low grade. It is claimed that carbonates 
have been discovered in both parks, but this does not seem to 
be authenticated. Placer mining is carried on at Willow Creek 
in Middle Park, and in several localides in North Park, and good 
returns are reported. 

Routt county is the northwestern division of the State. It is 
composed of mountain ranges and spurs, divided by rivers, and 
bordering valleys well adapted to grazing, and sometimes to 
farming. There are extensive placer lands on the headwaters 
of the Snake and Elk rivers, which are operated by several com- 
panies and individuals. The principal of these is the Interna- 
tional Company of Chicago, near Hantz's Peak, which has been 



ROUTT COUNTY. gog 

making preparations for work on a large scale for several sum- 
mers, and is now in shape to push matters. This tract of land 
is supplied with great flumes and ditches, miles in length, and 
with hydraulics, which command an immense amount of paying 
gravel. About ^10,000 was taken out in a few weeks in the 
summer of 1879. The Elk river ditch and flume is seventeen 
miles long, and two other ditches combined are six and a half 
miles long. Three giant hydraulics are used, one with 1,300 
feet of iron pipe, and another with 500 feet. A bed-rock flume 
has been run. In drifting and washing, a dike of porphyry and 
1 70 feet of slate have been passed through. 

There are over 1,000 acres of gravel land ; and from forty to 
sixty men were employed, and over ^60,000 of gold produced in 
the year 1879. A branch of the Colorado Central has been 
projected to enter the county from Middle Park and extend 
through Steamboat Springs and Hayden to Windsor, at the 
junction of Fortification creek and Yampah, or Bear river, the 
largest tributary of Green river. Steamboat Springs, and, in the 
southwest part of the county, that extraordinary instance of 
nature's architecture, the "City of the Gods," are wonders well 
worth visiting. 

Part of Routt county is included in the Ute Reservation. The 
Green river, one of the constituents of the Colorado of the West, 
and its two great tributaries, the Yampah, or Bear river, and 
the White river, with their affluents, drain the county, and ex- 
hibit canons of great depth. It is believed that the coal meas- 
ures so largely developed in Gunnison and Summit counties are 
found in Routt county also ; but the county is at present almost 
wholly unexplored, so far as its mineral wealth is concerned. 

yefferson, J-{uer/a?io, and Arapahoe counties have considerable 
deposits of coal, but are classed among the farming and grazing 
court ties. 

With the exception of Las Animas county, which has in its 
western section large beds of excellent coking coal in the vicin- 
ity of Trinidad, none of the other counties of the State, beside 
those named above, are known to possess important mineral 
deposits. The remainder, as well as some of those which con- 
tain the precious metals, are either farming or grazing counties. 



„QQ OVR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



The arable lands of Colorado comprise at least 15,000 square 
miles of its territory, while the grazing lands are at least four, 
a;id possibly five times that quantity. All or nearly all the ara- 
ble lands require irrigation, but when irrigated they yield enor- 
mous crops, and the deposits from the canals maintain and 
increase the fertility of the lands, while the water dissolves the 
alkaline and other ingredients of the soil, and insures large crops 
every year. The first cost of these canals and ditches from the 
mountains is considerable, but it is in most cases borne by one 
or more communities of farmers, and the expenditure is followed 
by such large and abundant returns that it is not seriously felt. 
Of late incorporated companies have been constructing these 
canals and renting the water, and in some cases have purchased 
laroe tracts of land, which they sell in farms of 80 to 1 60 acres 
♦with the water- right at from ten to fifteen dollars per acre. 
The largest of these companies is the Weld and Larimer Canal 
Company, an English corporation. It has a canal, as we have 
elsewhere said, fifty-four miles in length and capable of irrigating 
40,000 to 50,000 acres. The Greeley Canal is thirty-four miles 
long, and waters a region almost as large. There are many of 
these canals also in the southern part of the State. 

"It is," says Mr. Frank Fossett, "a well-established fact that 
heavier and more reliable crops can be obtained by the aid of 
artificial irrigation, taking one year after another, than where the 
uncertain natural rainfall is depended on. . . . The prosperous, 
well-to-do farmers along the South Platte, the Cache-la-Poudre, 
Saint Vrain, Boulder, Ralston, and Clear creeks, the Fountaine, 
Cucharas, and the Arkansas and Las Animas or Purgatoire 
rivers, are all illustrative of the truth of this statement. Rich 
waving fields of grain now greet the eye where once were bar- 
ren, uninhabitable wastes, and vegetables of such prodigious size, 
and in such immense quantities, are raised as would astonish 
those unaccustomed to the crops grown on Colorado soil. 
F"arming has often been enormously remuneradve, and few that 
have followed it steadily have failed to accumulate money or 
property. Many men have well-stocked farms of great extent 
and value, the result of a few years' industry and effort. We 



THE FARMING COUNTIES. ^qI 

can hardly distinguish critically between the fanning and the 
grazing counties, since many of the latter, under the influence 
of irrigation, are largely productive of grains and root crops — 
but in general it may be said that Larimer, Weld, Arapahoe, 
Douglas, Boulder, Jefferson, El Paso, Pueblo, Las Animas, 
Saguache and Costilla, as well as Conejos, Rio Grande and La 
Plata have large quantities of arable land, and some of the 
western counties are probably not deficient in this respect. 
Some of these counties have also a reputation as grazing or 
sheep-growing counties — El Paso and Las Animas in particular 
being noted for their sheep farms and cattle ranches, and Weld 
and Arapahoe having some reputation in the same line. The 
grazing and sheep-raising counties, paj" excelle?ice, are Bent, 
Weld, Elbert, Arapahoe, El Paso, Las Animas, Pueblo, Douglas, 
Huerfano, and Saguache, 

"The annual farm products of Colorado are steadily increas- 
ing in quantity and value. Correct data of a detailed character 
have been difficult to gain, and reports from various sources are 
often conflicting. The farmers are not always willing to have 
the full extent of the wheat crop known, lest prices fall to a 
lower figure than might otherwise be obtained. Consequently, 
it is sometimes difficult to get correct estimates. Millers and 
speculators always figure out a much larger crop than the 
farmers are willing to acknowledge. The former are the 
buyers, and work for low prices, while the latter are the sellers, 
and, of course, want as much money for their products as it is 
possible to get. 

"The farming product of 1877 was far ahead of that of any 
preceding year. The season was a remarkably favorable one, 
and the acreage of land sown or planted was much greater than 
ever before. The result was that a large portion of the farmers, 
who had previously suffered losses from grasshoppers and from 
other causes, came out with a handsome cash balance in their 
favor, as did those who had newly embarked in the business. 
The good fortune attending the season of 1877 caused an 
increase of tilled land in 1878 of at least twenty-five per cent. 
In some sections the acreage in wheat was one-third greater, and 



•J02 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



in Other fifty or sixty per cent. The harvest was not as boun- 
tiful, however, as in the preceding year. While the aggregate • 
may have been somewhat greater for the entire State, the return 
of grain and some other crops per acre was considerably less. 
In the northern counties this was partly due to frequent rains 
just before the harvest time, causing wheat to ' rust.' In South- 
ern Colorado no such misfortune was reported. 

"The total agricultural productions of Colorado, for 1878, ex- 
clusive of stock, may be summed up, as follows : 



Wheat 1,310,000 bush. 

Corn 

Oats 

Barley 

Rye 

Potatoes 

Hay 

Garden produce 

Butter, cheese and eggs, milk — dairy product 



306,000 
250,000 
150,000 

50,000 
450,000 

50,000 tons 



Total 



;i, 310, 000 
210,000 
125,000 
80,000 
30,000 
350,000 
800,000 
250,000 
350,000 

13,515,000 



The year 1879 was one of larger production as well as of 
much more extended acreage. In every agricultural product 
named above there was a marked advance ; while the vast influx 
of settlers, capitalists, speculators and tourists furnished a ready 
market for all that the farmers of the State could produce, and 
at prices which were satisfactory to the producer. While the 
returns of the census which, perhaps, may not prove very accu- 
rate, are not yet at hand, there are sufficient data to make it cer- 
tain that the product of the nine items named above exceeded in 
1879 ^6,500,000, and would have found a ready market had they- 
reached three times that sum. 

The average yield of wheat has been from twenty to twenty- 
five bushels. Possibly twenty-two bushels come nearer the 
truth, taking one year with another. There are many farms and 
belts of land that yield thirty, forty, and occasionally fifty bushels 
to the acre. This, of course, is far above average returns of the 
State. Colorado flour is the finest in the world. Quantities of 



WHEAT, ETC., BY IRRIGATION. 703 

it are shipped to Illinois and other States. Oats, rye, barley and 
other cereals do as well proportionally as wheat. Potatoes 
return all the way from loo to 500, and, rarely, 700 and 800 
bushels to the acre. The average runs from 100 to 200. Vege- 
tables of nearly all descriptions grow to prodigious size both on 
mountain and plain. The comparatively inexpensive system of 
irrigation constantly replenishes the soil. The water is let into 
the ditches and on to the land in June, when the streams are full 1 
of mineral and vesfetable matter borne down from the mountains. 
The water goes down into the ground and leaves the mineral 
and vegetable substances on the surface, adding to the soil. The 
ground continues productive after years of cultivation, because 
the irrigation brings in new material. Corn does not thrive as 
well in the northern counties as small grains, owing to the chilly 
night atmosphere, yet the yield is considerable and steadily get- 
ting larger. South of the " Divide " it does much better and 
large crops are raised — sometimes seventy-five or eighty bushels 
to the acre. Large quantities of hay are cut and cured in the 
parks and in most of the larger plains and mountain valleys. 
The good prices prevailing in the mining camps make this an 
important article to the farmer and stock-owner. 

For along time fruit culture in Colorado was deemed imprac- 
ticable. The experiments and experiences of the past few years 
show that fruit of various kinds can be raised successfully, and 
in some of the southern counties profitably and extensively. 
There are thrifty orchards of apple and peach trees at and near 
Canon City. North of the " Divide" much more difficulty has been 
experienced ; but apple trees are made to grow and bear fruit 
when protected from the winds by other trees. Several very 
fair crops of apples have been obtained in Jefferson, Boulder, 
Larimer and other counties. 

The dairy has become an interest of no little importance within 
the past few years. Owing to the nutritious character of Colo- 
rado grasses, the milk, butter and cheese are of unrivaled ex- 
cellence. Large quantities of these articles are sold in the 
numerous towns and camps. Several cheese manufactories have 
recently been established in El Paso, Boulder and Larimer coun- 



-^, OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

704 

ties. There, and in Arapahoe and Jefferson, more than else- 
where, are remarkably large numbers of superior cattle, many of 
them of the best blooded stock, and valued at very high figures. 
Some of the finest cows and bulls of eastern localities have been 
purchased and imported by these enterprising farmers of the 
far-away Colorado border. There are finely-stocked dairy-farms 
in other sections beside the counties enumerated, including 
Douglas, Fremont, Lake and Saguache, but those named first 
take the lead. At the State and county fairs the displays of 
Durham, Alderney, Hereford, Shorthorns, Jersey and Swiss cat- 
tle, and of stock crossed therewith, are very fine. 

There is a remarkably large amount of money invested in 
horse-flesh in Colorado, and the average quality of stock is very 
high in some quarters. The liveries and private stables (espe- 
cially the latter) of such cities as Denver, Leadville and Colorado 
Springs are of a very high order. On the farms are large num- 
bers of horses, some of them splendid draft, work or saddle 
animals. Good blood is as manifest there as among the fast 
trotters of the towns. 

Colorado can make no such showing in amount of farming 
products as the Mississippi valley States, where farming is the 
main Industry; but in the yield per acre, or in quality of wheat 
and beef cattle, and extent of stock-farms, she far surpasses them. 
With little care or trouble these Colorado uplands and river 
bottoms turn out nearly or quite double what an equal area gives 
in Illinois or Iowa, and far more than is known in Minnesota or 
Kansas. 

Wages of farm hands usually range from ;^i5 to ^20 per 
month, with board, for the entire year or season, or about the 
same as female domestic servants receive. Laborers hired 
especially for harvesting receive from two to three dollars per 
day and board. There is quite a difference in the prices received 
for farming products, according to locality. No country has a 
better market, and one beauty of this is, that it is right at home. 
Hay is usually from ^20 to ^^o per ton in the mountain mining 
camps, and about half that sum on the farms of the plains and 
parks. By the cental, or hundred pounds, potatoes ranged dur- 



rROFITABLE WHEAT CROWING. y05 

ing the past year or two from $1.50 to $1.75 ; corn from $1.50 
to $1.75; wheat, $1 to $1.70, or from seventy cents to %\ per 
bushel ; flour, ^2.20 to $3 per hundred ; oats, $1.75 to $2.50. 

Before the railways reached Colorado there were occasional 
scarcities of articles of food. A single potato crop of a moun- 
tain farm near Central cleared for its owner ^17,000 one year 
when potatoes did not do well on the plains. Many years ago 
receipts were often very large, from the sale of crops on such 
larofe ranches or estates as those of Colonel Craie and others. 
A leading farmer near Denver, w^ho, from his penchant for 
potato culture, has been called the Potato King, usually raises 
from 40,000 to 60,000 bushels annually from 200 to 300 acres 
of land, and has received for his crops all the way from ^40,000 
to ^70,000. He plants those varieties that are found to do best, 
and, as in most parts of the State, many grow to prodigious size. 
The highest reported yields of any extensive potato crops run 
from 500 to 800 bushels per acre. These are exceptional cases ; 
but 200 and 300 bushels to the acre are common returns. 

Magnificent crops of the finest quality of wheat ever grown 
are usually harvested in the fertile and beautiful valleys of the 
Boulder creek, and of Ralston, St. Vrain, Poudre, Clear, Bear, 
and Saguache creeks, and in parts of the Las Animas, and Ar- 
kansas and Platte valleys. The profits of a farm in those locali- 
ties are often many thousands of dollars annually. Some far- 
mers have hundreds of acres in wheat, and harvest from 5,000 
to 15,000 bushels per annum. From three to six times as much 
land is usually sown in wheat as in oats or corn. The most 
approved sowing, planting, and harvesting machinery are used, 
and steam threshing-machines are moved from one place to 
another, as their services are required. These machines handle 
from 40,000 to 90,000 bushels each in the more populous dis- 
tricts. In July, 1877, over ^75,000 worth of farming machinery 
was sold in Boulder county alone. 

Greeley colony has over 35,000 acres of land under ditch, 

most of it in a high state of cultivation. Some fifty or sixty 

square miles of territory were made available for agriculture by 

the recent completion of a section of twenty miles of the Larimer 

45 



no6 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

and Weld Canal. The total length will be fifty-four miles, and 
a tract of country thirty-six miles long, and from three to ten 
miles wide, will be irrigated. The canal starts from the Cache- 
!a-Poudre river, at the Colorado Central Railway crossing, and 
continues eastward until the Denver Pacific is crossed. A part 
of this land was pre-empted, and some is being sold at from ^3 
to $10 per acre. 

Western Colorado is beginning to be settled up by miners 
and farmers. For many years the great Sierra Madre acted as 
a barrier to immigration and advancement ; but population is 
moving in that direction at last. Beside the wonderful mining 
discoveries of that region, the farming and pastoral resources 
are considerable. There are fine parks and numberless valleys 
enclosing the streams. These are extremely fertile, and will 
prove very serviceable and valuable now that a demand has 
arisen for their products. The Gunnison river alone has from 
50,000 to 100,000 acres of farming land available for irrigation 
that is lower than San Luis Park, and which yielded 20,000 tons 
of hay last season. 

We have devoted considerable space in Parts I. and II. to the 
advantages and disadvantages of stock-raising and sheep-farm- 
ing in Colorado. Both pursuits are carried on with greater suc- 
cess and in a more thoroughly satisfactory way in that State than 
in any other. It is not necessary for us to recapitulate what we 
have said there; but we give below the statements of a thor- 
oughly intelligent English gentleman, Hon. J. W. Barclay, M. P., 
himself interested at home in the cattle business, and who has 
spent many months in the last four years in Colorado, returning 
thence to England in November, 1879. Mr. Barclay has no 
motive for over-coloring his account of stock-raising in the State, 
and his views will be interesting to our readers as those of a 
competent foreign observer. 

Mr. Barclay says: 

"But although a great fiiture undoubtedly awaits the farming 
interest in Colorado, the present profit is greatest for the stock- 
keepers. There is, indeed, probably no part of the world where 
a young man with a few thousands can employ himself more 



MR. BARCLAY ON STOCK-RAISING. ^07 

agreeably or profitably than in rearing cattle on the plains of 
Colorado or Wyoming, or in the Parks of the Rocky Mountain 
ranges. A couple of thousand dollars, expended on houses and 
the erection of corrals in the neighborhood of a permanent 
stream, will form a basis of operations, and he can graze his 
flocks of sheep or herds of cattle on the public lands around 
without rent. The outlay is for the food and wages of his 'cow- 
boys;' and after providing for that expense, he may devote the 
whole remainder of his capital to the purchase of graded heifers 
and good shorthorn bulls. Graded heifers may be got across 
the mountains in Montana, California, or in Oregon, at a cost of 
5^15 each. Shorthorn bulls, fairly bred, and suitable for tlie 
country, can be purchased at from ^50 to $100. Sheep of satis- 
factory quality are driven, or rather eat their way, from Califor- 
nia, and can occasionally be bought in Colorado or Wyoming at 
^3. When crossed with a better class of sheep they soon im- 
prove, and yield fleeces of five to six pounds. 

*' If the stockman has the faculty to select good men — and such 
are to be had out in the West — he need not make himself a 
prisoner in his ranch, but may treat himself to a month's hunting 
in the mountains, or even to a trip to England, without imperil- 
ing his interests. How long the present system will last, of pas- 
turing on the public lands, is uncertain. Last summer a Com- 
mission of Congress was engaged on an inquiry into the best 
system to be adopted with regard to the public lands, and an 
idea is entertained that the government will sell land suitable for 
grazing, but too dry for cultivation, in lots of eight square miles, 
about 4,000 acres, at a low figure. Should this policy be adopted, 
the ranches will be fenced in, and a much higher type of cattle 
can then be advantageously introduced than would pay when, as 
at present, the cattle of different owners roam together on the 
plains. The profits of the present system are enormous, not- 
withstanding the low price of cattle. A three-year-old steer, 
weighing alive about 1,200 pounds, fetches only ^20. The in- 
crease of the stock, after deducting deaths, is about eighty per 
cent, on the number of the cows, if the cattle are fairly weD 
attended to. The attention required is not much. To cut the 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

grass with a mowing-machine in some of the meadows, and to 
save the hay for the emergency of a snow-storm severe enoug'i 
to debar the cattle from their food, is all that is necessary. But 
even that slight precaution is, I fear, rather the exception than 
the rule in the Colorado ranches. 

"The ease with which meat may be grown out in the West 
was forcibly impressed on my attention by an incident I observed 
in the North Park. The North Park is a great undulating plain 
within the Rocky Mountains, at an elevation of 7,000 or 8,000 
feet. The drove I saw consisted of 3,000 cattle, of a size and 
quality that would have attracted favorable notice in any of ou/ 
markets at home. They had been feeding on very nutritious 
grass in the Park all summer, and were expected to weigh 1,400 
pounds. They were born on the Pacific slope, and were feeding 
'here, as a resting-point in their journey from California east- 
wards. They were part of a lot sold to Chicago dealers at ^37.50 
a head, and were going to Illinois to be fattened for the English 
market, and would reach Liverpool, ready for the butcher, early 
in 1880. Thus cattle that first see the light on the shores of the 
Ifacific are driven slowly, at the rate of about ten miles a day, as 
far as the centre of America, and after grazing there for a year, 
are carried by railway to the maize-growing States, whence, after 
a stay of a few months, they make their final journey to Liver- 
pool. These are facts that lead to reflection. Only ten years 
ago, cattle from the Eastern and Middle States were taken west- 
ward across the mountains to California, but the tables are now 
turned. Cattle-breeding has developed so rapidly in the Pacific 
States, as not merely to supply the demand there, but to pour 
its surplus of the improved American cattle back to the East, and 
thus to supplant the inferior Texas breed, which in a few years 
may be expected to disappear altogether. It is computed that 
during the present year 50,000 cattle have made the journey 
eastwards across the plains. 

" Looking at the capacity for development shown by facts like 
these, it is idle to imagine that the supply of American cattle will 
become exhausted within any time that can be mentioned in the 
proximate future. These plains, covering thousands of square 



EXPORTATION OF STOCK— CATTLE. y^ 

miles, are specially adapted for rearing cattle. But there is 
one direction in which a government, even moderately ac- 
quainted with the interests of beef-producers, might confer a 
benefit upon the farming interest. We cannot compete with the 
American stock-keeper in the earlier stages of meat production, 
but in the last stage of all — the fattening for the market, which 
is at present done in Illinois and other maize-growing States 
— the farmer in this country has facilities which would enable 
him to distance his American competitor. The cattle I saw were 
to be transported by rail to Illinois at a cost of $6.25 or $7.50 
per head; for other $25 a head those cattle could be landed 
at Liverpool. The store cattle sold in Colorado for $37.50. 
These would be sold at a profit to all concerned in Liverpool at 
$75 a head, and when fattened, could be sold readily, even in 
these bad times, for $100 a head. But this profit of $25 a 
head is forced into the pockets of Illinois farmers by the wisdom 
of our government, which prohibits the importation of store 
cattle for the farmer, and admits only fat cattle for the butcher. 
Such conduct from the * farmers' friends ' is not kindly,'^ 

"Those who say that there is disease among American cattle, 
and that what the farmer wants above all things is protection 
from disease, betray a want of acquaintance with the facts of the 
case. The real opposition comes from a few breeders of cattle 
who have the ear of the government, and who object to any store 

* Mr. Barclay's argument that the British graziers should import American "store cattle," 
instead of allowing the butchers to import American fat cattle, is admirable from his stand-point. 
It is, indeed, their only hope of making any profit from their agricultural products while they 
remain there ; but we draw from it two very different lessons, viz.: 1st. That the British grazier 
will do very much better to sell his lands or his lease, and come over here, and raise cattle, whei-e! 
he can do it at an undoubted profit, and become the proprietor of broad lands which would forni 
a ducal estate at home ; and second, that our stock-raisers in Colorado and other States and 
Territories of " Our Western Empire " may just as well fatten their own cattle and sheep, which 
they can do at small cost, and thus command from ^jSgo to $100 for them in the Liverpool 
market as to sell them to Illinois speculators at ^537.50 per head, and let them make all the 
profit. Corn, barley, rye, millet, Egyptian rice corn, sorghum seed, and the fattening root crops 
can be raised in Colorado, Kansas, Wyoming, Montana or Dakota at half the cost of their 
production in Illinois, and containing a larger measure of carbonized or fattening food to the 
Imshel ; and with the present facilities for shipment, they will be able to place their finest beeves 
( nd there are no better anywhere) in Liverpool, at a net cost to them of not over ^40 or $4^ a 
iiead, while they will command on landing from $^ to $ilo per head. The Montana cattle, 
It' is said, fatten almost too well on the nutritious bunch grass alone. 



^lO OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

cattle being imported, whether in health or disease ; but the great 
body of farmers want cheap store cattle, and they can have them 
both cheap and healthy from the natural breeding grounds of the 
West, if only the government would put itself to a little trouble 
and exercise a little care and common sense. There never has 
been any disease in the Western States, or in Illinois, Iowa, or 
Michigan. The direct route for cattle is throug-h those States 
on the main lines of railway, and, crossing into Canada at 
Detroit or Port Huron, they could be shipped from Canadian 
ports. Cattle could thus be carried to England without ever ap- 
proaching at any point within hundreds of miles of any place 
where disease has existed. Those acquainted with the system 
of transport know that simple and effective arrangements could 
be made insuring that only western cattle should pass into 
Canada, and the only hope I see for the British grazier is in get- 
ting these cattle. The attention of the department was called to 
this suggestion by a question put in the House of Commons last 
session, but the mouthpiece of the government would not conde- 
scend so far as even to promise an inquiry. Such neglect we 
are unfortunately but too familiar with, and there seems little 
hope of a change, until farmers or mercantile men insist on having 
some men in the government of this commercial and agricultural 
country, who know practically something of the country's interests. 
I cannot but think that we should be better off if we interfered 
less in our neighbors' affairs, and paid some attention to our own." 
Dairy- Farming. — Though so new a country, Colorado has 
many remarkable advantages for dairy-farming. The small 
parks on the eastern side of the divide, where the valleys of the 
streams are not ravines or canons — parks which contain from 
loo to i,ooo acres each — form the best pasture grounds for a 
dairy-farm to be found anywhere ; the grass is rich and nutri- 
tious ; the water is abundant, cold, and pure; and the soil is so 
fertile that it yields in profusion, the roots, grains, and forage 
plants necessary to produce the greatest quantity of rich milk. 
Good cows of the Alderney, Jersey, and Holstein breeds are to 
be had at reasonable prices in the State, and the dairy-farmer, 
selecting cows which will yield at least fourteen pounds of butter 



DAIRY- 1- ARMING IN COLORADO. yu 

a week during the season, and selling or rearing his calves, can 
make a very handsome profit on a moderate investment. Good 
butter always commands a good price in Colorado — from twenty- 
five to forty-five cents a pound, and the supply is never equal to 
the demand. 

Mr. H. Stratten, the leading dairy-farmer of the Cache la 
Poudre valley, Larimer county, makes the following statement of 
the profits of dairy-farming, as the result of his own observation : 

"We will suppose eighty acres to have been tilled as a grain 
farm ; the dairyman will put in forty acres to a mixed crop of 
corn, potatoes, oats, and barley for general crop, and seed down 
the remaining forty to Alfalfa. This will take 800 lbs. of seed, 
which, at 14 cents per lb,, will cost $112. As the first blossoms 
appear on the Alfalfa, the crop must be cut, which ordinarily wnll 
just about pay for cutting; the second cutting, quite late in the 
fall, will, under favorable circumstances, cut one ton per acre. 
This forty tons of Alfalfa, with the straw and fodder raised on the 
forty acres set apart for the general crop, with the addition of 
such grain feed as the cows require, will be sufificient to keep a 
twenty-cow dairy in full feed until the first cutting of the Alfalfa 
the second year. We will suppose the farmer has made his se- 
lection of twenty good butter cows, about the first of October, 
and made the necessary preparations to keep them in comforta- 
ble quarters, putting the cows at once on full feed ; we will figure 
what the result will be. Twenty cows fed as above will produce 
two hundred pounds each of gilt-edge butter, which properly 
marketed in Denver and the mining camps, will net 35 cents per 
pound; and 4,000 lbs. of butter at 35 cents equals ^1,400. 
Twenty calves properly raised and fed, will, at one year old, 
bring $250; chickens raised on the surplus milk and refuse 
grain will net ^200 more, which makes a total of <^i,85o, or an 
average of ^92.50 per cow. The first cost of cows will be about 
^35 each. By making a good selection of native cows, then 
grading up with some good butter-making breed, the farmer will 
in a few years have a fine herd of dairy cows, worth at the lowest 
figure ^50 per head." 

We have devoted considerable space already in Parts I. and 



7 12 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

II. to sheep-farming in Colorado, in connection with other States ; 
it only remains to speak of the extent and success of the sheep- 
farming interest in the State. In 1870, Colorado had not more 
than 20,000 sheep. In 1880, she has not far from 2,500,000. 
The increase in the number of flocks of sheep is without any 
precedent in the history of the rapidly growing States of the 
West. The counties which are most largely engaged in sheep- 
farming are El Paso, Las Animas, Huerfano, Conejos, Pueblo, 
Elbert, Bent, Arapahoe, Larimer, and Weld. The sheep in the 
so-called Mexican counties, Conejos, Las Animas, and Huerfano, 
are mostly Mexican sheep, though a few of them have been im- 
proved by crossing with a superior breed ; but in the other coun- 
ties they are almost entirely of improved breeds. The Mexican 
sheep yields but three or four pounds of wool, while it costs as 
much to keep and care for it as the improved Merino or Cots- 
wold grade, which yields from six to twelve pounds. As good 
Merino wool is worth on an average twenty-five cents per pound 
or more, this difference in yield makes a great difference in the 
value of the sheep. 

In 1879, Colorado is said to have marketed 7,000,000 pounds 
of wool, worth ^1,400,000; reared over 1,000,000 lambs, worth 
at the lowest estimate $1.50 each, or ^1,500,000, and sent to 
market or consumed at home 200,000 sheep worth $2.50 each, 
or ^500,000 more. In 1880, she will sell 10,000,000 pounds of 
wool, worth $2,500,000; rear 2,000,000 lambs, worth $3,000,000; 
and sell or consume 300,000 sheep, for which she will receive 
$900,000, an aggregate of $6,400,000. 

"Thus far," says Mr. Frank Fossett, "the business of sheep- 
raising in Colorado has been very profitable. A flock of 1,800 
ewes, costing $4,500, were placed on a ranche in Southern Col- 
orado. In eight years, 1,600 sheep were killed for mutton and 
consumed on the ranche, and 7,740 were sold for $29,680. 
There are 14,800 head on hand, worth $3 per head, $44,400. 
The clips of wool paid for the shepherds' hire and all current 
expenses. The result shows a net profit over the original in- 
vestment of $69,520, equal to 193 per cent, per annum for eight 
years in succession. Per contra, out of a flock of 1,200 very fine 



SHEEP-FARMING IN COLORADO. 71^ 

selected ewes, worth ^4 per head, 800 died during a storm of 
two days in March, 1878. The 400 that survived raised in the 
summer of that year more than that number of lambs. 

" Many of the sheep men have two ranges for their herds — one 
for summer and the other for winter. The herder usually col- 
lects the sheep at night on a side hill, and sleeps by them. They 
lie quietly unless disturbed by wolves, who are the most trouble- 
some in stormy weather. Shepherd dogs are very useful in the 
protection and herding of sheep, and are born and raised, and 
die with them. Lambs are weaned about the first of October. 
Sheep will travel about three miles out on to the range and back 
to water or the herding grounds each day. Those coming to 
Colorado to engage in the sheep business should engage on a 
sheep ranche, and stay there long enough to understand all 
about the methods of conducting the business. In selecting or 
taking up land for sheep-growing, plenty of range or room, with 
hay land and a water supply, are requisites for successful opera- 
tions. Good sheep should be purchased to begin with, as they 
are the cheapest in the long run, and close attention must be 
given to the business in order to make money and build up a 
fortune. 

" While large numbers of the sheep of Colorado are of American 
breeds, hosts of them are native Mexican sheep. Still larger 
numbers are of mixed blood, obtained by crossing the long- 
leofSfed, ea-unt, coarse, lis:ht-wool Mexicans with Merino rams. 
The Cotswold has not been crossed so successfully with the full- 
blood Mexican, but makes fine stock when crossed with the 
three-quarter Merino. This brings size to the sheep, weight to 
the fleece, and length of staple. Since Colorado has been found 
to be the sheep-growing State of the West, large herds have 
been driven into her borders from other sections. California 
has been a heavy contributor, on account of the small expenses 
and large profits attending sheep-raising here as compared with 
the Pacific slope. Thirty thousand sheep were driven in from 
that State in the spring of 1879." 

The number of horses, asses and mules in the State is large 
in proportion to the population, and is rapidly increasing in two 



jj. OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

directions: the number of wealthy mine-owners has greatly 
muhipHed within two or three years, and these men all crave the 
best horses to be procured for money, and have already brought 
into the State very many choice animals ; the mines and the rail- 
roads, as well as the immense freighting business, require a large 
and constandy increasing supply of horses and mules larger and 
heavier than either the broncho or mustang. To meet this latter 
demand, and to some extent the former also, such great corpora- 
tions as the Colorado Catde Company, of the Hermosillo Estate, 
have undertaken the rearing of many thousands of horses and 
mules, and find the enterprise largely profitable, even more so 
than cattle-breeding. 

It is impossible to estimate with any very close approximation 
to accuracy, the present value of the live-stock interest of Colo- 
rado. So rapid is its growth ; so sudden the transition from a 
" waste, howling wilderness " to a compact and populous State ; 
from the sage brush, the alkaline plains, and the frightful preci- 
pices and canons, to the fields green with future harvests and 
dotted all over with thousands of catde, sheep, horses and mules, 
that figures which frighten us by their enormous amount prove 
strangely and ridiculously inadequate to express the enormous 
strides which every material interest is making in this land of 
wonders. 

It is known that the increased valuation of the live-stock 
interest in 1878 (not the total value, that was many times more) 
over the previous year was ^6,200,000. It is known also that the 
increase of the same interest in 1879 more than doubled these 
figures. In 1880, from the various causes we have specified, 
they must have doubled again, and, possibly, much more than 
doubled. When v/e add to this the receipts, gains and profits 
of the farming industry for the same three years, which mounted 
{n that time from $4,000,000 to more than $13,000,000, we have 
an aggregate which for so young a State is astounding. 

Railroads. — No State west of the Missouri river is so thor- 
oughly interlaced with railways now completed, or soon to be 
completed, as Colorado. 

At the northeast the Union Pacific enters the corner of the 



THE RAILWAYS OF COLORADO. 715 

State at Julesburg, on the North Platte, but soon passes north 
into Wyoming ; at Cheyenne, Wyoming, it controls the Colorado 
Central, which extends from Cheyenne through Larimer, Boulder, 
and Jefferson counties to Golden, and thence over another line to 
Denver ; this road has also its extensions in progress through 
Western Boulder, Grand (traversing the Middle Park) and Routt 
counties, to Steamboat Springs, and Hayden to Windsor, on 
Fortification creek, as well as through Gilpin county to Black 
Hawk, and through Clear Creek county to Georgetown, and 
is now building a further extension through Summit county 
to Leadville. The Union Pacific also controls the Denver 
Pacific, which extends through Weld and Arapahoe coundes to 
Denver. 

Under the same general control is the Kansas Pacific, and 
the newly reorganized Missouri Pacific, which, starting from 
Kansas City, Missouri, crosses Kansas from east to west, and 
passes through Bent, Elbert and Arapahoe counties to Denver. 

The Denver, South Park and Pacific, which, starting from 
Denver, had its western terminus in 1878 at Webster, in Hall's 
Valley, pushed on, in 1879, to Breckenridge and Leadville, 
reaching the latter city early in 18S0, and following the west side 
of the Arkansas river valley, crossed the main divide (the 
Saguache range) at Cottonwood Pass, reached Gunnison in 
August, and is now pushing on for Lake City (Hinsdale county), 
125 miles distant, which it will probably enter by January, 1881. 
From Buena Vista, in Chaffee county, to Leadville, its trains and 
those of the Denver and Rio Grande Railway run over the same 
track. 

From Denver, the Denver and Rio Grande goes southward 
to El Moro, extending a branch along the Arkansas river to its 
source, reaching Leadville; also westward from Cuchuras, in 
Huerfano county, as hereafter described, across Costilla to Ala- 
mosa, whence one branch goes to Del Norte in Rio Grande, 
and another through Conejos to Anemas City, in Plata county. 

But the ereat railroad of Kansas, Colorado and New Mexico 
is the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. This railway, 
stardng from Kansas City and Atchison, crosses the State of 



^l6 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Kansas on the line of the valley of the Arkansas river, which it 
follows in Colorado, through Bent and Pueblo, where it connects 
with the Denver and Rio Grande, en route for Leadville, and at 
La Junta, in Bent county, sending an arm southwestward and 
southward through Las Animas county, past the great coal fields 
and mines of Trinidad, reached Las Vegas, and crossing the 
main chain of the Rocky Mountains, paused for a little at Santa 
Fe, and is continuin:; its southern route down the valley of the 
Rio Grande to Mcsilla, New Mexico, and El Paso, Texas, and 
stretchinor thence across Chihuahua and Sonora — Mexican 
States — will make its southern terminus at Guaymas, on the 
Californian Gulf. By its connection with the St. Louis and San 
Francisco Railway, and the Atlantic and Pacific, to all whose 
privileges it has fallen heir, it proposes also to strike westward 
from Santa Fe along the route of the Flax river, one of the 
affluents of the Rio Colorado of the West, cross Arizona, bridge 
the Grand Canon of the Colorado with a single span of 400 feet, 
1,600 feet above the water, and make a western terminus at San 
Diego or Los Angeles. 

Neither the Union Pacific, the Northern, the Southern or the 
Texas Pacific has conceived a grander scheme for crossing the 
continent, or prosecuted it with such unfaltering energy and such 
audacity of enterprise and engineering skill. Its crossing of the 
Raton Mountains in Southern Colorado; its passage carved 
along the perpendicular precipices of the Grand Canon of the 
Arkansas, and its other engineering feats, have excited the ad- 
miration of the greatest engineers in the world. In Colorado 
it has made a close alliance with its former rival, the Denver and 
Rio Grande, and the two having divided Southern Colorado and 
New Mexico between them, the latter has extended a line through 
Huerfano, crossing the Sangre de Christo range at Veta Pass, at 
the height of 9,339 feet, through Costilla county and the San 
Luis Park, to Alamosa, whence one branch traverses Conejos and 
La Plata counties, and is now completed to the Las Animas 
river, with an eventual terminus, perhaps, on the San Juan 
river; the other branch follows the Rio Grande on the line be- 
tween Rio Grande and Saguache counties, to the famous mineral 



EDUCATION IN COLORADO. yiy 

springs of Wagon-Wheel Gap, and then turns westward through 
Hinsdale and San Juan counties to Silverton, where it is to meet 
an extension of the Las Animas branch to and through Ouray, and 
up the valleys of the Uncompahgre and Gunnison rivers to the 
Grand river, and thence into Utah. Another important branch 
of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe east of the Great Divide 
is now in process of construction from Canon City into Custer 
county to Rosita and Silver Cliff, the region of the new chloride 
mines. Within three years, and possibly less, there will be no 
county in the State untraversed by some of the lines of the Colo- 
rado Central, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, the Denver 
and Rio Grande, or some of the roads with which these are 
affiliated, and the State will have more than 2,000 miles of 
railway. In January, 1880, there were 1,326 miles in operation. 
There are now more than 1,450 miles. 

The wagon roads, sometimes built at great expense, are for 
the most part, excellent and safe. The ascents and descents are 
sometimes frightful, but the* drivers are cool, couraofeous, and 
thoroughly skillful men, and accidents are very rare. 

These remarkable facilities for travel and transportation, so 
speedily created, have aided greatly in the development of the 
State, and have helped to place it at once on an equality with 
much older States in commerce and in all the appliances of the 
highest civilization. California, at the end of twenty years after 
her admission into the Union, even with her wonderful growth, 
had not the facilities already possessed by Colorado in the fourth 
year since her reception by Congress. 

Education. — Colorado has an excellent public school system, 
modeled after the best systems of the Western States, and its 
public school law of 1876, amended slightly by later legislatures, 
is enforced with an enterprise and ability characteristic of every- 
thing undertaken by the State. It is fast accumulating a mag- 
nificent school fund, and its citizens pay no taxes so willingly as 
those for educational purposes. Its scattered population, espe- 
cially in the grazing districts, has rendered the maintenance of 
public schools difficult in some of the counties ; but wherever 
towns, villages, farming and mining districts and camps have 



^iS OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

been established, there are e^ood schools organized without 
delay. Denver is noted for its public schools, which are of 
the highest character. Leadville, the same month (July, 
1877) that it assumed its corporate character, though then a 
small mining camp, established a public school, and has since 
multiplied its schools as rapidly as they were needed. Greeley, 
Evans. Longmont, Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Canon City, Rosita, 
Silver Cliff, and all the rest, have made haste to establish schools. 

There is a State University at Boulder endowed with lands by 
the government and supported by the State. It has a prepara- 
tory and a normal school department, and is about organizing 
its full course of university study. There is a college at Col- 
orado Springs which has four courses of instruction — prepara- 
tory, normal, collegiate, and mining and metallurgy. The terms 
for tuition are only ^25 a year, so that it is practically free. At 
Colorado Springs there is also a State Deaf Mute Institution, 
not yet, we believe, fully organized. There is a State Agricul- 
tural College at Fort Collins in aclive operation, and Farmers' 
Institutes are held in connection with it every winter. 

Aside from these there are several private or denominational 
institutions of collegiate character already founded, and others 
in prospect. The education of the young in Colorado will be 
amply provided for. 

Churches and Religious Denoiniitations. — When we consider 
that Colorado is but four years old as a State, and that many of 
its larger towns and cities have not been in existence more than 
three or four years, we shall find that the religious progress of 
the State has been very commendable. The Roman Catholics 
have a large diocese, a considerable number of their adherents 
being Mexicans, of whom there are many in the southern coun- 
ties, and many also of other nationalities in the central and 
northern counties. There is also a Protestant Episcopal diocesf 
with a smaller number of adherents, but very active and efficient. 
The Methodists, Congregationalists, Baptists, Presbyterians, 
Lutherans, German Reformed, and many of the minor sects are 
also represented in the State by numerous congregations. 

Population. — In 1870 Colorado had but 39,864 inhabitants, 



POPULATION, COUNTIES AND CITIES OF COLORADO. ynj 

about what Denver and Leadville each have to-day. When 
admitted to the Union, in 1876, it was considered doubtful 
whether she had more than 75,000. To-day she has, including 
tribal Indians (2,530), 197,179. 

Counties. — The State has thirty-one counties, viz. : 



County. 


County-Seat. 


Valuation, 1878. 


Estimated 

valuation, 
July, 1880. 


Area, 
Square miles 


Population, 
1879. 


Population, 
June, 1880. 


Arapahoe .... 
B it 




;$i 1,076, 761 00 
2,279,376 00 
3,097,320 00 

1,93^,99' 31 
244,346 00 
319,-71 90 
500,654 oo 
951,713 00 

1,202,052 52 

3,076,395 00 
946,363 00 

1,827997 00 
63,866 75 
62,014 00 
564,396 50 
796,038 38 

1,988,529 00 
603,858 92 
254,447 00 

1,502,330 00 

1,455,230 00 

220 622 95 

' 796,239 00 

3,069,639 00 

501,874 00 

74 661 00 

637,6^7 00 

255,3 = 8 00 

16.7,360 00 

2,583,827 00 




4,800 
9,126 

792 
1,240 

437 

2,S58 

1,685 
1,100 

833 
6,030 
2,628 
1,263 

.58 

4,278 

11,000 

1,528 

1,584 

792 

400 
4,095 
1,825 
9,072 
2,333 
2,222 
2,412 
',332 
5,000 
3,3'2 

726 
8,289 
10,494 


31,000 
3,000 

12,000 
500 
3,000 
6,000 
4,000 
5,000 
3,000 
2,500 
9,000 
4,500 
7,500 

- 500 
1,500 
4,000 
5,000 
7,500 

15,000 
i,5co 
5,000 

12,000 
3,000 
3,000 
9,000 
3,500 
300 
3,000 
3,000 
6,cxx) 
7.500 
190,300 


58.645 
1,654 
9 746 
6.510 
7,''46 
5,6j5 
2,i-7Q 
8,tS2 
2.486 
1.7 9 
7,952 
4,7.'i5 
6,489 
417 
8,237 
1.499 
4.124 
6,810 

23824 
1,110 
4,£92 
8,904 
2,670 
3.'-70 
7,615 
1,944 
140 
1,973 
1,087 

5,4:9 
5,646 




5,000 
7,000 


000 
000 


B. aider 

ChaiTee 

CLar Creek.. . 

Coneios 

Costilla 


Boulder 


Georgetown 


4,000 
750 

I,,JOO 

2,000 
1,400 
1,300 
5,6eo 
2 , 5e 
2,800 

100 

200 

1,000 

2,000 

2,600 

30,000 

60 
3,000 
2,000 

750 
1,500 
7,^ 
1,000 

100 
1,000 

850 
1,400 
7,000 


000 
000 
000 
000 
'.00 
COO 

coo 
000 
000 
000 

000 
000 

000 

000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 


San Luis 

Rosita 

Castle Rock 

Kiowa 

Colorado Springs . . . 

Canon 

Central 


Dju^las 

Elbert 

El Paso 

Fremont 

Gitp n 

Grand ... 

Gunniion 

Hinsdale 

Huerf; no 

JfTer-.oa 

Lak^ 

La Plata 

Laritier 

Las Animas . . . 

Ouray 

Park 


Hot Sulphur Springs 
Gunnison ... 


Walsenburg ...... 

Golden 

Leadville 


PnrtottCitv 

Fort Collins 


'I'rinidad ... 

Oui-ay 


Pi'cblo 

Rio Grande. . . 

R lutt . 

Saguache 

San Juan 

Snmmit 

Weld 


Pu.-Mo 

Del Norte 








Breck-nridge 




Total 


S43.055.4i9 22 


$126,450 


000 


I04,6<9 





Cities and Tozons. — The following are the principal cities and 
towns of Colorado with their population, so far as can be ascer- 
tained, in 1870, 1875, 1S79, and 1880: 



Cities and Towns. 



Denver 

Leadville* 

Central, ) 

Black Hawk, V 

Nevadaville. ) 
Pueblo & South Pueblo 

C lorado Springs 

Georgetown 

Boulder 

Trinidad 

Golden 

Greeley 

Lake City 



Population, 

i37j. 


1S75. 


1875. 


18S0. 


4,759 
none 


17,000 
none 


28,000 
12,000 


35,630 
14,820 


4,401 


5,000 


6,500 


7,200 


666 


5,000 


6,000 


6,500 


none 


2,500 


5,000 


6,000 


802 
3<3 


4,000 
2,800 


5,000 
3,200 


5,400 
4,000 


■;62 


2,000 


3,000 


3,200 


587 
480 


2,000 

2,000 


2,500 

2,"; 00 


3,200 

2,800 


none 


400 


1,200 


1,800 



Cities and Towns 



Canon City 

Del Norte 

Rosita 

Silver Cliff..... 

Kokomo 

Silvcrton 

Ourav 

Ten Mile City. . 
Brownsville & \ 
Silver Plume, j 
Buena Vista . . . 
Carbonateville. . 
Alamosa 



Population, 
1870. 


1875- 


1879. 


229 


800 


3,200 


none 


1,200 


1,500 


none 


1,000 


2,000 


none 


none 


1,200 


none 


none 


1,500 


none 


500 


1,000 


none 


none 


1,000 


none 


none 


500 


150 


700 


900 


none 


none 


500 


none 


none 


150 


none 


none 


800 



1880. 



500 

,200 I 

500! 



*This is within the city limits alone. Its suburbs, which belong in the miner's phrase, to 
the same mining camp, contain I7,cxx) or 1 8,000 more. 



^2o OUR WESTERxY EMPIRE. 

Of course, In such a heterogeneous assemblage of all creeds 
and nationalities, there are many who never attend public wor- 
ship, and who are perhaps open scoffers at all religion — skeptics 
and infidels, either of the more intellectual and professedly scien- 
tific sort, or of the coarse brutal class, the American representa- 
tives of the Communists, Nihilists and Socialists of condnental 
Europe. The Mormons, too, have been planting their missions 
in Southwest and Southern Colorado, in the hope of at least 
winning a sufficient number of adherents to secure the vote of 
the representatives of Colorado in Congress in favor of the 
admission of Utah, as a Mormon State, into the Union. 

But it is a very gratifying fact that none of our newer States 
have come into the Union with a better or more deserved repu- 
tation for good order, safety of person and property, and morality 
in its highest and best sense. 

From its central posiuon, its rapid yet healthy development 
its extensive and constantly increasing facilities of railway com- 
munication, its immense and as yet only partially developed 
mineral wealth, its productive farming and grazing lands, and its 
intense enterprise, we may safely predict that Colorado is des- 
tined to be the leading State of the Rocky Mountain region, and 
not improbably the leader in wealth and power of the new 
" Western Empire." Two decades of such growth and progress 
as that of the last four years will place it among the grandest of 
American States ; the peer of New York in population and in 
wealth, and exerdng an influence over all the sisterhood of 
States west of the Mississippi which will justify its claim to be 
the Empire State of the West. 



BOUNDARIES OF DAKOTA. 721 

CHAPTER V. 

DAKOTA. 

Boundaries, Area and Topography of Dakota — First Setilements — Ok- 

GANIZATION RiVERS LaKES DAKOTA DIVIDED INTO FoUR SECTIONS*. 

Northern, Central, Southeastern and Black Hills — Characteristics 
OF each — The Bad Lands — Fossils there — Governor Howard's De- 
scription OF these sections — Governor Howard's Address — His Report 
to the Secretary of the Interior — Biographical Notice of Governor 
Howard — The Surveyor-General's Report — Northern Dakota — The 
Description of it by Hon. James B. Power — Charles Carleton Coffin's 
Description in the Chicago Tribune — The Correspondent of the Chicago 
Journal — Other Testimony — Bishop Peck, Messrs. Reed and Pell — Cen- 
tral Dakota — The Account of the Chicago and Northwestern Railway 
Commission — Southeastern Dakota — Rev. Edward Ellis's Letter — Hon. 
W. H. H. Beadle's Description — His Competency as a Witness — Meteor- 
ology OF Southeastern Dakota — The Black Hills — Mr. Zimri L. White's 
Description of this Region — Climate and Meteorology of the Black 
Hills — Gold-mining there — Four Classes of Mines — Cheapness of 
Mining and Milling — Altitudes in the Black Hills — Population of 
Towns — Farming, Grazing and Market-gardening in the Black Hills 
— Social Life and Morals there — Railroads in Dakota — Population 
of the Territory and its Character — The Future of Dakota. 

Dakota Territory as now^ constituted lies between the parallels 
of 42° 30' and 49° north latitude, and between the meridians of 
96'' 20' and 104 west longitude from Greenwich. There is also 
a small tract of about 2,000 square miles, lying between Montana, 
Idaho and Wyoming, of an irregular and partially triangular form, 
which was overlooked when Wyoming was organized, which be- 
longs to Dakota, though no jurisdiction is exercised over it by 
the Territory, and it is at least 450 miles from its nearest bound- 
ary. This little tract is traversed by the Utah and Northern 
Railway, and includes a small slice of the Yellowstone Park. 
Dakota is bounded on the north by the Northwest British Terri- 
tory and Manitoba, east by Minnesota and Iowa, south by 
Nebraska and the Missouri river, and west by Wyoming and 
Montana. Its area is 150,932 square miles, or 96,596,480 acres. 
46 



«22 ^^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

It is about 450 miles in length from north to south, and 350 
miles from east to west. 

The first settlements in the Territory were made in the south- 
east in 1859 in Yankton and vicinity, but were very few and 
scattering. It was first organized as a Territory in 1861, con- 
taining then a vast territory, which has since been reduced by 
the organization of other Territories till, in 1868, it was reduced to 
its present area. The Missouri river traverses the Territory 
from Fort Buford in the northwest to Sioux City in the south- 
east, and is navigable for the whole distance. Its largest afflu- 
ent, the Yellowstone, enters it opposite Fort Buford, just as it 
enters the Territory. The Missouri receives eleven or twelve 
large tributaries on the south side, and about the same num- 
ber on the north side, within the limits of the Territory. The 
Red river of the North rises in Lake Traverse (latitude 46°), and 
flowing due north forms the eastern boundary of the Territory 
for more than 200 miles to the boundaries of Manitoba, and 
enters Lake Winnipeg in the northern part of that province. 
The Red river has two large affluents, the Pembina and the 
Sheyenne, and several smaller ones. The Souris or Mouse 
river, a tributary of the Assiniboine, one of the Canadian rivers, 
drains the northwestern part of the Territory. The Minnesota 
river, a tributary of the Mississippi, has its source in Big Stone 
lake, and several of its affluents rise in Southeastern Dakota. 

Of the tributaries of the Missouri in Dakota, the principal on 
the north side are the Big Sioux, and the Dakota or James. The 
latter is nearly 400 miles in length, a river of considerable vol- 
ume, but is not navigable in any part of its course. On the south 
side of the Missouri, the principal affluents are : the Niobrara, 
which forms the boundary between Nebraska and Dakota for a 
considerable distance, and its tributary, the Keyapaha ; the White 
river, the Big Cheyenne, with its north and south forks (the for- 
mer bearing also the name of La Belle Fourche), the Owl river, 
the Grand river, and the north and south forks of the Cannonball 
river, the Heart river, the Big Knife river and the Litde Missouri. 
The whole Territory is well watered. 

Dakota has very many lakes, some of them, like Lakes Minne- 



GOVERNOR HOIVARD'S REPORT OF 1878. 723 

Waukan, Traverse, Big Stone, James, Kampeska, etc., of large 
size, and all of remarkable beauty. 

Dakota was formerly divided into two or three distinct sec- 
tions, and since the cession of the reservations of the Sioux 
and other Indian tribes a fourth has been added. Northeastern, 
or perhaps more properly Northern Dakota, extends across the 
State fifty miles or more on either side of the Northern Pacific 
Railway, from the Red River valley to the bounds of Montana. 
It is, for the most part, a very fine wheat region. The soil is 
rich, deep and easily tilled, and yields large crops of the cereals, 
and of potatoes and other root crops. Central Dakota, the new 
division, includes much of the former Sioux reservation. This 
is also good land for the cereals, for Indian corn, the root crops, 
and some portions of it for grazing. The third section, South- 
east Dakota, is almost wholly farming land, and along the river 
valleys and the plains, which extend back from them, there is no 
better land anywhere on the continent. The so-called Bad Lands 
{mauvaises tevj'es) of Southern Dakota are of much less extent 
than has generally been supposed. They are entirely in this 
section, and there are but 75,000 acres (about three townships 
in all) of them. There is said to be another small tract in the 
northwest, but not much is known of them. The adjacent lands, 
though not so good for farming, are yet superior for grazing ; 
and the Bad Lands themselves yield at least an ample crop of 
fossils.* 

The late Hon. William A. Howard, Governor of Dakota and 
previously Governor of Michigan, in his report to the Secretary 
of the Interior, under date of December i6th, 1878, thus de- 
scribed three of these sections : 

"The Territory of Dakota is very large, being nearly 400 
miles square, or more than four times as large as the State of 
Ohio. The settlements are principally confined to three distinc ' 
localities as remote from each other as possible, and of very 
difficult and expensive communication with each other. 

*In these Bad Lands have been discovered some of the most remarkable fossils yet found in 
America. The whole region is the cemetery of the extinct monsters of the cretaceous anii 
earlier geologic ages. 



^24 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

" The settlements of Southeastern Dakota, in which is located 
the present capital, extend from Northeastern Nebraska mainly 
in a northern direction up the Big Sioux, the Vermilion, and 
the James rivers. These settlements are extending north along 
the border of Northwestern Iowa and Southwestern Minnesota 
as far as Lake Kampeska, and as far west as the James river. 
Although the population is sparse at present it is rapidly filling 
up. Southeastern Dakota has a population at the present time 
of not less than 50,000, and probably 60,000. 

" Northern Dakota is settled, or rather settling, along the 
west bank of the Red river of the North, from Richland county, 
opposite Breckinridge, down to Pembina, on the line of the 
British possessions, crossing the Northern Pacific Railroad at 
Fargo, and extending west along the line of that road to Bis- 
marck. Population, perhaps 40,000. 

"The other settlement is in the Black Hills, occupied mainly 
by a mining population, and containing a population at the 
present time of 10,000 at least, and probably 12,000. 

"I suppose it is about 350 miles in a straight line from Yank- 
ton to Deadvvood. But the only feasible way of getting there 
involves travel of at least 900 miles, and an expense greater 
than the journey from Yankton to Washington, and requiring 
more time to perform it. The distance from Yankton to Pem- 
bina as the ' crow flies ' is at least 400 miles, and requires more 
time and expense than a visit to the capital of the nation. 

" The three sections are not only remote from each other and 
of difficult access, but their interests are separate and not 
identical. 

"In a commercial point of view. Saint Paul and Duluth are 
the objective points of Northern Dakota, while Chicago and 
Milwaukee will naturally drain Southeastern Dakota. Mean- 
while the vast wealth of the Black Hills will swing to the right 
or left as it may best force itself out, or as railroad enterprise 
shall open a more direct way over which it may move. The 
great Indian reservation west of the Missouri river contains 
56,000 square miles, about the size of all Michigan, including 
both peninsulas. Of course this will prevent settlement, and 



GENERAL PROGRESS OF DAKOTA. ^25 

tend to turn the business of the Black Hills to the south or 
north of itself." 

At this time the treaty with the Sioux, which resulted in their 
relinquishing the greater part of their reservation in Central 
Dakota, had not been consummated, and that reservation was 
necessarily a barrier to any ready or easy communication with 
the Black Hills throuorh Dakota. 

Governor Howard added : 

"The resources of this Territory are both agricultural and 
mineral, and of vast extent, only partially developed as yet; but 
enough has been done to demonstrate the fact that Dakota, con- 
sidering her vast extent of territory, has agricultural resources 
scarcely second to those of any State in the Union. Dakota has 
on the east side of the Missouri river at least 60,000 square 
miles of land fit for the plow. It is believed that at least 1 5,000,000 
bushels of wheat will be produced next year."* 

* In an address delivered by Governor Howard at Yankton, before the Congregational Asso- 
ciation, November ist, 1879, he said, among other things: 

" In 1858, when it was proposed to admit Minnesota to the Union as a State, it was strongly 
opposed on the ground that such a region could never sustain the permanent population of a 
State. It was said that when the fur trade was exhausted and some pine lumber cut, in a few 
years, the region would be abandoned as it could not sustain animal life, especially that of man- 
kind. But look now, after only twenty years, at the great State of Minnesota with its thirty or 
forty millions of bushels of wheat, and filling up to its utmost borders with a thrifty population. 
Here now is Dakota Territory, nearly 400 miles square, and it has more acres of arable land 
than any State in the Union except possibly Texas. It is more than three times as large as New 
York and about four times the area of Ohio. It has met the same objections as Minnesota, and 
is now overcoming them in the same way. Lines of railroad are rapidTy building across our 
rich plains, and new communities are forming on eveiy hand. I was told that on that part of 
our eastern border between Eden and Big Stone lake there was for some time last summer an 
average of 300 teams and wagons per day entering Dakota. The same is true of Northern 
Dakota, where the marvellous growth of country and towns is a constant surprise. The Gover- 
nor alluded to Fargo and its growth and to that of Grand Forks as about equal to it. He then 
touched upon the population, wealth and development of the Black Hills. He was there just 
after the fire at Deadwood, and spoke with eloquence and high respect for the sterling manhood 
and self-reliance of the people under that misfortune. He noted special instances of manly 
traits shown, of the fair play exhibited in respect to disputed titles where so much depended on 
possession. He described the great mines and the new discoveries and developments steadily 
jjrogressing. His general summary of the advantages and resources of all Dakota was masterly 
and strong. He declared that we now had at least 150,000 population and many thought more. 
Of these one-third had come in the last eight months and one-half in eighteen months. The 
railroads are going forward, more people are coming, new centres of population are forming 
and the future is assured. The Governor then declared that if every church would quadruple 
its eflbrts in Dakota, it would only fairly fill the present needs of new forming communities. He 



y2^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Hon. Henry Espersen, United States Surveyor-General of 
Dakota, in his report to the United States Land Office, in No- 
vember, 1879, thus states the conditions of soil, climate, agricul- 
ture and minerals of the<Territory : 

" The soil of that portion of Dakota lying east of the Missouri 
river is generally a rich clay or sandy loam, very little rating 
below second-class. In the valleys of the Missouri, Big Sioux, 
Dakota, Vermilion, Cheyenne, Red river, and other streams, the 
soil is exceptionally rich, producing large crops of grain and 
grass. In this region there are no extensive areas of marsh or 
sand. The country is fairly watered by the streams named and 
their tributaries, and by numerous lakes in the northern and 
eastern portions. I have yet to hear of the point in the Terri- 
tory where water cannot be had at a reasonable depth by dig- 
ging. West of the Missouri river the character of the soil is not 
so fully determined, most of that section having been included in 
Indian reservations, but as far as known it is generally good. 
The district west of the Missouri river, prominently shown upon 
early maps as the ' bad lands,' might be compressed into a few 
townships. It may be said, in fact, that the proportion of waste 
land in the Territory, owing to the absence of swamps, mountain 
ranges, overflowed and sandy tracts, is less than in any other 
State or Territory in the Union. In the valleys and foot-hills of 
the Black Hills the soil is rich and productive, and the rainfall 
abundant the past season. It is expected that, in an agricultural 
way, that region will be self-sustaining without irrigation. 

"Owing to the dryness of the atmosphere and general even- 
ness of temperature, the climate of Dakota is very salubrious, 
and well adapted to agricultural pursuits. The average tem- 
perature of Southern Dakota may be compared to that of South- 
ern Illinois, Northern Indiana, and Ohio. In the northern por- 
tions the winters are somewhat more severe. In the southern 



hoped they would do so. Not only this church hut all evangelical churches. He spoke of the 
importance of occupying strategic points, of doing this early and keeping up the communica- 
tions like an army in its campaign. He alluded also to education and the munificent provision 
made by the United States for our future schools, declaring that if properly handled it would 
ultimately produce ^25,000,000. He called for such a public sentiment as would paralyze any 
sacrilegious hand that should wrongly touch that fund." 



THE SURVEYOR-GENERAV S ACCOUNT. ^27 

part early frosts are very rare and the weather very fine down to 
the first of November. Little snow falls in the winter, and 
sleiorhs are almost unknown. 

"The agricultural products of the Territory include the whole 
rang-e of those common to the Northern States. Small orrains 
and vegetables grow in the greatest perfection. Northern Da- 
kota, particularly the Red river valley, is destined to become one 
of the greatest wheat-producing regions in the country. No sys- 
tematic effort has yet been made in pomology, but, from what 
has been done, there is no doubt that when the varieties best 
suited to the soil and climate are settled upon, fruit-growing will 
become a profitable occupation. At present, next to grain, 
stock-raising is the most growing industry. The excellent 
grasses and mild climate have given this occupation a great 
impetus, and within the past two years large sums have been 
invested in young stock. 

" Deputy surveyors employed this season, west of Bismarck 
and near the line of the Northern Pacific Railroad, report coal 
croppings at various points near the Sweet Brier river, and 
between that and the Big Heart river. One vein in that vicinity 
is being worked to a limited extent, but the coal taken out so far, 
from near the surface, is of a somewhat inferior quality. Bitu- 
minous coal has also been found in the Black Hills, but the vein 
has not been sufficiently developed to determine its economic 
value. 

"No metals have been found in any quantity outside of the 
Black Hills. In that district gold, silver, lead, and mica have 
been found in quantities of commercial value. A fine bed of 
the latter is now being worked. 

"Of the gold and silver product, it can only be said in the 
limits of this report that it is steadily increasing. Daily more 
capital and refined methods are employed in the various mines 
now open, and new discoveries are constantly being made. The 
ease with which the auriferous ores are worked makes profitable 
the mining of very low-grade ores. There is said, by persons 
competent to judge, to be enough gold and silver ore 'in sight' 
m the Black Hills to employ the present mining facilities for the 
next ten years." 



^28 <^^-^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

In his annual report to the Secretary of the Interior, bearing 
date September 13, 1879, Governor Howard used the following 
language : 

"The mineral product of the Black Hills must be at least 
three millions of dollars for the year, and is rapidly increasing. 
A large number of stamps, for crushing the ore, and machinery 
of every kind, have been added, and it is believed the product 
of gold will be more than doubled the coming year. The mines 
are proving rich, and the systematic working of them is proving 
remunerative. The rapid development of the agricultural re- 
sources of the Black Hills and the large immigration going in 
and producing food in the vicinity of the mines, must lessen the 
cost of living and stimulate production and insure the reward of 
all classes of labor. 

" Immigration this year has been large, far greater than in any 
former year, and this large increase extends to all parts of the 
settled portion of the Territory — perhaps about the same per- 
centao-e of increase in each of the three divisions. Southeastern 
Dakota has had a very large increase of population. I am told 
by persons in whom I have confidence that as many as three 
hundred teams, immigrant wagons, have passed into the south- 
eastern part of the Territory daily through the summer. Quite 
as large a percentage has come into Northern Dakota. The 
same may be said of the increase in the Black Hills. In the ab- 
sence of census returns it is impossible to state with accurac)- 
our present population. The swelling tide of immigration spread 
over so vast a territory, much of it in unorganized counties, 
makes satisfactory estimates difficult If not impossible. Well- 
informed persons have estimated our population at 160,000, 
others at 170,000, and some as high as 180,000. At the present 
time I think it is at least 1 50,000, probably more than that. The 
immigration to the Black Hills has been large and of a very 
satisfactory character. They claim to have, and I think with 
good reason, from 25,000 to 30,000 Inhabitants. 

" Railroad facilities are being largely increased in Dakota. 
We have of completed railroad In the Territory about 400 
miles ; this will be increased before January next to over 500 



EDUCATION IN DAKOTA. y2Q 

miles. Several strong corporations are pushing their trunk 
lines into this Territory at various places, as well to carry the 
products of our rich soil as ultimately to reach the Black Hills. 

"It is but a short time since vast herds of buffalo roamed un- 
disturbed over these prairies ; now farms stocked with cattle and 
sheep everywhere abound. It is not long since we were taught 
in our Eastern homes, and in our schools, and learned from our 
geographies the story of the Bad Lands, the ' Great American 
Desert,' and were left to believe that Dakota for barrenness was 
only equalled by the Desert of Sahara, and whose chilling blasts 
were equal to the cold of Greenland ; but since it has been 
demonstrated that Dakota has a soil exceedingly rich, has more 
arable and less w^aste land in proportion to its size than any 
State or Territory in the whole Union, and since millions of 
bushels of grain are already waiting transportation to the mar- 
kets of the world, capital, proverbially timid, is stretching out its 
arms and with hooks of steel is drawing to itself the carrying 
trade of an empire. 

"The interest our people take in education and the moral im- 
provements is steadily increasing. Schools are increased in 
number and improved in character ; churches are multiplied ; 
greater respect for law than formerly is apparent. If we con- 
sider the richness and extent of our school lands, it will be found 
that Congress has provided for us a school fund that, when de- 
veloped, will be equal to that of any State in the Union. If no 
sacrilegious hand shall be permitted to squander any portion of 
this rich inheritance, Dakota will have a population second to no 
State for intelligence and virtue." * 

It is due to this growing and enterprising young Territory, so 
soon to become a State, and possibly to be carved into two or 
more, that we should go somewhat more into detail in regard to 
the topography, soil and productions of these different sections 
of Dakota, and through the kindness of the late Governor How- 
ard and the officers of the Territory, as well as personal friends 

*It was n great misfortune to Dakota Territory, that in the time of her most rapid growth 
and development, she should have lost by death the firm guiding hand of her wise, thoughtful, 
generous and eloquent Governgr. 



7^0 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

whom he interested in the matter, we are enabled to lay before 
our readers a much more complete description of each section 
than has ever been published. We begin with Northern Dakota, 
and give a carefully written paper, prepared for the writer by 
Hon, James B. Power, of St. Paul, Minnesota, now the accom- 
plished and thoroughly informed Land Commissioner of the 
Northern Pacific Railway. Mr. Power's opportunities of being 
fully informed in regard to Northern Dakota have been excep- 
tional, and he has given our readers the full benefit of his re- 
searches. 

"NORTHERN DAKOTA. 

" The development of Northern Dakota in the past few years 
has been perfectly marvellous, and the vast plains which were 
once considered sterile and worthless have become populated 
with thousands of successful husbandmen whose labors on the 
soil, which is discovered to be as fertile as any in the world, add 
millions of dollars to the common wealth of the nation. 

"The building of the Northern Pacific Railroad is, without 
doubt, the greatest project of the character ever undertaken, 
and it is, as a well-known writer recently said, ' of all the pro^ 
jected railroads to the western ocean, the one which must be of 
the greatest value and importance to the American people. It 
is the one which will open to settlement by far the most exten- 
sive, most fertile and in every way most desirable regions.' 

"The practical history of Northern Dakota dates by the logic 
of events, from the advent of the railroad within its boundaries, 
as before that time the great plains had been almost unknown 
to man. Single trails extended in direct lines to the immense 
northern regions from whose forests came vast stores of valuable 
skins, and occasionally trappers and hunters made expeditions 
along the wooded streams which, with difficulty, find courses 
through the level land. 

"Thousands of b'lffalo roamed at will, finding rich nourishment 
in the succulent grasses, and deer, elk and wolves aided in 
swelling the wild population of the region, and furnished game 
for the tribes of Indians who made frequent hunting sallies from 
the north and south. Explorers returned with discouraging 



MR. y. B. POWER IN NORTHERN DAKOTA. 731 

Stories of the utter uselessness of the soil and the unfitness of 
the region for human habitation, so that it was looked upon as a 
great barren desert. 

" The building of a railroad through such a waste was pro- 
nounced absurd, and the project of spending millions of dollars 
in laying a track through so extended an unproductive region, 
although a rich country might be reached farther west, was 
scoffed at, as the wildest extravagance. 

" It was known that the immediate valley of the Red river was 
fertile, for, fully twenty-five years before, fine crops had been 
raised at a trading-post of the Hudson Bay Company, located 
twenty miles north, or down river, from the point at which the 
railroad now crosses. 

"Several land companies had been formed about 1856, for the 
purpose of bringing the lands of the valley into market, but the 
panic of 1857 demoralized them. Of course but few of the 
original settlers remain on the land about the old trading-post, 
but one, who is now postmaster at Georgetown, twenty miles 
north of Fargo, has, for twenty-two years, cropped land plowed 
by the company, and he avers that it is still too rich. 

" The railroad had done a great work in developing Northern 
Minnesota, but, when the operation of building was commenced 
in Dakota, much hesitation was displayed about undertaking the 
cultivation of the prairies beyond the Red River valley. Some 
far-seeing men, however, were satisfied that the soil was admir- 
ably adapted for wheat-raising, and, in 1875, the first experiment 
of importance was commenced. George W. Cass, Esq., of 
Boston, and B. P. Cheney, Esq., of Pittsburgh, both directors in the 
railroad company and heavy capitalists, decided, for the benefit 
of the road and themselves, to test the capacity of the land, and, 
with that end in view, bought 7,680 acres of railroad lands and 
2,560 acres of government lands, and caused two sections or 
1,280 acres to be broken and prepared for wheat. They selected 
land about twenty miles west of Fargo, near the present station 
of Casselton. Their experiment was thoroughly successful, their 
first harvest yielding an average of twenty-eight bushels of the 
finest wheat per acre. The intrinsic value of the soil having 



-^2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

been thus proved, the future of Northern Dakota was assured, 
and, as the brilliant result of the trial became known, immigra- 
tion to the eolden wheat orardens commenced in earnest. These 
gentlemen have continued and extended their operations since, 
and this year from 8,458 acres they have harvested 140,352 
bushels of wheat, 15,867 bushels of oats, and 6,649 bushels of 
barley. 

"These fertile lands extend northward to the boundary line 
and southward beyond the line of the land grant to the railroad, 
which reaches, with its indemnity limit, fifty miles. The soil is in 
many respects peculiar. First is a rich, black, clayey loam, vary- 
ing from fifteen to thirty-six inches in depth, possessing sub- 
stance and compactness, and, at the same time, a degree ot mel- 
lowness. Beneath are several strata of clay of different varieties, 
some containing an impregnation of lime, which neutralizes the 
acids and gives vitality to the land. The clay sub-soil serves to 
retain the moisture, hcnr.e crops would suffer little from drought. 
Seedinor is commenced in March as soon as the frost is out of 
the ground to the depth of two or three inches, when the earth 
becomes dry. The gradual evaporation of the frost, which ex- 
tends to the depth of from tvv^o to three feet, keeps the soil in a 
good, moist condition, forcing the crops rapidly. This is the 
character of the land from the Red River valley to the bottom 
lands of the Missouri river, with the exception of a narrow strip 
running from north to south on the divide between the James 
and Missouri rivers, where a convulsion of nature has thrown 
gravel and rocks to the surface ; but the land, even in that sec- 
tion, is, with little exception, good for cultivation and excellent 
for grazing. 

" Wheat — the most profitable crop on account of its being a 
cash article, and the proximity of a great shipping point, Duluth, 
but 250 miles from Fargo — is the staple of the country; although 
corn, oats, barley, flax, and all root crops reach a remarkable 
degree of perfection. The average yield of wheat is twenty-two 
bushels to the acre, but in many cases thirty bushels are raised, 
and instances are not rare where forty bushels and over have 
been produced. Corn yields from seventy-five bushels upward. 



THE CROPS OF ^UKIEERN DAKOTA. 733 

and oats from sixty to seventy-five bushels to the acre. For 
both of these grains there is always a sure market. From 300 
to 600 bushels of potatoes to an acre reward the farmer, and 
other root crops grow equally well, while all are of delicious 
flavor and of enormous size. 

" In speaking of the values of crops, the prices given here are 
those paid immediately after harvest, and of course they advance 
with the season. 

"Wheat this year (1879) has varied in price from eighty-five 
to ninety-five cents per bushel, and, of the entire crop harvested 
in Northern Dakota, but little has graded No. 2, while No, 3, 
No. 4, and Rejected are unknown grades. The working of a 
merciful decree of Providence appears in the development of 
these great wheat gardens at a time when disaster and distress 
has overtaken England and other nations of the old world 
through the failure of successive crops. 

" Corn brings from fifty to sixty cents, oats from thirty-five to 
fifty cents, and potatoes from thirty-five to forty-five cents per 
bushel. 

" Experiments extending over five years have demonstrated 
the fact that hardy apples of northern varieties can be grown in 
perfection, while native plums, berries, and grapes thrive remark- 
ably well under cultivation. 

"As was before intimated, little or no ground was broken in 
Dakota on the Northern Pacific line prior to the year 1875. In 
1878, we find 244,240 acres under cultivation, and, in 1879, 
375,972 acres. This year 266,618 acres were devoted to wheat, 
giving a yield of 5,332,360 bushels, calculating only twenty 
bushels to the acre. The new breaking this year (1879) amounts 
to 173,000 acres, giving us 548,972 acres which will be cultivated 
in 1880. It is safe to predict that the wheat crop on the line of 
the Northern Pacific Railroad next year (1880) will be at least 
8,500,000 bushels. Two-thirds of the area of which w^e have 
written is capable of yielding 256,000,000 bushels. Some timid 
people aver that the business of wheat-raising is being overdone, 
a groundless supposition when the entire wheat crop of the 
world in 1879 does not exceed 1,540,000,000 bushels, or only 
about one bushel to every human being existing. 



734 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



"In 1870 the portion of Dakota of which we write could not 
boast of a single permanent resident. In 1877 the population 
was 8,700, with a cultivated area of 67,900 acres. In 1878, popu- 
lation 14,560; cultivated area 90,950 acres, 7 1,740 acres in wheat 
and 80,340 acres of new breaking. In 1879 we find a population 
of 31,500; 179,020 acres under cultivation, 142,500 acres in 
wheat, and 1 14,000 acres of new breaking. 

" The following are the most important statistics of the counties 
tributary to the Northern Pacific Railroad : 




"The raising of wheat has not yet been commenced in Kidder 
and Burleigh counties, as the demand for oats northwest of Bis- 
marck has been very great, and they have been grown at a fine 
profit. Next year, however, a large area will be devoted to 
wheat, as an extensive flouring-mill, which has just been com- 
pleted at Bismarck, will consume upwards of 300,000 bushels. 

" The important towns at present on the line of the railroad are 
Fargo, at the railroad crossing on the Red river, and Bismarck, 
at the Missouri river. Both are organized cities, and are quite 
metropolitan in character. 

" Fargo contains a population of 3,500, has excellent church and 
school buildings, county buildings, and many fine brick and 
wooden business blocks, and handsome residences. Excellent 
brick are manufactured within the city limits. 

" Bismarck has a population of at least 2,500, and is almost 
equally favored with Fargo in the number and substantial ex- 
cellence of its buildings. 

" Many other places are rapidly developing, among them being 



MR. y. B. POWER'S TESTIMONY. 70 r 

Casselton, twenty-two miles west of Fargo. From here a branch 
of the railroad is being extended northward. This town has 
already 500 inhabitants, and over ^20,000 has been expended 
this fall (1879) In buildings. 

"Valley City, the county-seat of Barnes county, on the Shey- 
enne river, has a population of 600 and is growing rapidly. 
Next spring (1880) at least ^75.000 will be expended there in 
the erection of county buildings, brick blocks for bank and 
stores, a hotel, and other edifices. 

"Jamestown, county-seat of Stutsman county, on the James 
river, gives promise of a most vigorous advance in 1880. It has 
now about 400 Inhabitants, a good county-house, a school-house 
and a fine hotel. Among the contemplated improvements are 
a bank and store buildings, a flouring-mill and a large elevator. 
The James, or Dakota river, is a very long stream, and it is 
claimed to be navigable, commencing at a point some miles 
below the town.* 

" Besides the Red and Missouri rivers, the James and Sheyenne 
flow through Northern Dakota, and with their numberless ford- 
ing creeks supply the best possible drainage to the vast arable 
territory. These streams are well w^ooded in many places, the 
principal growth being oak, elm, ash, soft maple, box-elder and 
Cottonwood. Their waters are pure and palatable, and, on the 
prairies, excellent water is found by digging from twelve to 
twenty-five feet. 

" It has been urged that these great northwestern prairies were 
uninhabitable, on account of the scarcity of fuel. A wise Provi- 
dence has provided for this want, however, as from the bound- 
less forests of Northern Minnesota wood can be obtained in any 
quantity at a low price, while the inexhaustible coal mines now 
being opened just beyond the Missouri river, will afford a llmit- 
1 -ss supply of excellent soft coal. Near the river the coal Is a 
soft and inferior lignite, but it hardens and improves further 
west, there being, undoubtedly, in the Yellowstone valley, some 
of the finest bituminous coal ever discovered. 

*Its navigableness is very doubtful, and at most only for a very short time. 



y^5 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

" The Red river, at Fargo, is 807 feet above the sea-level ; 
Valley City, 1,218; Jamestown, 1405; Missouri river, 1,609 feet. 

"It has been alleged that no rain ever fell upon these plains — 
whatever may have been the case before civilization gained a 
foothold in the Territory, it is sure that the fact no longer exists, 
for the rainfall along the line of the railroad for this year, to the 
middle of October, averaged 21.07 inches. The largest amount 
of precipitation was in the growing months of May, June, July 
and early August, when over 15 inches of rain fell, while during 
the harvest month, September, but .07 inch fell. From the state- 
ment of the Signal Service officer, at-Fort Buford, in the extreme 
northwesterly part of the Territory, it is found that the precipita- 
tion was 4 inches less in the same time, the greatest fall being in 
the months of April, May, June and July, and the smallest in 
August and September. It w^ill be seen, by the appended table, 
that the rigor of the low temperature in winter is offset by the 
small amount of precipitation and the rarity of disagreeable 
winter thaws. 



1879. 



January J49 "^ 



February 
March. . .. 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August... . 
September. 
October. . . 









rEMPERATURE. 






Hum 


DITY. 


St. Paul, 


Breckenr'ge 


Bismarck, 


Fort Buford 


_Mi 


A 


Minn. 


Minn. 


D. T. 


D. T. 


C 


v. 


Lat. 44'^34' 


Lat. 46^20' 


Lat. 46-50' 


Lat. 48° 




m 


Max. 


Min. 


Max. 


Min. 


Max 


Min. 


Max. 


Min. 








^ 

















pr. ct 


pr. ct 


49 


-26 


.3« 


-21 


46 


-29 


45 


-17 


84.7 


77-4 


SS 


-22 


S2 


-2 


44 


-26 


44 


-.15 


«S.5 


81.6 


68 





61 


19 


68 


-21 


70 


-22 


76.3 


70.6 


81 


13 


74 


2.S 


7,S 


II 


81 


24 


71.0 


61.8 


86 


3S 


7« 


29 


76 


.30 


«5 


.30 


65.2 


58.8 


9 1 -5 


44 


89 


42 


91 


.36 


89 


3« 


75-2 


64.4 


92 


54 


90 


44 


95 


48 


94 


44 


71. 1 


63.6 


92 


48 


90 


41 


90 


41 


98 


41 


71.2 


54-4 


7« 


.S6 


92 


M 


81 


25 


95 


20 


69.9 


47.1 


«7 


17 


70 


16 


88 


10 


95 


II 


72.8 


64.4 



.III 

I.I2J 

■97 
•45 
7.181 
1.76; 
9-32 
2.781 
2.26: 
2.56 



111. 1 

•05! 
.40; 

•-si 

I .r.| 
5.42 
2.6:k 
3-7S 
2.04; 
2.361 
•79| 



• 15 
.82 




•58 

.60 


2. 


.67 


5- 


97 


3^ 


.27 
.69 


3 


.07 




.27 


I 



in. 
.02 
•59 
•03 
•75 
.56 

•35 
■63 
.18 
.00 
•55 



" We add, so far as St. Paul and Bismarck are concerned, the 
following comparison of rainfall in the two places for 1875, 1S76 
and 1877. We have not the particulars of days for 18 78, but 
the results are about the same. 

"The following table, for the years 1875, 1876 and 1877, shows 
the number of days in each month through the growing season 
in which there was rain, and the amount of rainfall in each month, 



RAINFALL AT BISMARCK AND ST. PAUL. -yyj 

at Bismarck and St. Paul. The data, having been compiled from 
the records of the United States Signal Service Office, can be 
relied upon as correct in every particular : 



1875- 













Bismarck. 


St. Paul. 


Month. 


No. of days in 

which there 

was rain. 


Depth of rainfall 

in inches and 

looths. 


No. of days in 

which there 

wns rain. 


Depth of rainfall 

in inches and 

looths. 


March 
April . 
May . 
June . 
July . 
August 
September 










12 

9 

16 

14 

8 
ro 

7 


2.06 
4.22 

3- 40 

5.02 

1-53 
2.89 
1.85 


13 
13 
13 
17 

6 

17 
16 


2.19 

2.27 
3.01 

4-33 

.82 

8.74 
2.16 


T 


Ota 


Is. 


• 




76 


20.97 


95 


23-57 



1876. 



March .... 


14 


330 


14 


1-43 


April 


8 


2.77 


14 


2.23 


May 


9 


5-74 


12 


315 


June 


3 


1.24 


14 


2.02 


July 


10 


1.48 


II 


2.73 


August .... 


16 


6-55 


14 


5.28 


September . . , 
Totals . . 


10 


5-6i 


14 


2.99 


70 


26.09 


93 


19.83 



1877. 



March .... 


20 


0.77 


15 


1-57 


April 


13 


1.32 


10 


1.92 


May 


27 


4-15 


12 


5-43 


June 


20 


7.60 


13 


713 


July 


10 


2.52 


10 


0.52 


August .... 


19 


0-35 


II 


2.83 


September 

Totals . . 


6 


O.II 


II 


2.56 


115 


16.82 


82 


21.96 



St. Paul, Minn., 
Oct. 3d, 1877. 



J. O. BARNES, 
Sergt. Signal Service, U. S. A. 



" The climate is similar to that of the New England States, 
except that the atmosphere is always clear and dry, having none 
47 



yag ^^^R WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of that penetrating saline moisture so deleterious to health. 
The average annual temperature may be placed at about 42°, 
and the statistics of several years place the maximum mean at 
68° 5', and the minimum mean at 4° 3'. The table given will 
afford opportunity for comparison. The snowfall is less than 
in the eastern and northern portions of the Middle States, and 
the thermometer rarely falls to zero. 

" The Red river is navigable from Fargo to Winnipeg, even 
at low water, the government having during the past season 
caused all of the shallow portions to be dredged. The opera- 
tions are to be continued next year, and the river will be greatly 
improved for navigation. During this winter (1879-80), when 
the ice is strong enough, the overhanging trees will be removed 
from the upper portion of the river, and the stream rendered 
navigable for flat boats from or near Breckenridge. As there is 
a large amount of wheat which seeks an outlet at Fargo, this im- 
provement will prove of great benefit. It can be safely estimated 
that not less than one and one-half million bushels of wheat will 
be moved on the river next year. 

"A large amount of goods is transported by steamers from 
Fargo to Winnipeg. 

" The Missouri river is a very important factor in the transpor- 
tation business of this country, and navigation by it and its tribu- 
taries extends over 1,500 miles into the northwestern regions. 
By this river immense freights are carried to Bismarck, and it is 
not unusual to find from fifteen to twenty staunch steamers at the 
levee there. The principal articles of merchandise brought down 
are wool, skins, ores and cattle, while immense quantities of 
provisions and goods of all descriptions find their way to the 
many military posts and settlements in the still undeveloped 
regions. 

" The country thus far spoken of in this article has been only 
that on the line of the Northern Pacific Railroad and within the 
limit of its land grant. Down the Red river, between Fargo and 
Winnipeg, in the rich valley, the country is filled with settlers, 
and two important towns, Grand Forks and Pembina, in counties 
bearing the same names, are thriving river settlements, with a 



NORTHERN PACIFIC R. R. WEST OF THE MISSOURI. yog 

large trade from the surrounding country. There is undoubtedly 
a population of 10,000 in Grand Forks and Pembina counties. 

"BEYOND THE MISSOURI RIVER. 

" Great interest is being displayed in regard to the character 
of the country which the railroad is now penetrating, and hence 
a little space will be devoted to it — as far as the Yellowstone 
river, to which point the road will probably be completed in the 
autumn of 1880. 

"For 138 miles the road runs through the valleys of the 
Heart, Sweet Brier, Beaver, Foot, Curlew and Upper Heart 
rivers, all small streams and somewhat wooded. The valley of 
the Curlew is undoubtedly one of the most beautiful in the 
world. All of the lands in the river bottoms are exceedingly 
rich. Back from the valleys, both north and south, rich, rolling 
prairies stretch away, a lofty butte occasionally rising from the 
plain. There is clear water in every direction, running streams 
and pure flowing springs. 

"Coal in paying veins is found within forty miles of the river, 
and extends westward as far as surveys have been perfected. A 
valuable quality of stone for building purposes is found in the 
bluffs and buttes. 

" The next thirteen miles of road passes through bad lands, or 
' Pyramid Park,' a most wonderful formation. The pyramids are 
in every conceivable form and are composed of different varie- 
ties of clay, argillaceous limestones, friable sandstones and lignite, 
lying in successive strata. The Little Missouri river flows through 
Pyramid Park at about the centre, and in high water is over 1 50 
yards wide. The water is excellent. Considerable timber is 
found on its banks, and the government has just built a canton- 
ment in a fine ash grove, near where the railroad crosses the 
river. 

"For forty-five miles west of the Little Missouri, the railroad 
traverses a beautiful prairie plateau — the soil and general char- 
acter of which resembles the Red River valley district. Many 
small running streams flow through this fertile region. 

"After passing through six miles of broken country, being the 



^.Q OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

divide between the Little Missouri and Yellowstone rivers, the 
road descends the lovely valley of Glendive creek for eleven 
miles, thus reaching the Yellowstone river at a point not yet de- 
cided upon. The country about here is beautiful in the extreme, 
and its ferdlity has been amply tested by setders, who for a 
number of years have raised fine crops, producing wheat, oats, 
corn, melons, tomatoes, beets, cabbage, turnips, lettuce, peas, and 
pardcularly line potatoes and onions. 

" For stock-raising, no country in the world excels this, the 
grasses and the climate being particularly adapted to such 
business." 

It may be urged that the foregoing statements in regard to 
Northern Dakota are from the pen of a Railroad Land Commis- 
sioner, and so are liable to be somewhat highly colored. Mr. 
Power is not liable to this charge, for his tendency is rather to 
understate than overstate the wonderful growth of the region 
he represents, but, to avoid even the suspicion of exaggeradon, 
we append in notes the tesdmony of competent observers who 
have no possible interest to misstate the facts.* 



* The first witness we call is Charles Carleton Coffin, Esq., better known by his pen-name of 
" Carleton," an eminent author and observer, the correspondent of the Chicago Tribune. In 
Auo'ust, 1879, he wrote as follows to the Chicago Tribune : 

" Red River Valley, August 4. — In Dakota, 700 miles northwest of Chicago, in the valley 
of the Red river of the North, during the present week there is a harvest scene, the counterpart 
of which cannot be found on the face of the earth. It is a scene where science, invention, 
capital, and system have reduced the cost of wheat-culture to its minimum. Nor is there seem- 
ingly any place on the face of the earth where it can be duplicated : for there is no other loca- 
tion where the soil, climate, location, with other conditions, combine as in that region. 

" Having been one of a party of journalists to visit that section during the past week, I shall 
speak of what we have seen. 

" There are larger fields of wheat in California than in Dakota, but California sows its wheat 
in the fall, while the cereals of Dakota are all sown in the spring. California has no rainfall in 
summer, but is dependent wholly upon the rainy season in winter. In Dakota the summer rain- 
fall is sufficient for the production of crops in perfection. But of this more by-and-by. 

" A few words of histoiy are needed at the outset. In 1870 and 1871, at the time the construc- 
tion of the Northern Pacific Railroad was begun, the newspapers contained descriptions of the 
country along its line, which were generally discredited and ridiculed. The country was sar- 
CAstically called 'Jay Cooke's Paradise.' The map issued by him represented the isothermal of 
Chicago as bending northward to the British boundary, and that of St. Paul as reaching far 
away to the Upper Saskatchewan. The country was declared to be the future wheat-field of the 
continent. Proctor Knott ridiculed the idea in Congress. After Mr. Cooke's failure, in Sep- 
tember, 1873, and the collapse of the Northern Pacific, those who had given such glowing 
descriptions of the country were held up to scorn and ridicule, — the writer of this article being 



"CAIiLETON\S ' TESTIMONY. ^^1 

Of Central Dakota, which lies between the parallels of 43° 
50' and 46°, and extends from the eastern boundary of the 

one of the number. The January number of the N'ori/i Atiierican I\evie7u for January contains 
a crushing article by General William B. Hazen, who had been stationed at J^ort Euford, at the 
junction of the Yellowstone and Missouri, and who, of course, knew all about the country; and, 
being a graduate of West Point, his testimony could not bfe gainsaid. He admitted that the Red 
River valley was fertile, but beyond that the country was in the main worthless. I quote : 

"'Going west from the Red river to the James there is some fair land, but much that is 
worthless; and thence to the Missouri, little or no available land, except narrow valleys of the 
small streams. (Page II.) 

"'Beyond the Red river the country is not susceptible of cultivation. (Page 25.) 

'"The country, with the exception hitherto mentioned, is practically worthless.' " 

" This was a crushing statement. The men and women who had invested in the bonds of 
the Northern Pacific were informed that not only the bonds were worthless, but the lands also. 
General Hazen fortified his statements by copious citations from the reports of other army offi- 
cers, graduates of West Point, and the accumulated evidence sent the bonds of the Northern 
Pacific down to ;^lo. 

" But, while General Hazen was writing that crushing article, Mr. J. B. Power, Land Com- 
missioner of the company, was turning the sods on a quarter-section about ten miles west of the 
Red river — the company being determined to let the world know that the Red River valley, at 
least, was not a worthless region. That breaking was done in June, 1874, and sown to wheat 
in 1875, producing a good crop. 

"Oliver Dalrymple, of Cottage Grove, near St. Paul, had made a fortune in raising wheat; 
but, through unfortunate investments, had seen it slip away. In March, 1875, ^^ prospected the 
country west of the Red river, and made up his mind that Nature had given to that locality — 
the statements of army officers to the contrary notwithstanding — superior conditions for the pro- 
duction of all small grains. 

" Meanwhile, two Directors of the Northern Pacific — the Hon. G. W. Cass, of Pittsburgh, 
and B. P. Cheney, of Boston — believing that the lands were valuable, had changed their bonds 
into lands, and had purchased the intervening government sections with Indian scrip — thus 
giving them compact farms of large area. Mr. Dalrymple, having made an arrangement with 
them, turned his first furrow in June, 1875, plowing 1,280 acres, harvesting his first crop in 1876. 
Next year he increased the acreage, and has gone on till he has this year 20,000 acres in crops, 
18,000 being wheat, and the remainder oats and barley, used on the farm. He has broken 
5,000 acres additional for next year. 

" This does not all lie in one body; but a portion — the Grandin farm, owned by the Grandin 
brothers, of Tidioute, Pa. — lies in Trail county, thirty miles north. The territory contained in the 
Cass, Cheney, and Grandin tracts is 75,000 acres, of which Mr. Dalrymple, by the fulfilment 
of his part of the contract, will own one-half, or 37,500 acres, all earned since June, 1874. 

" I do not propose to give the statistics of Mr. Dalrymple's system of farming ; for your read- 
ers doubtless are familiar with them. Suffice it to say, that his wheat crop this year will ag<;ie- 
gate between 400,000 and 500,000 bushels; that the cost of production is about thirty-five cents 
per bushel; and that the net profit will be from forty to forty-five cents per bushel. He csi; 
mates the average yield at from twenty-three to twenty-five bushels per acre. The net profits o\\ 
the crop this year will not be less than $180,000! Talk about Leadville ! Here is a bonanza 
which will be profitable next year, and the next, and the next. 

" Here let me say that Mr. Dalrymple is too good a farmer to exhaust his lands. He does 
not burn the manure of his stalls, but piles it in the field, and, when it is well rotted, will return 
it to the soil; and proposes to keep his land in heart by plowing in clover and letting it li« 
fallow. 



y.2 f^UR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Territory to the Missouri river, there is not so much to be 
said, simply because it is not as yet much developed, most of it 

" Behold the scene ! Just think of a sea of wheat containing twenty square miles — 13,000 
acres — rich, ripe, golden — the winds rippling over it. As far as the eye can see there is the 
same golden russet hue. Far away on the horizon you behold an army sweeping along in grand 
procession. Riding on to meet it, you see a major-general on horseback — the superintendent, 
two brigadiers on horseback — repairers. No swords flash in the sunlight, but their weapons are 
monkey-wrenches and hammers. No brass band, no drumbeat or shrill note of the fife; but the 
army moves on — a solid phalanx of twenty-four self-binding reapers — to the music of its own 
machinery. At one sweep, in a twinkling, a swath of 192 feel has been cut and bound — the 
reapers tossing the bundles almost disdainfully into the air — each binder doing the work of six 
men. In all there are 115 self-binding reapers at work. During the harvest about 400 men are 
employed, and during threshing 600 — their wages being $2 a day with board. 

"It is estimated that this combination of capital, with a rigid system, adds about ^i per acre 
to Mr. Dahymple's profit over those who farm in a small way. 

" In the month of March, 1875, when the article of General Hazen was having its full force, 
Mr. Dalrymple was walking over these lands, and saying to himself, as he beheld the quality of 
the soil, ' Intrinsically, these lands are worth $25 per acre.' He believed it, and has demon- 
strated that they are worth far more than that ; that, at that figure, they will pay for themselves 
in three years. 

" The acres owned by Mr. Dalrymple are not one whit better than the average through the 
entire length and breadth of this valley, which is 400 miles long and 70 wide, and which is fast 
filling with hardy settlers. Not only the lands of the valley, but the entire section between the 
Red river and the Missouri — a territory containing 80,000 square miles, in Northern Dakota 
alone, saying nothing of Montana and Manitoba — is adapted to the cultivation of wheat, oats 
and barley, as will be shown in another letter. 

" The reason why wheat can be produced more cheaply and to greater profit here than any- 
where else, is due to several causes: 

" I. The soil is admirably adapted to its production. 

" 2. The climatic conditions. General Hazen showed that the rainfall over all this section 
for the year was very much less than on the Atlantic coast; but he did not inform the public 
that nearly all the rainfall is in the months of May, June and July — ^just when it is needed; that 
there is very little in August ; that the days are hot and the nights cool ; that, consequently, rust, 
blight, mildew, sprouting of grain in the shock, are almost unknown. 

" 3. The nearness of this section to the markets of the world. It is 250 miles from the Red 
river to Lake Superior. The tariff adopted by the Northern Pacific is fifteen cents per bushel 
from any point east of the Missouri river. It costs from twenty to thirty cents to transport a 
bushel from Bismarck to New York. This low tariff, and the cheapness of water-carriage, give 
the farmer at present prices about ninety cents per bushel, leaving him a clear profit of about 
forty cents. 

" Is it a wonder that a great tide of immigration is setting in this direction ; that the railroad 
trains are crowded with new-comers; that hotels are running over; that the Land Office at 
Fargo is crowded with applicants for pre-emjjtion and homestead claims? There are millions 
of acres, just as fertile as those under cultivation, awaiting the ever-increasing multitude." 

" Carleton." 

The correspondent of the Chicago you7-nal, who has a high reputation for fairness and judicial 
accuracy in his statements, writing at about the same time from Bismarck, thus describes North- 
ern Dakota : 

" The Hill country. The wheat-growing region is not, however, limited to the Red River 



THE CHICAGO JOURNAL'S CORRESPONDENT. •jA-y 

having been until January, 1880, covered by Indian reservations, 
the title to which was not fully cleared. It is now open to 

valley, though in these rich bottom-lands it reaches perhaps its greatest development, and wheat- 
growing has thus far been more extensively and successfully carried on there than elsewhere. 
Passing beyond this valley in Dakota Territory, we reach a high, rolling country, which fur- 
nishes a striking contrast to the level region we have left. This rolling country extends from 
the Red River valley proper to the Missouri river, a distance of more than 150 miles; and yet 
so diversified is it by a constantly changing formation and an intinite variety of landscape that 
the viewer is in a constant state of surprise and delight. Many pretty lakes nestle among the 
hills, and there are numerous little fertile valleys through which wind small streams, everywhere 
fringed with timber. It is not easy to describe the formation of this country, whose high, rolling 
character is something peculiar to itself. It is not like the rolling prairies of Iowa or Illinois, 
whose gentle undulations are here multiplied a thousand times. It is like, and yet not like, 
Kansas and Nebraska, whose swells are here reproduced on a far grander scale, but without any 
of the sameness which characterizes the rolling prairies of those States. It suggests, and some- 
times almost resembles, the sloping hill-sides along the valleys of the Mohav/k and Connecticut ; 
only there is here a vastness, an expanse, a sense of almost infinite distance and variety, which 
makes those regions, lovely as they are, tame and narrow in comparison. Looking from the 
car window across some pretty valley or swelling prairie, the traveller sees, a dozen miles 01 
more away, a line of dark green hills, sometimes continuous and sometimes broken into peaks 
and knolls, with here and there an intersecting valley and slender fringe of timber; and when 
these hills are reached he finds beyond them still other ranges, broken like the first, and teach- 
ing on and on in endless succession, until their outlines are lost in the distance and blend wi:h 
the blue of the horizon. 

" There have been many disputes regarding the productiveness of this region of country, many 
of the statements of its earlier explorers having been looked upon as too extravagant or inten- 
tionally deceptive. But whatever may be the speculations as to the climatology of this region — 
a topic which has probably not yet been quite mastered by any of those who have attempted to 
discuss it — the practical fact has been established that the region along the line of the Northern 
Pacific road will not only produce good grain, but that it is exceptionally well adapted for that 
purpose. Good crops of wheat and oats have been produced all along the line from the Red 
River valley to the Missouri ; and in the yield per acre, as well as in quality of grain, the results 
have been all that could be desired. This year will probably be the most successful one in the 
history of the region, and the result, so far as it can be determined, will powerfully reinforce the 
experience of other years. In the vicinity of Bismarck oats are apparently the favorite crop, on 
account of the fine local market for government purposes and for the subsistence of teams used 
for the 2,000 freight wagons employed in the carrying-trade between Bismarck and the Black 
Hills and other points. A good local market is thus furnished, and oats here are worth from fifty 
to sixty cents per bushel. On the Stark farm, a few miles from this place — the scene of a famous 
Indian battle, in 1862, between General Sibley and the Indians who perpetrated the Indian 
massacres in Minnesota that year — your correspondent saw a magnificent field of oats, 500 acres 
in extent, of which the yield is estimated at fifty bushels to the acre. There is another smaller 
field near by, the yield of which, it is thought, will reach seventy bushels to the acre. On the 
Steele farm of over 6,000 acres, forty miles east of Bismarck, we saw a still finer 500-acre oat- 
field, the yield of which is expected to reach seventy bushels per acre — worth on the track forty- 
five cents per bushel. Fifteen thousand dollars is not a bad result from a single grain-patch ! 
Potatoes are also largely raised here for the frontier market, and pay a fine profit. The 
completion of a flouring-mil! at this place, now nearly ready for the machinery, will furnish a 
home market for wheat, and will doubtless lead to the cultivation of this crop after this year. 

"Farther east, away from the immediate market at Bismarck, wheat is the principal crop. The 



^.. OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

744 

settlement, and its 30,000,000 acres of arable lands are not 
encumbered by land grants to railroads or wagon roads. The 

average yield this year is placed by the most careful estimates at from twenty to twenty-seven 
bushels per acre. The first wheat crop raised was in 1874, when the entire product for the 
whole length of the line was but 250,000 bushels. This year a single county (Cass county, Da- 
kota) is expected to produce 1,640,000 bushels, estimating but twenty bushels to the acre. The 
wheat will be worth about ninety cents per bushel at any point upon the railroad, as the rate of 
transportation is uniform along the whole line. Much of the wheat goes to Duluth, where it is 
worth about the same as at Chicago; the wheat from this section being especially in demand, on 
account of its fine quality, for grading up No. 2 wheat. A good deal of the wheat goes to St. 
Paul and Minneapolis for manufacture into flour. With the completion of the large mills being 
erected in Minneapolis this year, that city alone will manufacture 10,000 barrels of flour per 
day, or 3,000,000 barrels per year. Such is the surprising development of this new and as yet 
almost unknown wheat country, and such are the facilities for disposing of its products. The 
immense mills at Minneapolis are the corollary of the vast wheat-fields of the new Northwest, 
and the two agencies supplement and reinforce each other. 

"A peculiarity of wheat-growing in this region is the large scale upon which it is frequently 
conducted. Capitalists have gone into it as systematically as into manufacturing ; and farming 
operations here assume proportions almost incredible to those familiar only with the methods of 
the older and more settled States. On the farm of Mr. Dalrymple — who is well called the ' boss 
granger ' of the region — near Fargo, in the Red River valley, is a wheat-field of 20,000 acres, 
the yield of which this year is expected to be something like 500,000 bushels. On this gigantic 
farm, which is managed as systematically as a railroad, 400 men are employed in harvesting, and 
t;oo to 600 in threshing. They use 250 pairs of horses and mules, 200 gang plows, 115 self- 
])inding reapers, and 20 steam-threshers. The men, animals and machinery are organized into 
Sieparatc divisions, with a superintendent for each. Nothing could be grander than a sight of 
fliese immense wheat-fields, stretching away farther than the eye can reach, in one unbroken 
"olden sea, while a long procession of reaping machines, in echelon, like a battery of artillery, 
■.moves steadily against the thick-set ranks of grain. Each machine is drawn by three mules or 
horses, and besides the drivers a superintendent of each gang rides along on horseback, like the 
captain of a battery. There are also machinists, mounted, and carrying with them tools for re- 
pairing any break or disarrangement of the machinery. When a machine fails to work, one of 
these repairers is beside it instantly, dismounting and examining the machinery, and unless the 
break is serious, having it in running order again before an unfamiliar observer could realize 
what had taken place. Thus everything goes on orderly and effectively. Travelling together, 
these 115 machines would cut a swath one-fifth of a mile in width; and they would lay low 
twenty miles of this mighty swath in a single day. 

"The profits of farming on this extensive scale can be very closely estimated. Mr. Dalrym- 
ple finds that, for the first crop, the cost of preparing the ground, seed-sowing and harvesting, 
wear and tear of machinery, and interest on machinery and land, amounts to ;^ii per acre; and 
for subsequent crops, ^8 per acre. A crop yields, in wheat or oats, from $\S to ;JS20 per acre, 
which gives a very handsome profit. It is not unusual for the first crop to pay all expenses and 
leave enough to cover the cost of the land. While wheat-growing can be thus advantageously 
carried on upon a large scale, it can doubtless be followed successfully and profitably in a more 
moderate way ; but a small amount of capital is absolutely essential. Besides the purchase of 
the land, the settler must be able to put up buildings, buy the necessary machinery, seed, etc., 
and also must have the means of living for a year or more, until his first crop is harvested. For 
those who can do this, the low price at which lands can be obtained offers a desirable opportu- 
nity for investment to the capitalist or to thos; who seek new homes in this growing and fertile 
region." 



LIBERAL LAND-LAWS. >j^c 

quality of these lands is said to be generally not inferior to those 
of the Red River valley. They yield immense crops of wheat, 
oats, barley, corn and potatoes. The land is mostly prairie, 
though the borders of the streams are heavily wooded. There 
is coal near the Missouri and of very fair quality. The region 
is well watered. The lands are mostly as yet unsurveyed, but 
can be procured under Soldiers' and Sailors' Homestead Law by 
soldiers or their families, under the General Homestead Act, the 
Timber-Culture Act or by pre-emption. 

The very liberal timber-culture law of the government, pro- 
tecting forest tree culture on the western prairies, is supplemented 
by a law of Dakota, which provides that for every five acres 
of timber in cultivation, forty acres, with all the improvements 
thereon, not exceeding ^i,ooo in value, shall be exempt from 
taxation for a period of ten years from the time of planting. 
Another law of the Territory provides that no land shall be 
deemed increased in value for assessment purposes by reason of 
such timber culture, no matter how much its real value may be 
enhanced thereby ; so that any industrious man, no miatter how 
poor, can come here, and in eight years be the owner of 240 or 
320 acres of land, with an abundant supply of timber just where 
he wants it, and be entirely exempt from taxation the entire time, 
unless he should put more than ;^4,ooo worth of improvements 
upon his land during that time. 

The Chicago and Northwestern Railway, which is building 
railways in Central Dakota, though it has no land grants there, 

"We might add almost indefinitely to this testimony, from unprejudiced observers. Rt. Rev. 
G. W. Peck, one of the Bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church, writing in October, 1879, 
of this region, says : 

" Imagine a vast plain, somewhat undulating, and yourself in the midst of it, and splendid 
farms and immensely larger unbroken farming lands extending to the horizon in all directions ; 
and then think two thousand miles on beyond — nearly every acre sandy loam, vegetable mould or 
alluvial deposits from two to six feet deep [deeper than that. Bishop,] the greater proportion of 
the whole richer and finer than the gardens of the East — and you will begin to have some idea 
of this northern Northwest." 

Rev. H. J. Van Dyke, Jr., Newport, R. I., contributed to Harper's Magazine for January, 
1880, an account of his visit there in September, 1879, ^"^^ confirms the testimony of the others 
in the fullest degree. Messrs. Reed and Pell, members of Parliament, sent as commissioners to 
ascertain the causes of England's agricultural depression, and the advantages offered to agricul- 
tural emigrants from Great Britain by Manitoba and British America, returned home with a high 
estimate of the superiority of Dakota lands and farming, to that of Manitoba. 



-r^a OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

has issued a pamphlet encouraging immigration to that region 
for the sake of bringing business to its lines, which it proposes 
to extend to the Black Hills. Some of its statements are 
interesting, and, on the best of testimony, truthful. They say: 

" It should be understood, by the prospective settler, that the 
lands of this central belt consist almost exclusively of prairie, 
there being no timber, save fringes along the water-courses. 
The Western farmer does not need to be told of the ease with 
which a prairie farm can be brought under cultivation ; but the 
farmer from the more Eastern States may be informed, that all 
that it is necessary to do to bring the prairie under cultivation, is 
to plow under the prairie grasses in the same way as he plows 
the meadow at home ; and at once he has a field that is fit for 
the reception of any kind of seed, thus getting the land into as 
good shape for farming purposes as he could do if it had been 
covered with timber (as all of the Eastern States have been), 
after he had expended twenty to forty years' labor in getting rid 
of the timber and the always-following stumps. 

" To give the Eastern farmer some idea of the cost of making 
a productive farm in Central Dakota, we quote from a very 
readable article, recently published in the Atlantic MontJily, from 
the pen of one of the oldest settlers in the ' New Northwest.' 
' The Territory appeals more directly to the man who desires a. 
farm of i6o or 320 acres, than to him who aims to emulate the 
Grandins, Dalrymples and Casses of the more northern part of 
the Territory, who have their ten, twenty, or even forty thousand 
acres in a farm.' As our estimate gives the cost of producing 
one acre of wheat, with hired labor, we will first say, that good 
men are plenty at all seasons of the year, at the following wages: 
from November ist to April ist, ^15 per month; from April ist 
to May ist, $18 ; from May ist to August ist, $16; from ^^.ugust 
ist to August 15th, ^2 per day ; from August 15th to September 
15th, $1.50 per day; from September 15th to November ist, 
^18 per month. 

" The following is a careful estimate of the cost of raising 
wheat, furnishing everything: 



COST OF RAISING WHEAT. 



747 



Plowing 2^ acres per day, $20 per month wages, 77 cents per day. t cts- m. 

Per acre 31 

Interest on team $375, harness $25, plow $50 — ^450. Per acre . . 02 2 

Wear and tear, 25 per cent, on outfit. Per acre 112 

Board man per day, 20 cents ; team 45 cents. Per acre 26 

Stable men's labor and board. Per acre 20 

(Stable men, wear and tear and interest on team and harness for one 

year included.) 
Sowing 35 acres per day, wages $20 per month, 77 cents per day. 

Per acre 02 2 

Board, man 20 cents, team 45 cents per day. Per acre 019 

Wear and tear on seeder, $55, 25 per cent. Per acre 03 9 

Interest at 10 per cent. Per acre 02 

Harvesting (wire or cord binder) for wire or cord. Per acre ... 50 

15 acres per day, wages ^20 per month, 77 cents per day. Per acre . 05 i 

Board of man 25 cents, team 50 cents per day. Per acre .... 05 
Interest on reaper, $250, at 10 per cent., 150 acres per machine. Per 

acre 16 

Wear and tear on reaper, $250, at 25 per cent., $62.50, 150 acres per 

machine. Per acre 41 6 

Shocking man, 77 cents per day, 10 acres per day, and board at 25 

cents. Per acre 10 2 

Threshing, 25 men at $2 per day, 40 acres. Per acre i 25 

Board, 25 men at 25 cents per day, 40 acres. Per acre 15 ^ 

Interest and wear and tear on thresher and engine. Per acre ... 10 
Marketing man, 77 cents; board 20 cents; board of team, 45 cents; 

4 acres. Per acre 32 5 

Freight, 13 cents per bushel. Per 20 bushels 2 60 

Incidentals, including interest and wear and tear on permanent in- 
vestment. Per acre 2 00 

Total cost per acre ;^8 69 6 

" This estimate makes the cost of an acre of wheat, yielding 
twenty bushels, placed in Chicago, with an allowance of ten per 
cent, interest on the whole investment for land, improvements, 
machinery, tools, and stock, and also of twenty-five per cent, for 
wear and tear of tools, machinery, and stock, to be $8.70, not 
including seed. Allowing ^i for the seed will make the cost of 
one acre of wheat, yielding twenty bushels, laid down in Chicago, 
and paying an ordinary interest, or profit, of ten per cent, on 
the entire investment, $9.70, or forty-eight cents a bushel. With 
wheat at eighty-five cents a bushel in Chicago, this would give 



- ^3 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

an additional profit of thirty-seven cents a bushel, or $7 40 per 



acre. 



"From this calculation, the profit of a greater or less yield can 
readily be computed, the cost of raising remaining the same." 

In regard to climate they give the following table, the result 
of the observations, we believe, of United States officers at Fort 
Sully:* 









Rain an 


d Snow. 






Temperature. 


inches. 


Wet Prevailing 


Months. 










days. winds. 


Ma.vimum. 


Minimum. 


Rain. 


Snow. 


January . . 


53° 


— 16^ 


^% 


iH 


3 ! N. W. 


February . 


55^ 


—201^° 


H 


sA 


2/' N. W. 


March . . 


69° 


-4° 


sH 


A% 


7 IW. N. W 


April . 


77° 


8° 


7/8 





8/ S. E. 


, May . . . 


89° 


39° 


aH 





4/1 s. 


June . 


97° 


69° 


aVa 





6 


S. S. w. 


July . . . 


103^° 


72- 


rA 





8 


S. W. 


August . . 


102^° 


68° 


6/8 





7 


s. 


( September . 


93° 


41° 


z'A 





3/2 


s. 


October . . 


84° 


19° 


aVz 


Ya 


ii/j N. W. 1 


November . 


67° 


29° 


Ya 


3/8 


3 


N. W. 


December . 
Total . 


49° 


—18° 




5/ 


5 


N. W. 


47-75 


24 


69-5 






• 11 1 


. 1 


, 1 1* 


, ' 1 




. 1 



From this it will be seen that the climate is less severe than 
it is in Illinois, Northern Indiana, Ohio, New York, or any part 
of New Enorland. 

The Chicago and Northwestern Railway has two lines pene- 
trating Central Dakota — one from Tracy, Minnesota, northwest 
to Watertown, and to be extended westward to the James or 
Dakota river; the other from Tracy westward to Huron, and to 
be extended to the Missouri river the present season, and 
eventually to the Black Hills ; it is hardly probable that any other 
railway (except possibly a branch of the Northern Pacific to the 
Black Hills) will for some years to come traverse this part of 
the Territory, and their rates for freight and transportation of 
emigrant movables and crops are therefore of interest. We 



* It is not stated whether this table was for a single year or an average of several years. 
It was probably the former, as the rainfall is exceptionally large for the latitude. 



COST OF EMIGRANT FREIGHT. »^g 

therefore give them the benefit of the following declaration of 
their terms and reasons for them : 

FREIGHT RATES. 

Emif^rin"; IVIovsbles. 
pei Ci.\. loo lbs. 

Chicago to Volga, Dak., ;^45;.oo $1.25 

" " Tracy, Minn., -l5.oo i.io 

" Marshall, " ^r-.oo i.io 

" These special rates are open to all, whether setivr-rs on com- 
pany's land or not. 

"The term emigrant movables applies to all hon-^^ehold goods, 
farm machinery, wagons, live-stock, trees and shrubbery, prop- 
erly included in the outfit of intending settlers, but does not 
include general merchandise, lumber, provisions, or grain (unless 
intended for seed, or for feeding animals in transit). When a 
car contains live-stock (whether horses, mules, or cattle), one maji 
will be passed free to take care of it. Those who live along the 
lines of the Chicago and Northwestern Railway, and desire to 
reach the Free Land District of Central Dakota, should apply to 
the nearest agent of the Northwestern Railway, who, if he is not 
already supplied with rates to Tracy, Marshall, and Volga, will, 
on application, be furnished them, as it is the intention of this 
company to do all that it possibly can, by the most favorable 
rates, to have this fertile belt made as accessible to its patrons 
as are any other lands in the West. As these lands are owned 
entirely by the United States, and are not, in any manner or 
form, controlled by the Chicago and Northwestern Railway, or 
by any other railway or corporation, no person or corporation, 
except the Chicago and Northwestern Railway, will be in any 
way interested in their settlement ; and the only interest that the 
Chicago and Northwestern Railway has, or will have in the set- 
tlement of these lands, is merely that accruing out of the fact 
that after they are settled, it will reap some benefit from the 
shipments of the products of the farms along the line to Chicago 
or Milwaukee, which, as will be seen, lie almost at their doors. 
It may not be necessary to suggest to the prospective setder of 
these lands, that the earlier settlers in this tract will have a great 
advantage over those who come later, as the first will, for many 



\ 

-HQ OUJ? WESTERN EMPIRE. 

years, have to provide for the recent comer, who thus will fur- 
nish a home market for many of the products that will be grown 
in the next five years. Besides, as will be noticed by our map, 
these lands lie directly in the course of the traveller to the min- 
ing camps of the Black Hills, which, being, in no sense of the 
word, an agricultural district, will always have to be provided by 
the nearest farming lands, not only with provisions, but also with 
horses, mules,' live-stock of all sorts, and forage for them, thus 
offerino- another and very valuable market for those who occupy 
this Free Lafid district. A third market for the products of 
these lands will, for many years to come, be found along the 
Missouri river; and as the Chicago and Northwestern Railway 
will very certainly reach the Missouri river during the year 1880, 
there is no doubt that steamboat lines will be established from 
the point where the road reaches the river to all points on the 
upper Missouri, Yellowstone, Big Horn, and other navigable 
streams in the far Northwest. 

" The passenger rates announced are : from Chicago to Mar- 
shall, Minn., round trip, $21.85, single trip, $13.65 ; from Chicago 
to Volga, Dak., round trip, $24, single trip, $15. At Marshall, 
round trip tickets can be purchased for any points on either 
of the company's roads in Central Dakota at two cents a mile 
each way." 

We come next to Southeastern Dakota, the section which 
has been longest settled, or rather the longest known to the 
public, for, with the exception of Yankton, Sioux City, and Sioux 
Falls, there are very few towns in this section that have been 
settled more than half a dozen years. The region is well watered 
and the soil is of the very best. The railways now built or build- 
ing in this section make it very accessible, and the Missouri, Big 
Sioux, and White rivers add to the means of traversing it. The 
railways are from Sioux City to Yankton, Sioux City to Sioux 
Falls, and from the latter town to Fire-Steel on the James river, 
already completed, and soon to be finished to Brule City, on the 
Missouri. The Rev. Edward Ellis, who has explored all parts 
of Dakota within the last two years, writing to New York, in 
May, 1 880, says : 



SOUTHEASTERN DAKOTA. ^rj 

"The most desirable part of the Territory for a permanent 
home is the southeastern — first of all, because of its climate. It 
is milder and more seasonable, better adapted for fruit and all 
kinds of garden sauce. The water supply is also more abundant. 
Nearly all the rivers of Dakota converge in the southeast cor- 
ner. The geographical position of Southeastern Dakota will 
always maintain a decided advantage over the more northern 
positions. There is any amount of government land that can 
be secured now, near the lines of these new railroads which are 
opening up this section. Counties where desirable land can be 
found are Kingsbury, in the vicinity of Lake Thompson ; Miner, 
Bramble, and Davidson, in the valleys of the Vermilion and the 
James ; also McCook, Turner, and Lake, but these last-named 
counties are more thoroughly settled. Brule county, on the 
Missouri, is reported to be one of the finest counties in the Ter- 
ritory, and the railroad running through the centre of it makes 
it a desirable point for location." 

The following communication, prepared for the writer by Hon. 
W. H. H. Beadle, for several years United States Surveyor- 
General of Dakota Territory, and now Superintendent of Public 
Instruction for the Territory, and Private Secretary (until his 
death) for the late Governor Howard, gives much information 
not easily attainable concerning the whole Territory, but is 
specially full in regard to the southeastern portion. Mr. Beadle 
is probably more thoroughly familiar with the whole Territory 
than any other man living, and is not, and has not been, con- 
nected with any railroad company or colonization scheme which 
might warp his judgment. 

" Dakota Territory contains 150,000 square miles or 96,000,000 
acres, which is nearly all prairie. Southern Dakota will contain 
78,000 square miles.* There are erroneous impressions con- 
cerning it which are sometimes favorable, generally unfavorable. 
To understand it properly, its general physical features are of 

* It was a favorite idea of Governor Howard, toward the close of his life, that the Territory 
should be divided into Northern and Southern Dakota ; the two divisions, or future . tates, havinj,' 
a nearly equal area. The southern half would include the Black Hills, which would soon b« 
readied by railroad lines from the East. 



-C2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the first importance. In the first place but a very small part of 
it is mountainous, and this part is the Black Hills, which are hills, 
rather than mountains. Dakota does not lie among or upon the 
Rocky Mountains. If one will begin in New Mexico and follow 
along the Rocky Mountains, it will be found that they run nearly 
due north, through New Mexico, Colorado and into Wyoming, 
where they turn decidedly westward and then northwestward, 
leaving outlying lower ranges, spurs and hills to the north and 
northeast as far as the Black Hills. The traveler upon the 
Union Pacific Railroad observes this. He ascends along the 
Platte and the Lodge Pole to or a little beyond Cheyenne, and 
finds himself upon the elevated mountain plateaux; and thence 
westward he follows a mountain divide, from which the country 
is generally lower toward the Yellowstone and Missouri, and 
also southward toward the Bear, Grand and Green rivers, of the 
Colorado. He commences to descend into the Utah basin, and 
the mountain range goes north-northwest through Idaho and 
Montana (including part of Western Wyoming). 

"Ascending the Missouri river from Omaha, the course is 
nearly north, to the southeast corner of Dakota, where it bends 
decidedly west for over loo miles, and then north and northw^est 
for 300 miles, where it turns westward and heads far toward the 
Pacific ocean, in the Rocky Mountains, the Yellowstone coming 
in from the west-southwest. 

"These features, in physical geography, materially affect the 
character of the surface, soil, climate and agricultural products 
of Dakota. For instance, one would naturally expect that the 
heavy bend toward the west of the Missouri river would bear 
with it westward, the extent of fertile lands, etc., which are found 
in Eastern Nebraska. Then, too, the elevation above the sea at 
Yankton is only about 1,100 feet, but from this on the ascent 
' is more and more rapid. 

" The general elevation of the plains about the foot-hills around 
the Black Hills is from 2,500 to 3,000 feet, and this is the highest 
part of the Territory. 

"No mountains lie to the north or northwest. 

" The Continental valleys of the Mississippi (and Missouri) pass 



MR. BEADLE ON SOUTHEAST DAKOTA. 75c; 

on to those of the Red river of the North, the Saskatchewan and 
the McKenzie — to the Arctic ocean. These streams, or their 
tributaries, interlock in Minnesota and Dakota, and from St. 
Paul to the Missouri river westward or a little north of that, 
is the line of greatest elevation east of the Missouri river in 
Dakota, being 1,500 feet at highest points. It is a general 
plain or prairie, with few hills even, except the so-called ' co- 
teaus,' which are nine-tenths rich agricultural or grazing lands, 
and are not mountains at all ; merely regions of land more ele- 
vated than the intervening great valleys. 

" Most people understand what is meant by the * Great Plains ' 
of Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, etc. They He in an almost per- 
fect inclined plain from the foot of the mountains eastward to the 
Missouri river, and, down this incline, the rivers are cut like 
grooves. The general surface is quite uniform. Take this ex- 
ample to understand Southern Dakota. It is composed of two 
such inclined plains upon a smaller plan. All that east of the 
Missouri river and up to about the forty-sixth parallel is a general 
inclined plane, sloping to the south, down and across which flow 
the Big Sioux, the Vermilion and the Dakota (or James) rivers, 
and the Missouri itself. The northern border is about 400 feet 
higher than the southern. That part of the south half of Dakota 
lying west of the Missouri is another //<2«^ inclined to the east — 
properly a part of the ' Great Plains ' of the west extended up 
there. Its highest part is about 4,000 feet (mountains) and 
average lower part about 1,400 feet, Down across it flow the 
Keya Paha and Niobrara (near it in Nebraska), the White, Chey- 
enne, Moreau, Grand and Cannon Ball rivers. This region in- 
clines more sharply, the streams are more swift, and the country 
is a little more rough than further south. The so-called Bad 
Lands occupy a small part only — not over 75,000 acres — which is 
not good grazing lands. We will now briefly refer again to 
each one of these regions. 

" The western part has, especially in its southeastern quarter, 

and along the Missouri river, a fine body of agricultural lands, 

suited to wheat, rye, barley, oats and corn. As one passes west 

it becomes more suited to grazing, and is covered with a rich 

48 



754 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

growth of the best grasses — especially those which, curing upon 
the ground, afford winter grazing. This has been amply tried 
for many years by the herds kept by, and for feeding, the 
Indians. When we reach the valleys of the Cheyenne and 
Belle Fourche, the agricultural character again decidedly im- 
proves, and the plains between these streams and the Black 
Hills are being rapidly occupied as farms, stock-ranches, vegeta- 
ble gardens, dairy farms, etc., as seems most profitable, to supply 
the people in the Hills with food. The valley of the Belle 
Fourche and its larger tributaries, is very delightful and fertile, 
one of the loveliest summer views in the West, wide, smooth 
and beautiful. The French called it ' La Belle Fourche ' — the 
beautiful branch — i. e., of the Cheyenne. The Hills themselves 
are a real wonder-land. I have travelled through them and 
been in the principal mines. The examination changed my 
opinion. I look upon them as surpassingly rich in gold. They 
are peculiar — different from other gold regions. The same rule 
of expectation does not apply. They disappoint every one — but 
favorably. They are in gold somewhat as Leadville, Colorado, 
is in silver. Within five years everybody will recognize this, and 
within ten years that region will be a constant wonder in its gold 
product. I do not own a cent of interest there, directly or indi- 
rectly. Railroads will be there in two years or less, and then 
machinery, supplies and all conveniences will be cheaper, so that 
the mines can be opened and worked extensively, and it will be- 
come more than ever a wonder-land, because it is known, and not 
because it is 7iot known, 

"Southeastern Dakota has an area of 35,ocx) square miles, nearly 
every square foot of which is rich. It is generally well watered, 
has a deep dark prairie loam soil, mixed in places with a very 
small per cent, of sandy loam. It nearly all slopes slightly to the 
south and receives the spring rains and sunshine, making its 
seasons early and its soil warm to germinate the spring seed. 
Its great crops are wheat and corn, men being divided as to 
which is the more profitable of the two. Its third great interest 
is cattle-raising. These three represent about equally the re- 
sources of the farmers. As we go farther north, wheat domi^ 



SOUTHEASTERN DAKOTA. yrr 

nates, as the country is newer, and this crop can be more quickly 
turned. Farther south, corn equals wheat in importance, and in 
some counties stock-raising- is chief. Take Yankton, Clay and 
Union counties, and during the last year they have sold about 
2,000 head of cattle each, mainly ready for beef or to be fed tem- 
porarily in Iowa. They have sold about 3,000 head of hogs each, 
and about one and a-half million bushels of wheat. These are 
the three oldest counties. 

" Southeastern Dakota has twenty-thj;,ee organized counties, a 
population of 90,000 people, with 430 miles of railroad in opera- 
tion — perhaps 460 nearly so. It will have 700 miles by Novem- 
ber I, 1880. It has an excellent advance in schools, churches 
and all social organizations. Its population is consolidated and 
continuous, and it is law-abiding and enterprising. Its villages 
and towns are marked by newspapers, church edifices and 
school-houses. 

" The climate is warmer than would be expected. Its summer 
is long, and corn matures and fully ripens every year. In win- 
ter there are occasional stormy days, which are sometimes 
severe ; but usually the winters are fair, sunny and dry. The 
United States Signal Service reports will show temperature for 
a series of years at Yankton and Fort Sully — fair tests, except 
that Sully is on the west edge of the best agricultural lands. 

" Did you ever observe the disappointments that meet people 
who go by rail to California, Nevada and Utah in the hope of a 
cure for lung and other diseases? I have seen them come back 
suffering greatly. The trouble is, the too great and too sudden 
change from the more damp sea-coast and lake cHmates, to that 
very dry air. But the men of '49, the early overland immigrants 
and travellers to California, were celebrated for robust health. 
Their journey improved and cured weak lungs, bronchial, 
catarrhal, and like diseases. Why? They went slowly from one 
to the other. They travelled by horses or with oxen across 
Iowa, Nebraska, Dakota, Wyoming, etc. They took a long 
period of out-door summer life in this intermediate region. The 
same treatment will produce the same results now. The region 
of the Missouri valley in Dakota is the best in the world for such 



756 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

summer travel and sojourn, and should be taken before the 
transfer even to Colorado, though that is better than California 
at first. I do not extend this idea. Its statement will be under- 
stood, as the history of the early days gave the best proof of its 
value." 

We add, on the opposite page, the meteorology of the two sta- 
tions of the Signal Service Bureau in Southeastern Dakota, and as 
Fort Sully station was changed to Dead wood in December, 1877, 
we have completed the year from the Deadwood report, the lati- 
tude being nearly the same, though the altitude of Deadwood is 
considerably higher. We give a later meteorological report 
from Deadwood and Lead City farther on. 

We come next to the smallest, but, in some respects, the most 
important section of Dakota, the mineral region known as " The 
Black Hills." Let Mr. Zimri L. White, the accomplished and 
judicious correspondent of the New York Tribune, who visited 
and explored the Hills In the summer of 1879, describe for us 
the topography and history of the region. We may say in pass- 
ing, that the Black Hills extend westward into Wyoming TerrI 
tory, and are between the 43d and 45th parallels of latitude and 
the 103d and 105th meridians of longitude. 

"The Black Hills, or Cheyenne Mountains, are a detached 
spur of the Rockies lying between the two forks of the Cheyenne 
river (one of the largest tributaries of the Missouri), whose con- 
fluence is near their eastern boundary. The North Cheyenne, 
or Belle Fourche, flowing from a point In Wyoming Territory 
west of and nearly opposite the centre of the Hills, bears off to 
the northeast and then to the southeast, forming a sort of an ox- 
bow, while the South Cheyenne separates the Hills from the 
Southern plains. The area thus embraced is about 5,000 square 
miles, and may be divided into three parts — rugged mountains 
containing mineral veins and deposits, grass-covered foot-hills 
and prairies, capable of supporting enormous herds of cattle, and 
fertile valleys which, with or without irrigation, will produce all 
the grain, hay, potatoes and other vegetables that the future 
population of the Black Hills can consume. 

" The mountains proper, as distinguished from the foot-hills, 



METEOROLOGY. 



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73 
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^rg OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

cover about two-thirds of the area to which the name Black Hills 
applies. These are generally steep, covered with pine forests 
or the bare trunks of trees that have been killed by fires, and 
separated from each other by gulches and canons through which 
small streams flow. These mountains are remarkably rich in 
minerals, although they have not been sufificiently explored to 
make it possible to estimate the value of their deposits. The 
gold mines are most developed, but there are silver mines rich 
enough, in promise, at least, to induce men who have capital and 
experience to purchase them and to Invest their money in ex- 
pensive mills for reducing the ores. Specimens of very rich cop- 
per ore have also been found, but I have heard of no mines being 
worked. Salt deposits have been uncovered, and machinery is 
now on the way to the Hills to enable the owner of one mine to 
try the experiment of manufacturing salt from the rock. Petro- 
leum of excellent quality and in inexhaustible quantities has also 
been discovered, and many wells are already worked. Coal has 
been found in considerable quantities, and is now being tested in 
the ofold mills near Deadwood. The (jold mines exceed all others 
in value, and will probably continue to do so as long as there is 
mining in the Black Hills, but some of the other mineral deposits 
are of such character and promise as to invite capital and enter- 
prise in their development. 

" The foot-hills are covered with the richest and most nutri- 
tious grasses. Unlike the plains, where the grass-roots stand 
apart, leaving small spots of bare ground between them, the 
carpet Is close and thick at the bottom, like the tame grass of a. 
meadow In the East, and when cut shows a heavy swath, and 
cures either standing or as hay, retaining Its bright, green color 
and Its rich juices. These foot-hills, where the land Is too dry 
for cultivation, and water for irrigation Is not available, are ex- 
cellently adapted for grazing. The grass furnishes good feed 
all winter, and the winds blow the snow off from the hills while It 
lies in the valleys, and the numerous canons and bluffs afford 
shelter for the cattle during storms. No one now feeds or 
shelters his cattle in the winter; the value of Individual animals 
that may die from exposure not being great enough to warrant 



SIOUX CLAIMS TO BLACK HILLS. 755 

the extra expense of such care. At the same time I am inchned 
to think that in the end a Httle feeding and shelter would pay in 
the better condition the cattle would be in in the spring and the 
better prices that would be realized. It is estimated that there 
are now 100,000 head of cattle in the hills, but the grass seems 
hardly to have been touched. Stock-raising will eventually 
become one of the most important industries in the region. 

"The arable lands of the Black Hills are from 500 to 600 
square miles in extent, and consist of bottom lands along the 
streams and prairies and lower slopes of the foot-hills between 
the water-courses. The former generally need no artificial irri- 
gation, but the latter require more water than the rains furnish 
and that is available in sufficient quantity in the brooks and 
creeks. The aericultural lands are of marvellous richness. 

"The Black Hills were in the heart of the Sioux country until 
February, 1877, and were so jealously guarded by the Indians 
that white people who visited them did so at the peril of their 
lives. The Indians did not live in the Hills. They had a super- 
stition that the Great Spirit never intended these mountains for 
the habitation of man. The terrific thunder storms which are 
frequent here, perhaps had something to do with this belief. 
They said that the Great Spirit had covered the Hills with trees 
to furnish the Indians with tepee poles, and filled the foot-hills 
with antelope and deer to supply him with food when the buffalo 
were scarce ; and they frequently made excursions here, but 
never remained long. From one end of the Hills to the other, I 
am told, there are nowhere to be found the evidences of a lone 
encampment of Indians, The Sioux have known of the existence 
of gold in the Black Hills for many years. A third of a century 
ago, it is said, they showed to Father De Smet, the Roman Catho- 
lic missionary, who spent his life amongst them, and in whom 
they had the most implicit confidence, large nuggets which they 
had picked up in the gulches. He warned them not to show 
these nuggets to white men, as it would arouse their cupidity 
a-nd cause the Indians to be driven out of the country. Never- 
theless, rumors of the mineral wealth of the Hills did get abroad, 
and evidences have been found that a few adventurers came here 



-5o 0^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

in search of gold many years ago, and actually began to work 
the placers. They were probably all massacred by the Indians.* 

" Several government expeditions were made into the Black 
Hills before that of General Custer, in the summer of 1874, and 
the report of each showed the presence of gold and other min- 
erals. The first of these was that of Captain Bonneville, in 1834. 
General Harney came in here in 1855, and the highest peak in 
the Hills was named in his honor. Other expeditions led by 
Warren visited the Hills in 1856-57, by Dr. Hayden in 1858-59, 
and by General Sully in 1864. The dates of these visits I give 
on the authority of a resident of this city, as I have access to no 
records by which I can verify them. I have said that the explor- 
ations of each of these parties proved the presence of gold in 
these mountains ; but no excitement was caused by their reports, 
because no one supposed that the precious metal existed here 
in sufficient quantities for profitable working. General Custer's 
expedition in 1874 is still remembered by most nevv^spaper 
readers. The practical miners who accompanied him reported 
excellent ' prospects,' that Is, that in washing out the gravel of 
the streams in pans they obtained gold in sufficient quantities 
to make it pay for working. The reports of these miners were 
received with incredulity In the East ; and, during the winter of 
1874-75, the question was widely discussed whether there was 
gold In the Black Hills or not. 

" So great was the public interest in the discoveries reported 
by those who accompanied General Custer that. In the summer 
of 1875, the Interior Department sent out an exploring expedi- 
tion in charge of Professor Jenney, a young geologist. He came 
Into the Hills with a train and escort, went pretty well over 
them, and made a map of the country. He discovered gold In 
many places, and more than confirmed Custer's reports of the 
previous year. Professor Jenney did not visit Deadwood and 
Whitewood gulches, the timber being so thick that he could not 
get to them with his train. But the adventurous placer-miners 
of the West did not wait for a scientific report upon the country, 

* Mr. Robert E. Strahorn, in his " New West Illustrated," has traced the history of some of these 
parties who fell victims to their adventurous spirit. Some of them commenced operations in 
placer-mining as early as 1852. 



PROFESSOR yENNEY'S EXPLORATION. y^i 

but braving the hostility of the Indians and other dangers, they 
began to settle along the streams in the Hills in the summer of 
1875, and to wash out the gold dust. The government forbade 
all persons to enter this country, and the President, I believe, 
issued a proclamation warning people against invading the ter- 
ritory that had been set apart for the Indians. But it is impos- 
sible to keep an old placer-miner out of gulches where there are 
' pay streaks ; ' he will go through fire and water to reach new 
diggings. Hundreds of men came in here in spite of the proc- 
lamation and in spite of the orders to military commanders to 
arrest people found on the road or in the Hills. The soldiers 
even came to the Black Hills, and going up and down the 
gulches, gathered up the miners, confiscated their provisions, 
and took them to Fort Laramie or to the military posts on the 
Upper Missouri. But the adventurers came in here faster than 
the soldiers could take them out, and most of those arrested, 
even, as soon as they were released, as they all were when a 
military station was reached, came directly back if they had 
money enough to procure provisions. The government, having 
told the people through its exploring expeditions that there was 
gold in the Black Hills, could not keep them out without send- 
ing its whole army to guard the avenues of approach, and the 
policy of forcible removal was abandoned about the middle of 
November. 

"The men who came to the Hills in 1875 and the following 
winter settled principally in the southern part, on Spring and 
French creeks. Custer City was the most important town, and 
Rockerville also became the centre of rich placer diggings. The 
mines in that region were all in the gulches, and during the first 
year considerable quantities of gold dust were taken out. I 
have not visited that region, but I have been told by a gentleman 
whose experience and scientific attainments cause one to have 
great confidence in him, that there are on Spring and French 
creeks the largest placer deposits in the world. He saw a man 
dig up a wagon-load of the gravel and haul it to a small creek 
where he washed out ^46 worth of gold from it. This deposit, 
this gentleman says, he has examined for a distance of fifteen 



^52 ^^-^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

miles in length and twelve miles in width. It is not all as rich, 
by any means, as the wagon-load of which he spoke. Gold 
always runs in streaks, but the extent of it is very great. It is 
not now available for the want of water. 

" When the discoveries of gold in Deadwood and Whitewood 
gulches, on the site of this city, and above and below it, were 
made, the first workings were very rich, and the fame of them 
soon attracted the people here from all parts of the Hills, Cus- 
ter City was almost deserted, and for a year or so Deadwood 
was one of the liveliest mining camps in the country. But, 
although the placer-mines in these two gulches and their tribu- 
taries paid well for a time, the prosperity they brought was only 
temporary, and, if quartz mines had not been discovered and 
opened, Deadwood would now be a deserted village. Out of 
fifty placer claims, a dozen or so are now being worked, chiefly 
by Chinamen who pay to the owners fifty cents a day royalty 
for each man who works. By carefully washing over the tail- 
ings and the gravel which was left because it was ' lean,' these 
Chinamen are able to earn from ^i to $1.50 a day, and with that 
they are contented. 

" The existence of veins of quartz in the hills above Dead- 
wood was known to the early miners here, but none of them 
seem to have appreciated their value. When they ' prospected ' 
them they showed only from ^2 to ^15 worth of gold to a ton 
of ore, and nobody seemed to think that ore of that grade would 
pay for mining and milling. And the first attempts to reduce 
the quartz here were failures pecuniarily, and none of them can 
be said to have been really profitable until the California capi- 
talists came here, developed the mines, and began to take out 
and reduce the ore on a laro-e scale. 

" Very few valuable quartz gold mines, or mines which by 
sufficient development have been proved to be valuable, have 
yet been discovered outside of the great belt above this town. 
One or two mines which promise well are said to have been 
opened in the Rockford District, about twenty-five miles south 
of here. I shall visit that region and probably write a letter 
from there. A new mine has also been discovered near Custer 



CLIMATE OF THE BLACK HILLS. 763 

City, from which some astonishingly rich ore has been taken. 
The reduction of about 800 pounds of that ore, and the obtain- 
ing from it of gold at the rate of $147 a ton, has caused con- 
siderable excitement in Deadwood. 

" In closing this general description of the Black Hills, I may 
say that the country looks as though it had been settled ten years 
instead of three. In the mines it is difficult to realize the pos- 
sibility of accomplishing as much as has been done in two 
years. The farms that are cultivated have already lost their 
appearance of newness, if they ever had it. Good roads have 
been built in every direction over and around the Hills, and 
travel is as safe upon them as upon a New England or New 
York turnpike. Two years ago (in 1877) camping equipage was 
a necessity for the traveller, now there are comfortable wayside 
inns every twenty-five miles, and frequently at shorter intervals. 
The game that abounded in the hills has disappeared, and civiliza- 
tion has already gained the mastery, 

" The climate of the Black Hills is, on the whole, delightful. 
The elevation is sufficient (from 4,000 to 6,000 feet) to make the 
air pleasant without being too much rarefied for health or com- 
fort. The midday sun is sometimes hot, but on no one of the 
•past ten days (in the middle of July) has the heat been oppres- 
sive, and the nights are delightfully cool, I have slept .under 
blankets every night since I came to Deadwood, and one or two 
evenings I found a light overcoat comfortable when going out 
upon the street. The winters here are rather long, the latitude 
being about that of St. Paul, Minnesota ; but the towns are all 
situated in the canons and surrounded by high mountains, which 
shield them from the cold winds and temper the rigor of the 
climate. During the last three years the summers have been 
long enough to ripen all kinds of grain and vegetables. During 
the first year after the settlement of Deadwood there was con- 
siderable sickness here, the prevailing disease being mountain 
fever. This was probably caused by digging up the gulches, the 
banks of which in many places were covered with a rank growth 
of vegetation. There is now probably no more healthful place 
in the United States than this city, and I know of few more com- 
fortable ones in summer, if the climate alone is considered." 



^6^ ^U^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Sergeant J. O'Dowd, of the United States Signal Service at 
Deadwood, furnishes the following summary of the meteorology 
of that city for the year ending June 30th, 1 879. The observations 
from July ist to December, 1878, were taken at Lead City, two 
miles from Deadwood, and at several hundred feet higher altitude- 



J878. 


^1 


si 




^ 3 

a 

J s 







-0 n 

6 V- 




H 




H 


H 




H 


^° 


July 


67.14 


63-25 


92 


41 


s. 


5-77 


16 


August 


65.85 


62.80 


85 


46 


s. 


2.61 


9 


September .... 


49-15 


63.16 


Z(> 


27 


s. 


2.06 


8 


October 


39-58 


60.50 


72 


6 


N.W. 


1. 81 


13 


November .... 


36.72 


63.67 


66 


3 


s. 


0-75 


3 


December .... 


18.26 


72.47 


54 


—25 


N. 


zM 


II 


1879. 
















January 


21.76 


65-85 


56 


—24 


s.w. 


0.58 


3 


February 


24-45 


68.80 


53 


— 12 


s.w. 


0.72 


5 


March 


34.80 


62.00 


71 


—5 


s.w. 


0-51 


9 


April 


45-5° 


53-00 


71 


20 


N.E. 


7.69 


8 


May 


53-80 


63.20 


81 


29 


N. E. 


5-03 


13 


June 

Totals for year . , 


61.30 


57-40 


92 


37 


S. 


4.67 


18 


43-19 


63.01 


92 


—25 




35-83 


116 



It will be observed that the heaviest rainfall, 23.16 inches of 
the 35.83, of the year was in the months of April, May, June and 
July — the months in which the crops would be most benefited. 

The mines of the Black Hills yield both gold and silver, though 
the silver deposits were not discovered till some time after active 
mining for gold had made the region widely known. The gold 
mines may be included in four classes: i. Placers. 2. Quartz 
veins between slate walls. 3. Quartz veins between porphyry 
walls, 4, Cement deposits. 

The placers in the Black Hills are of great extent, and some 
of them have yielded very large sums. Elsew^here in this work 
we have described the methods of placer mining, the use of the 
pan, the rocker, the Tom, the sluice and the hydraulic pipe, 
flume and sluice, and, as placer mining is much the same in the 
Black Hills as elsewhere, it is not necessary for us to repeat 
what we have said of these processes. Two points, however, 



DRY GULCHES IN THE BLACK HILLS. 75,- 

may be noticed: ist. That dry placers or gulches — that is, beds 
of clay or gravel containing a considerable amount of free gold, 
but at such a distance from water having sufficient head to wash 
the gold, and consequently requiring that the dirt should be 
brought to the water, or the water to the placer at considerable 
cost — are not usually considered very profitable to work unless 
the amount of gold is large. In the Black Hills these dry placers 
or gulches have proved so rich that the dirt has been brought 
from some of them by wagon loads to the water, and where they 
were more extensive, it has been found profitable to construct 
ditches or flumes of several miles' length, to bring a mountain 
stream to supply the pipes for hydraulic mining. These placers 
seem to be distributed all over the hills. The first were discov- 
ered near the southern border, on Spring and French creeks, 
near the present sites of Custer City and Rockerville. Others still 
more profitable have been discovered near Deadwood ; and 
nearly all the gulches between the two points, a distance of fifty 
or sixty miles, yield rich pay-dirt, and most of them are profit- 
ably worked. These placers are so rich, and there are so many 
of them yet undeveloped, that placer mining will probably be 
conducted with profit here for many years to come. But second, 
it is the natural law of placers, that after a period of time, 
which may be longer or shorter according to their extent and 
depth, and the thoroughness with which they are explored, they 
are worked out and become worthless. To the penniless miner 
they offer the chance of acquiring a fortune ; but no man should 
buy into a placer mine, with the impression that he has a per- 
manent property. It is good so long as it lasts, and how long 
that may be it is hard to say. A placer claim in the Black Hills 
extends 300 feet along the gulch, and from rim to rim. 

"The second class of gold mines found in the Black Hills — 
quartz in slate, or between slate walls — is represented by the 
great ' belt ' above Deadwood, on which the mammoth mines of 
the Hills are situated. The country rock, that is the rock of 
which the mountains are formed, is micaceous slate which has 
been thrown up at an angle of about 50°. Between the walls 
of this slate is a vein of brown quartz containing free gold in 



«66 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

small quantities, and separated from the country rock on each 
side by a layer of chloritic slate often containing more gold than 
the quartz itself. The vein is of enormous width — from 40 to 
150 feet — but is frequently divided by 'horses' of slate, or large 
bodies of that substance extending into or across the vein. The 
rock in these ' horses ' is sometimes rich enough to work, but 
generally is quite barren. 

" There are two theories of the formation of these veins ; and 
while there seems to be sufficient ore in all the largfe mines for 
present purposes, the future of these properties may depend in 
great degree upon which of these theories proves to be the cor- 
rect one. The first is that advanced by Professor Jenney, the 
young geologist who was sent to explore the Black Hills in 1875 
for the Interior Department, and who is now a resident of Dead- 
wood. He holds that these ledges of gold-bearing rock are true 
fissure veins — ' interlaminated fissures,' he calls them, that is, 
fissures opened between the layers of the slate rock, and not 
across the line of stratification. The auriferous quartz, he says, 
has been formed by the water solutions which have come up 
from below. He accounts for the ' horses ' of slate in the vein 
by likening the cleaving of the rock to the splitting of a piece 
of oak wood. When a wedge is driven into it, particles of the 
wood cling from side to side across the opening made by the 
wedge. So, he thinks, when the rock was opened, bodies of 
slate extended across from one wall to the other, and remained 
in that position when the aqueous solution from below came up, 
surrounded them, and deposited the gold-bearing quartz. He 
explains the fact that the slate walls and horses contain gold by 
saying that the slate, which had minute spaces between its layers, 
soaked up the mineral-bearing fluid, which in some cases re- 
placed the particles of slate. As a rule, the impregnation of the 
slate becomes less as the distance from the wall of the vein 
increases. Believinof the veins to be true fissures, Professor 
Jenney supposes that they extend into the earth for an indefinite 
distance, and probably grow richer in their lower portions. Pro- 
fessor Jenney believes that after these veins were formed the 
ocean covered what are now the Black Hills, and that by its 



DIVERSE THEORIES ABOUT THE LODES. y^y 

action it tore down the surface, scattering fragments of the vein 
all over the country. Evidences of marine action are easily to 
be found in the vicinity of the mines. 

" The other theory held by several geologists of much learn- 
ing and experience is that the vein matter was precipitated from 
an aqueous solution that covered it. Their explanation and 
argument is this: The foot-wall of these veins is slate, a forma- 
tion which everybody knows is of aqueous origin. The vein of 
quartz is deposited on this slate parallel with its line of stratifica- 
tion, just as one layer of rock is deposited on another. Above 
the vein we also find slate, and above that, where it has not been 
carried away by the action of the elements, a cement formation 
also of aqueous origin. These facts point conclusively to a hori- 
zontal deposit of the vein matter on a slate bed. The precipi- 
tant was probably oxide of iron, and it is therefore very natural 
that those ores containing the largest proportion of oxide of iron 
should be the richest in gold, as they are. After all these de- 
posits had been made, the hills were gradually thrown up in 
their present forms under water. 

"If the true fissure vein theory is correct (and it is the one 
most generally accepted by the most experienced miners), then 
there is reason to believe that the ore extends far into the 
bowels of the earth. And even if the theory of an aqueous 
deposit or precipitation is accepted, the fields over which these 
deposits took place may have been so great that when turned 
up upon their edges they may be practically inexhaustible. 
These quartz veins between slate strata seem to be, in many 
respects, the analogues of the ' contact lodes ' of silver in Col- 
orado, and may have had a similar origin. 

"The quartz veins between porphyry walls have not been 
sufficiently developed to make it safe to give an opinion in 
regard to them. Some of the best mines of this class are situ- 
ated in Strawberry gulch, about seven miles east of Deadwood, 
and in some of them considerable bodies of ore have been found. 
In another year, when a few mills shall have been erected near 
them for the purpose of working their ores, and development 
has been pushed further, more will be known of their value. It 



-58 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

is an interesting fact that they have already attracted the atten- 
tion of the rich Cahfornia miners and capitahsts who have de- 
veloped the great ' belt ' above Deadwood, and that it is possible 
that they may purchase one of the most promising of them and 
see what it contains. 

" In many of the placer mines, a little below the bed of the 
stream but considerably above bed rock, a layer of hard cement, 
consisting of sand, gravel, and boulders, and carrying free gold 
held together in one hard, conglomerate mass by oxide of iron, 
has been found. This substance has been a great obstacle to 
gulch miners on some claims. They had no means of crushing 
it to free the £fold, and to remove it in order to gret at the aurif- 
erous gravel beneath was very expensive. On the hill-tops, 
which have withstood best the action of the elements, similar 
cement deposits have also been found, varying from one and 
a-half to twelve and eighteen feet in thickness. Some of these 
are very rich in gold and others very lean. A number of mines 
have been opened on the cement beds and are now working 
successfully, while others have already worked out their pay ore. 
The rock is reduced in the same manner as quartz, by stamping 
and amalgamating. A cement deposit may be very valuable as 
long as it lasts, and may bring to its owners large profits, but its 
value depends entirely upon its extent and character. Like a 
placer (and it is, in fact, nothing but a solidified placer), it will 
some day be worked out and become worthless. Attempts have 
been made to sell these cement beds and the mines opened on 
them as true fissure veins, which they are not. Very possibly 
the ore ' prospects ' and ' mills ' as high as it is represented ; 
but the wrong done to the proposed purchaser consists In giving 
the impression that it is a true fissure vein, when it is in reality 
only a solidified placer and may and probably will soon become 
exhausted." 

The gold mines, aside from the placers and cement deposits, 
in the Black Hills, have been again classified by the mining men 
as those on the Bonanza Belt in the neighborhood of Deadwood, 
and those not on the belt. The mines on the belt which have 
attained the greatest reputation are the Father De Smet, the 



LOW GRADE GOLD ORES PROFITABLE HERE. ^gn 

Deadwood, the Golden Terra, the Highland, the Homestake, the 
Grant and the Old Abe mines. The Roderick Dhu and the 
Pierce are also believed to be on continuations of this belt. 
The belt is about two miles in length and from looto 200 feet 
in width. 

The mines not on the belt, in the vicinity of Deadwood, are 
the Caledonia, which comprises four claims, and covers in all 
territory 1,500 feetlongand 1,100 in width, though in two parcels. 
Several deposit mines are also included in this class, and a num- 
ber of smaller mines. There are also new mines of great promise 
at Rockford, about twenty-five miles east of Deadwood, and at 
Custer City and Rockerville, in the southern part of the Black 
Hills. 

The silver mining thus far has been mostly at Galena, on Bear 
Butte creek, about twelve miles east of Deadwood. There are 
other silver deposits, but these are the most promising. The 
ores are chiefly sulphurets and chlorides, mixed with quartz, 
oxide of iron and manganese, antimony and arsenic. There are 
some rich carbonates, but they do not appear In very large quan- 
tities ; there are also some specimens of horn silver and a little 
free silver. The ores average from 30 to 150 ounces of silver to 
a ton, the low-grade ores being most abundant. The immense 
cost of transportation (^40 a ton) has prevented the mining of 
low grade ores, and a small smelter, working imperfectly, has 
charged ^75 per ton for reduction. These difficulties will soon 
cease, as railroads, and larger and better smelters come in. 

A large proportion of the gold veins produce an ore which 
elsewhere would be regarded as of low grade ; many of them 
running at from ^9 or ^10 to ^13 or ^15 per ton. But they are 
so favorably situated, that they can be run by chutes directly 
into the mill, without being handled at all. The large mills of 
120 stamps or more are also run at much less proportional ex- 
pense than the smaller ones, while they do ten times as much 
work. Gold can be mined and milled at these mines and mills 
at from ^2 to ^5 per ton, and the mines are so situated that the 
expense is not likely to increase for a long time to come. While 
the grade of the ores is low, the quantity seems to be inexhausti- 

49 



770 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

ble, and the quality improves slightly as the depth increases. 
Thus it comes to pass that ores yielding from ^9 to ^15 per ton 
pay a better profit, as well as a steadier one, than ores of much 
richer grade, which are more difficult to mine, less easily milled 
and which must be carried to greater distances to be marketed 
successfully. Mr. White states the yield of the Black Hills mines 
in 1878 as $3,500,000; in 1879 as about $4,500,000, and in 1880 
as probably $6,000,000. 

The Black Hills form the most elevated portion of Dakota, 
indeed the only portion which rises above 2,000 feet, or generally 
above 1,500 to 1,800 feet. 

The following table gives the altitude of the principal summits 
and towns of this region, though some of the points named are 
in the Wyoming portion of the Hills : 



Inyan Kara Peak 6,500 

Bare Butte 4,800 

Floral Valley. 6,196 

Crook's Monument .... 7,600 



Harney's Peak 7>44o 

Belle Fourche . . . . . . 3,734 

Castle Creek Valley . . . . 6,136 

Dodge's Peak ....;. 7,300 



Terry's Peak 7,200 Warren's Peak 6,900 

Custer's Peak 6,750 j Crow Peaks 6,200 

Devil's Tower 5,100 I Dead wood 4^425 

Rapid City 3,175 | Rockerville 4,125 

Crook City 3.725 i Pactola (estimated) • . . . 4,000 

Rochford (estimated) . . . 4.500 1 Custer City " 4,200 

The present population of the cities and settlements of the 
Black Hills is hardly less than 30,000, and may exceed that. A 
year and a half since (in January or February, 1879), it was esti- 
mated at 1 8,000, and was probably divided very much as follows • 



Deadwood 6,000 | Rapid City 

Golden Gate 700 I Crook City 

Lead City 2,500 : Custer City 

Rockerville 600 Spearfish City 



Rochford 600 

Sturgis City 300 

Sheridan 200 

Tigerville 200 

Central City 2,000 

•Gayville 800 



500 
500 
400 
250 
200 
250 



Hill City 

Galena 

Pactola, Hayward and other 

settlements 2,500 



Total 18,000 



BLACK HILLS BOTH AGRICULTURAL AND MINING. yyi 

The Black Hills region is primarily, then, a mining region ; 
one which has been very largely taken possession of by capital- 
ists, and its mining operations conducted on a scale which has 
been hardly equalled elsewhere in the West ; its stamp-mills 
aggregating more than 1,500 stamps, and these generally of the 
largest and most powerful character, and its gold production 
larger than in the same number of mines elsewhere. This char- 
acter of the region will be likely to continue and increase, for 
years to come. But it would be a great mistake to suppose, as 
some have supposed, that the Black Hills must be dependent 
wholly or mainly upon other regions for its supplies of food, 
clothing or manufactures. The valleys and foot-hills, as well as 
much of the hill country itself, are covered to a great depth with 
an exceedingly rich soil, and its production of grains, root crops 
and market garden vegetables and fruits will be ample ere long 
for the supply of the 50,000 or 75,000 people who will gather 
there. Those portions of the Hills and adjacent country which 
are not suited to mining or farming are admirably adapted to 
^-izing, and even portions of the much berated "Bad Lands" 
arv^ covered with rich and nutritious grasses. It is just the 
region for dairy-farming, and the mining towns will furnish a 
ready and profitable market for the milk, butter and cheese 
which can be produced. Sheep-farming will also prove profit- 
able here, though perhaps the Cotswolds, Leicesters, Southdowns 
and Lincolns would pay better than the smaller wool sheep ; for 
the market for mutton will be close at hand, and the combing 
wools will bring as good prices as the felting wools, though for 
other purposes. We see no reason why this may not become 
the region for the production of the best quality of mutton. 

The fine water-powers in the vicinity, and the coal mines which 
are readily accessible, as well as the large deposits of copper, 
lead and iron which are awaiting development, must ere long 
make it an important manufacturing region, and in a few years 
we may expect to see the immense quantities of mining and 
agricultural machinery which are needed, as well as all the mani- 
fold manufactures of wool and iron which are needed there, pro- 
duced on the spot instead of being, as now, brought from Chi- 



--2 <^UR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

cago, the capital of a treeless region, across 800 or 1,000 miles 
of prairie, to a region of forest growths. 

For so new a country, the educational and religious institutions 
of this as of other sections of Dakota are of a high order. Not 
Deadwood alone, but all the new towns of the Black Hills have 
excellent schools and good churches. For these the whole Ter- 
ritory is largely indebted to the active exertions and excellent in- 
fluence of the late Governor Howard and his efficient coadjutors. 
The social condition of all parts of the Territory is gready higher 
than that of most new settlements. Mr. White writes of the 
towns of the Black Hills : " Deadwood is a remarkably quiet, 
orderly, law-abiding town. This is the more remarkable when 
it is remembered that at the time it was first settled this was an 
Indian reservation, over which the Territorial authorities had no 
jurisdiction. 

" The people who came here organized a temporary govern- 
ment of their own, the only sanction of which was common con- 
sent, but its laws were recognized and obeyed for about a yeai 
and a half. When the treaty with the Sioux was completed in 
February, 1877, opening the hills to settlement, the government 
that had been improvised was dissolved, but the Territorial 
officers did not arrive here until forty days later, and in the 
meantime there was not even the semblance of a government, 
and yet order was preserved, 

''There are public gambling-houses in Deadwood, but they 
are not numerous, nor do they thrust themselves upon the atten- 
tion of the stranger by open doors or bands of music. The 
o-amblinof is almost without exception conducted in back and 
second-story rooms, and the proprietors of the houses are not 
apparently having a prosperous time of it. There is one variety 
theatre here, and although I have not attended one of its per- 
formances, its programme contains nothing that seems to be 
objectionable as variety shows go. Its performances close at a 
seasonable hour. There is also one dance-house on Main street. 
Of drinkine-saloons there are of course an abundance. 

" On the other hand, Deadwood is a city of homes. Small but 
tastefully built cottages are springing up by scores on all the 



RAILROADS L\ DAKOTA. 773 

residence streets, and people who are in business here have 
brought their famihes. Any newcomer will find intelligent, 
refined, cultivated society here for himself and family. Religious 
organizations have been established, schools founded ; and 
remote as the Black Hills are, and difficult of access, no one 
need hesitate to make his home here through fear that he will 
not find good society. Even the people w^ho are seeking their 
fortunes in the remote gulches are by no means barbarians. 
Many of them are well educated, and are respected in the dis- 
tant homes they have left, although they may now have to rough 
it and put up with many privations. Straws show which way the 
wind blows, and here is one : I dined the other day with a miner 
who thinks he lias made a ' great strike.' He lives in a log-house, 
miles out of town, but in one corner of the room, which serves 
as parlor and dining-room, stood a piano on which was a large 
pile of popular music, and I saw on the table the latest numbers 
of some of the popular magazines and illustrated journals." 

We have spoken of the means of railroad communication in 
different sections of the Territory. These are constantly increas- 
ing in numbers and mileage till the Territory promises soon to be 
traversed by them in nearly all directions. The following list, 
prepared by Hon. Henry Espersen, United States Surveyor- 
General for Dakota, gives their condition in November, 1879, 
and we have added the facts so far as they can be ascertained 
of their present condition: 

There is a very complete system of railways, built or building, 
into or through the Territory. 

The Northern Pacific Railroad, extending from Fargo, on the 
eastern boundary, to the Little Missouri, 351 miles, and to be 
extended to the Yellowstone by January i, 1881. 

The Winona and Saint Peter's Railroad (Chicago and North- 
western), now running to Watertown, near Lake Kampeska, and 
located west to Dakota river. 

The Dakota Southern Railroad, from Sioux City, Iowa, to 
Yankton, and projected northward up the valley of the Dakota 
river, completed to Brule, on the James. 

The Milwaukee and Saint Paul Railroad, with some eighty miles 



yj^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

built of a line from Canton to the Missouri river; completed in 
1880 to the Missouri. 

Also a line upon which work is now in progress from Eden to 
Yankton. 

The Sioux Falls and Pembina Railroad, up the Big Sioux 
River valley, of which some seventy miles are in operation. 

The Dakota Central Railroad, located from Garey to the 
Dakota river, upon which work is now progressing ; completed 
to Huron, on Dakota river. 

The Worthington and Sioux Falls Railroad (Saint Paul and 
Sioux City), of which about forty miles are built, having Yank- 
ton for its objective point ; and 

The Southern Minnesota Railroad, building from Flandreau 
to Sioux Falls. 

The total length of road now in operation in the Territory is 
almost 1,200 miles. 

Indian Tribes and Reservations. — The Indian reservations in 
Dakota, in January, 1880, still comprised about 42,000,000 acres, 
about seven-sixteenths of the entire area of the Territory. 
This vast area is cut up into several reservations in different 
parts of the Territory, As it is largely in excess of the needs 
of the Indians, arrangements are making by the government to 
purchase considerable portions of it, and to distribute the 
remainder in severalty to the Indians, giving them also the 
interest of the purchase-money of the lands which the govern- 
ment buys from them, as annuities. There were on these 
reservations in January, 1880, 26,530 Indians of all ages. Of 
these 25,237 were Sioux or Dakotas, of twenty-one different 
bands or sub-tribes; 1,393 (^he Indians at the Fort Berthold 
Agency) were the remnant of other tribes formerly hostile to 
the Sioux, and were divided as follows: Arickarees, 720; Gros 
Ventres, 448 ; Mandans, 225. Since the severe punishment of 
Sitting Bull and his band for their massacre of General Custer 
and his troops, and their escape into British America, the 
remaining bands of Sioux have been peaceful and friendly to the 
whites. They are, for the most part, making decided progress 
in civilization. With the almost complete destruction of the 



POPULATION OF DAKOTA, »y^ 

buffalo, they have very generally abandoned the chase, except a 
moderate amount of hunting and trapping of the fur-bearing 
animals, and with each year an increasing number of them are 
turning their attention to the raising of cattle and horses, to 
drawing freight, and to the simpler forms of agriculture. Very 
many of them have built for themselves comfortable log-cabins 
in the place of the tepees or lodges of skins in which they for- 
merly dwelt. Of the Sioux 10,162, or more than two-fifths, 
have assumed and constantly wear citizens' dress. Of the Fort 
Berthold Indians, only one-twentieth have done this, but the num- 
ber is increasing every year. Religious instruction as well as 
secular education is imparted to the Indians at each of the ten 
agencies, and the more promising Indian children are now in con- 
siderable numbers sent East to receive higher instruction, and 
on their return become not only teachers but leaders of their 
people in their progress toward civilization. 

The present population of the Territory, including 26,148 tribal 
Indians, is 162,328; of which Northern Dakota has about 36,000, 
Central Dakota 10,000, Southeastern Dakota 74,000. Black 
Hills 16,000. The inhabitants of Northern Dakota are very 
largely of European birth, though there is a sufficient American 
element, mainly from New England, New York, Pennsylvania, 
and Ohio, to maintain American institutions. The Mennonites, 
Russians who have been associated with them in Russia, and 
who have come here for the religious and civil liberty they can- 
not enjoy there, Norwegians and Swedes, and some Germans ; 
the Catholic colonies from Belgium, France, and Ireland, which 
have come over under the direction of the Catholic Emigration 
Societies — these make up the bulk of the settlers of the northern 
section. Considerable numbers have come from Manitoba, dis- 
satisfied with the homestead laws there and with the lack of 
enterprise and push in that colony. The inhabitants of this 
section are not, for the most part, of the poorer class of emi- 
grants. One company of Russians recendy brought with them 
;^490,ooo ; and the Mennonites are usually men of property. In 
several cases they have bought large blocks of land, sometimes 
100,000 to 200,000 acres, and settle on them so as to have entire 
communities of their own faith. 



^^5 <^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

In Central Dakota the emigration is largely European, Nor- 
wegian, Swedish, and German, with a considerable admixture of 
American families. In Southeastern Dakota the American fami- 
lies predominate, though there are here also Mennonite, Bel- 
gian, German, and Irish colonies. The farming lands of this 
region are more generally in small holdings, and the class of 
immigrants who are occupying them are of a character superior 
to those who are settling in many other regions. It is a very 
desirable region for the best class of farmincr immierants. 

The character of the population of the Black Hills has been 
already described. They are, as a rule, superior to most mining 
populations. When the division of this Territory is accom- 
plished, as it will be when railroad communication is established 
from the East with the Black Hills, the southern part will prob- 
ably have for its northern boundary the forty-fifth parallel as a 
continuation of the line of Wyoniing, and the new State may 
also have that portion of Wyoming which contains the western 
half of the Black Hills, as it will be desirable to have that region 
under one government. This region will have a sufficient popu- 
lation for admission into the Union as a State by that time. The 
northern part of the Territory, while the largest, will probably 
have no mineral products except coal, and possibly lead ; but it 
will be a rich farming and grazing country, and accessible both 
by its rivers and railways to the best markets. 

Churches and Religious Teachi^igs. — The population of Dakota, 
though drawn from such diverse sources, has more of the 
reliorious element in it than is found in most of the States or 
Territories of the West. Several of the colonies, of which there 
are a considerable number in the Territory, are founded in part 
on religious principles. This is especially the case with the 
Mennonite settlements, in which there are from 10,000 to 20,000 
people, and the Roman Catholic colonies, which are rapidly 
increasing in numbers and already give full employment to an 
active and energetic bishop. The Scandinavian immigrants are 
mostly Lutherans, and they bring their clergymen with them, and 
establish churches at once. The Germans, when not Catholics, 
are mostly rationalists, and not favorably disposed toward religion, 



J'JiOSPECTS OF DAKOTA. n^y 

though some of them are very earnest in their Christian zeal. 
But the large numbers of immigrants from the Eastern States 
were mostly from Christian homes, and they manifest their 
remembrance of their early associations by rearing schools and 
churches at once in these new villages, even while they them- 
selves may be living in a dug-out or a sod-house. All of the 
Protestant denominations seem to be very fairly represented, and 
all manifest much zeal in organizing churches and gathering 
congregations. The irreligious element is stronger in the Clack 
Hills than elsewhere in the Territory, but from Mr. White's 
testimony already quoted, it seems that there is less Sabbath- 
breaking and open, unblushing vice there, than in most mining 
districts. 

Taking it all in all, there is not at the present time a better 
region for the farmer or stock-raiser than Dakota, and those 
who prefer a mining region can be as well accommodated in the 
Black Hills as in any part of the West, especially if they do not 
propose to engage personally in mining. 

Other States and Territories may boast of greater natural 
wonders and more grand and delightful scenery, though, in both 
these particulars, Dakota has much to produce emotions of sur- 
prise, awe, and delight ; but what gives this Territory its peculiar 
charm is its thorough adaptation for quiet and beautiful homes. 
The sun shines on no fairer land, and on none where so many 
circumstances combine to make a residence so home-like and 
delightful. 



-Tg OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

CHAPTER VI. 
IBAEO TERRITORY. 

Topography — Boundaries — Length and Breadth — Area — Latitude and 
Longitude — Distribution of Area — Arable Lands— Grazing Lands — • 
Timber Lands — Mining I-ands — Desert Lands — Mountains — Lakes — 
Rivers — Climate — Meteorology of Boise City — Geology and Miner- 
alogy — The Precious Metals — Other Metals and Minerals — Mineral 
Springs — Natural Wonders — Sulphur Lake and Deposits — Salt Springs 
— Soil and Vegetable Productions — Forest Trees — Zoology — Mines 
and Mining — Production of Gold and Silver since 1862 — Present 
Falling off — Great Mineral Wealth — Stock-Raising— Sheep-Farming 
— The Culture of Arable Lands — Obstacles to the Progress of Growth 
OF Idaho — The Lack of Railroads and of Wagon-roads — The Lack of 
Capital — Mormon Influence the Greatest Obstacle of all. 

Idaho Territory is one of the central or interior Territories 
of the northern tier, in form much like a huge chair. Its northern 
and very narrow boundary (at the top of the chair) is British 
America, while the seat of the chair is bounded on the north by 
Montana. The Bitter Root Mountains, one of the principal 
ranges of the Rocky Mountains, form the eastern boundary 
between Idaho and Montana, and between it and Wyoming the 
boundary follows the 1 1 1 th meridian west from Greenwich. On 
the south, following the 42d parallel, it is bounded by Utah and 
Nevada ; on the west it is bounded by Oregon and Washington 
Territory, the line being the 117th meridian to the mouth of the 
Boise river, thence along the Snake river for 350 miles to Lewis- 
ton, and thence northward along the 117th meridian to British 
America. The southwest corner of Yellowstone Park is within 
the bounds of Idaho. The Territory lies between the 42d and 
49th parallels of north latitude, and between the 1 1 ith and 1 1 7th 
meridians of longitude west from Greenwich. It is about 410 
miles long from north to south, and a little less than 300 miles 
wide at its widest portion. Its area as stated at the Land Office 
is 86,294 square miles, or 55,228,160 acres. There are very 
diverse estimates of the proportions of this area in arable, graz- 



iLon^tud 




iofrom Greeiivrich ik'9 







-i^^ 



"\\>»( 3;3lTom Wnslnniito 



JO j's) 2* 



7Sst,if" 



-4-- 

o 



(^eyjl"/ y///// /5k ^rru/i^'iS/i). //JS/ 



ARABLE LANDS TN IDAHO. yyg 

inor, timber and mining lands, and desert or worthless lands. 
Governor Brayman, with a somewhat imperfect acquaintance 
with the Territory, of which only one-eighth has yet been sur- 
veyed, makes the following estimate which those more familiar 
with the Territory regard as absurd: "An approximate estimate 
of the quality of these lands will afford, suitable for cultivation 
in their natural state, 15,000,000 acres; capable of reclamation 
by irrigation, i 2,000,000 acres ; grazing lands, 5,000,000 acres ; 
timber lands, 10,000,000 acres; mining tracts, 8,000,000 acres; 
the 4,228,160 acres of desert are destitute of timber and min- 
erals, and beyond the reach of irrigation. Large portions of the 
mining tracts bear timber also." 

The Surveyor-General, Hon. W. P. Chandler, with a some- 
what wider knowledge, writes at about the same time to the 
Land Office : "Any estimate of the number of acres of the vari- 
ous classes of land in this Territory, so broken in its surface and 
varied in its climate and altitude, can be only approximate. Of 
its total area of 55,228,160 acres, I believe 12,000,000 acres to be 
agricultural, either in its natural state or as it may be reclaimed 
by irrigation with the available water now flowing in the streams; 
25,000,000 acres pasture lands; 10,000,000 acres timber lands; 
and the remainder, 8,228,160 acres, may be considered worthless, 
consisting of inaccessible mountain peaks and lava beds." 

The surveyor-general would probably include the supposed 
8,000,000 acres, or thereabout, of mining-lands in the 25,000,000 
grazing and the 10,000,000 acres of timber lands. This last 
estimate is undoubtedly nearer the truth than the governor's, 
but in the amount of grazing lands which require always some 
water, it would seem to be somewhat excessive. A Territory 
whose average rainfall does not exceed twelve inches, and more 
than three-fourths of that in the winter and spring, leaving the 
entire summer and autumn parched and rainless, cannot well 
have more than one-fourth of its area arable land without irriga- 
tion. There are undoubtedly fertile valleys in Idaho, wherewith, 
and in some years, without irrigation, large crops can be raised, 
but these are the exception, not the rule. The Territory might 
become a moderately good grazing country, if its neighbors. 



^^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Montana, Wyoming, Oregon and Washington, were not so much 
better adapted to grazing. 

It is primarily a mining country, and when the railroads now 
projected or in progress have given it access to a market at 
reasonable rates it may, if the Mormons and Indians will refrain 
from killing the immigrants, yield a large amount of the precious 
metals, and raise enough grain and root crops, beef and mutton 
to supply its own inhabitants, but there will be little of either to 
export, at least for some years to come. 

Topognipky, Mountains, Lakes, Rivei's, etc. — Idaho is a moun- 
tainous Territory, more so, perhaps, than any other of the States 
or Territories of "Our Western Empire," although there are no 
summits as lofty as those in Colorado, California, Oregon, Wash- 
in eton or Arizona. The altitudes rancre from 2,000 feet above 
the sea in the Snake River valley to nearly 10,000 feet at the 
summit of some of its loftiest peaks. Its general average of 
elevation is above 4,000 feet. On its northeast border from 
Lake Pend d'Oreille and Clark's fork of the Columbia river 
down to the Lewis or Snake river at the Wyoming boundary, 
the Bitter Root Mountains, one of the main ranges, though not 
the highest range, of the Rocky Mountains, separate it from 
Montana ; almost parallel with these is an irregular range trend- 
ing in ofeneral from northwest to southeast, known as the Salmon 
River Mountains, one of the outlying ranges of the Rocky Moun- 
tains. These traverse the central portion of the State. On the 
west, near the eastern bank of the Snake river, from the Weiser 
to the Salmon river, is a range of hills 5,000 or 6,000 feet in 
height. The southern part of the Territory, south of the Snake 
river, is an elevated plateau, and in the southwest an alkaline 
desert. 

There are many valleys between these ranges of mountains 
and these elevated plateaux, some of them of considerable breadth 
and fertility ; others broad but barren ; others still narrow and 
fertile, and ^thers yet mere rocky defiles and canons. There 
are about twenty lakes of considerable size, and a great number 
of small lakes or ponds in the Territory. The largest are Lakes 
Pend d'Oreille, Coeur d'Alene and Kaniksu in the north, the Pay- 



THE SNAKE RIVER AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. ^gj 

ette and Weiser lakes in the centre, Rocky, Bar, Market, De Lacy 
and Jackson's lakes in the east, and Bear lake in the southeast. 

The whole of Idaho, except a very small tract in the southeast, 
belongs to the river system of the Columbia river and drains into 
the Pacific ocean. The exception is Bear river and lake In the 
southeast, the waters of ^p/hich are discharged into the Great 
Salt lake. There is also a bare possibility that some one of the 
sources of the Green river, one of the constituents of the Colorado 
of the West, may rise in the mountains of the southeast, interlac- 
ing there with the sources of the Snake river or Lewis' fork. 
But more than 80,000 of the 86,000 square miles of the Terri- 
tory are drained by the great tributaries of the Columbia and 
their affluents, and five-sixths of the 80,000 miles by the Lewis' 
fork or Snake river and its branches. The northeast corner is 
drained by the Kootenai, an affluent of the Columbia, which 
joins it in British Columbia, and the Pend d'Oreille or Clark's 
fork crosses the Territory a little above the forty-eighth parallel. 
The Spokane river, another of the tributaries of the Columbia, 
which flows through Lake Coeur d'Alene, drains a plateau thirty 
or forty miles in width, and below this the Snake river, the largest 
constituent of the Columbia, occupies the whole Territory. The 
Palouse, one of Its principal affluents, in Washington Territory, 
drains a plateau south of the Spokane, and the Snake river itself, 
rising by several sources in Wyoming Territory, flows northwest, 
then southwest, west, northwest and north, having a course of 
about 1,100 miles in this Territory, receiving during its course 
between thirty and forty tributaries, some of them, like the 
Salmon, Boise, Owyhee, Bruneau, Wood and Weiser, being 
themselves large rivers. The Salmon river drains the central 
part of the Territory. The Snake river, owing to its numerous 
falls and rapids, is not navigable In Idaho, but. becomes navigable 
at Lewiston, the point where it leaves the Territory. At Its 
headwaters, and for a considerable distance below, there are 
rich bottom lands, which, though 5,000 feet above the level of 
the sea, will, it is thought, prove productive. For 150 miles 
below these, it flows through a broad valley of moderately rich 
and fertile land. At or near the mouth of Bannack river it 



782 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



enters a deep, rocky canon, through which it passes for seventy- 
five miles. In this canon are several very large falls, one of 
them the celebrated Shoshone falls, exceeding Niagara in height 
(being 200 feet), and rivalling it in the volume of water and the 
orrandeur of its surroundincrs. 

Climate. — The meteorology of Ida^jo is somewhat meagre. The 
Signal Service Department has but one station in the Territory, 
that at Boise City, and their deficiency has not been, so far as we 
are aware, made up by private observations. Boise City is cen- 
trally situated, but its elevation is only 2,877 ^^^t, and it gives but 
an indefinite idea of the temperature, rainfall, etc., of the more 
elevated tracts where nearly all the mines and many of the agri- 
cultural districts are situated. The following table and the 
appended note give all the particulars furnished by the Signal 
Service office : 



METEOROLOGY OF BOISE CITY, IDAHO TERRITORY. 

Latitude 43° 40'. Longitude 116° 6^. Elevation above sea-level 2,877 f'^^^- 



1877-1878. 
Months. 



1877. 

July 

August . . . . 
September . 
October . . . 
November . 
December . 

1878. 
January . . . 
February . . 
March . . . . 

April 

May 

June 

Year. . . . 



1^ 


e5 


V 1 


£ £ 


f2 


rt 2 1 




c a 


s|! 


H 


H 


H 









106 


44 


74-9 


98 


43 


73-9 


91 


32 


61.0 


74 


21 


49.0 


63 


18 


41. 1 


54 


8 


30-9 


1 55 


7 


34-3 


57 


28 


39-7 


75 


26 


48.0 


77 


23 


51.2 


86 


29 1 58.8 


96 


43 


72-3 


106 


7 


52-9 



48 
29 

49 
54 
57 
53 
99 



per 
cent 
36.8 

33-3 
48.0 

57-1 
69.6 
67.9 



66.2 

67-5 
62.0 

5'-7 
49-9 
38.9 
54-1 



T3 ^rt 


•0 5 






€ 


■5 15 S 




c = il 


= 


.2 £&: 


«* c 


«s< 


< 




in. 


in. 


0.35 


29.509 


0.09 


29.572 


0.27 


29653 


0.85 


29.792 


2.05 


29-934 


O.OI 


30.074 


1-73 


30.081 


2.18 


29-931 


1.63 


29.997 


0.37 


29.914 


1. 18 


29.961 


0.86 


29-975 


"•57 


29.866 



Direction of Winds 

in the 
order of frequency. 



N. E., N., S. W. 

N. E., S., N., N. W. 

S., Calm, N. \V., N.. N. 

S., Calm, \y., N. 

S., Calm, N. E., N. 

Calm, W., N., S. W. 



S., Calm, W., N. 

N. E., E., S., W., Calm. 

S., Calm, W., N. E., E. 
W., Calm, N. W., N., S. W., S. 
N. \V., N., N. E., W., S. E., E. 

N. W., N. E., S., N. E. 
S., Calm, N., N. E., W., N. W. 



The Signal Service Report for 1878-9 varies but very little from the above. The maximum 
temperature of the year was 103°, and the minimum 5°, the range, 98°, varying only one degree 
from the previous year, while the mean was 52.7°. The rainfall was for the autumn of 1878 
1. 10 inches; for the winter of 1878-9, 5.37 inches; for the spring of 1879,4.38 inches, and for 
the summer of 1879, 1. 46 inches, making 12. 3I inches in all, or .74 of an inch more than the 
previous year. It is noticeable that 9.75 inches of this, or nearly four-fifths, fell in the winter 
and spring, and the proportion was about the same as the year before. 



GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 783 

Geology and Mineralogy. — The geology of the Territory has 
been only partially investigated. The mountains, like the Rocky 
Mountains generally, are at their summits and on their western 
slopes, granitic or feldspathic, with, perhaps, some metamorphic 
rocks on their sides. The valleys are on their surface alluvial 
or diluvial — the result of the constant wear and erosion of the 
steep mountain slopes. Oftener perhaps than in other States and 
Territories, this debris from the mountains is a very«fine dust — 
especially in the valleys of the Salmon and Snake rivers. The 
ofold washed out of the veins or lodes in the mountains has been 
ground by attrition to the finest flour, so fine that although all 
the sand and the soil along those river valleys for many miles 
contain large quantities of it, it could not be separated by 
washing, and was only to be secured by running it very slowly 
over electro-plated silver plates, covered with mercury. 

In the centre of the southern half of the Territory there is an 
extensive volcanic plateau, inaccessible and unexplored, destitute 
of soil or vegetation. The Bear river region, in Southeastern 
Idaho, as well as that bordering on the Yellowstone Park, is vol- 
canic in its character. Among its minerals gold has been found 
in the fine impalpable powder already mentioned, in large grains 
and nuggets, and in gold veins and lodes along nearly the whole 
course of the Snake and Salmon rivers, in the Sawtooth or Sal- 
mon river range of mountains at almost all points, and at many 
points on the western slope of the Bitter Root mountains. On 
the east fork of Salmon river and about the sources, and indeed 
in nearly the whole length of Wood river and at the southern 
termination of the Sawtooth range, silver is very plentiful, and 
silver mining would be conducted with great success were the 
facilities of transportation of the rich ores less difficult.* Copper 
is found in very rich ores — sixty-five to seventy per cent., and also 
native copper of great purity in Bear Lake county, and in the 

* This Wood river region, a district about eighty miles long and forty miles wide, is just 
now the scene of great excitement from the discovery of a number of rich silver lodes on both 
sides of Wood river. It is declared by some to be a second Leadville, and hundreds and per- 
haps thousands are flocking thither from Utah, Nevada, California and some from Northern 
Colorado. Whether they will come to stay remains to be seen. 



734 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Snake river copper mining district. It is also combined with sil- 
ver in the Sawtooth range and the Wood river district. 

Lead in the form of galena or sulphuret and carbonate of lead 
is found in all the silver mines, and an ore yielding about seventy- 
eight per cent, of pure lead is found in the Bear river. Iron is 
abundant and in all forms. Coal is found in great quantities 
and of excellent quality for coking and furnace purposes along 
Bear lake, and is also mined at Smith's fork and on Irvin 
creek. The Mammoth mine here shows a vein seventy feet 
thick of clear coal, and with adjacent veins, separated by thin veins 
of clay, will aggregate 200 feet in thickness. The Utah and 
Northern Railroad, which passes near, will soon open this great 
mine to a market. There is also a large bed of very good coa.\ 
in Northern Idaho near Lewiston, and another in Boise county, 
about twenty-five miles north of Boise City. Antimony, arsenic 
and surphur are found in considerable quantities, the latter 
especially in the volcanic districts. In Bear Lake county, nea: 
the Bear river, there is a sulphur lake very heavily encrusted with 
sulphur, and a mountain eighty-five per cent, of which is pun; 
sulphur. The " Soda Springs," now becoming a popular resort 
from Salt Lake City, are in the same vicinity, near the Bear 
river and the Utah and Northern Railroad. 

Mr. Robert E. Strahorn, who has recently explored this won- 
derful region which gives so many evidences of volcanic action, 
past and present, thus writes of it in the Neiv West Illustrated 
of December, 1879: 

" Soda Springs, a hamlet of probably one hundred souls, is 
located within a stone's throw of Bear river, near the latter's ' big 
bend ' in Southeastern Idaho, and thirty-five miles east of Oneida 
Station, Utah and ?sorthern Railway. It takes its name from a 
group of noteworthy springs in the vicinity, and thrives mainly 
upon the latter's fast-increasing popularity. 

"One spring is graced with a lively steam vent which finds 
its way upward through a massive boulder. Fremont named it 
' Steamboat Spring,' on account of its measured puff which resem- 
bles that of an engine. The waters of this spring are utilized in 
a comfortable bath-house near by. A group of four of the other 



THE SODA AND OTHER SPRINGS. 785 

springs have attracted particular attention on account of the 
curative properties of the waters. The strongly minerahzed fluid 
is also ever bubbling up from the depths of pretty basins in Bear 
river, in Soda creek, along the streets of the village — in fact, 
everywhere in the vicinity — and is as pleasant as a beverage, as 
it has been found exhilarating and strengthening as a tonic. 
Invalids with some of the most deep-set and loathsome blood 
diseases claim to have found a perfect cure in these fountains. 
A mile distant are other and not less interesting springs, the 
waters of which are so thoroughly charged with calcareous 
matter as to quickly form a coating of limestone upon any object 
immersed in them. 

"'V. de V.' thus humorously writes of the great Hooper 
Spring : * Hooper Spring, one mile from the main town, is not 
surpassed in the world. Eight or ten springs all bubble up 
within a radius of ten or twelve feet, and all unite in one and 
flow off into Soda creek, in a stream six feet wide and four feet 
deep. This is the most powerful spring in the world. Its water 
is very highly charged. It is surprising how much people drink. 
Five pints is the usual draught; ten will blow a man up ; and 
then, if you can find his mouth, twenty more will reunite the 
fragments, free him from disease and set him on his feet, regen- 
erated and born again. The water from this spring is bottled 
and sold. It will when known become famous the world over. 
No mineral water I ever drank has such a delicious taste ; none 
causes such an appetite. The men that drink it can't do with- 
out it; children cry for it; old people renew their youth at this 
fountain.' 

"The Octagon Spring has received some attention from Cap- 
tain Hooper, who has a handsome summer villa near by, and in 
summer we find scores of visitors seated under the rustic shade^ 
drinking the life-saving fluid from early morn until late at night. 
We meet here the lame, the halt, and even some that are nearly 
blind, all testifying to the wonderful benefits they derive from 
these waters. The mineral constituents of these springs render 
them the best of alteratives, and very efficacious in scrofulous 
and glandular difficulties, and for all diseases of the skin. They 
50 



-,86 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

are also an excellent diuretic, and contain enough Iron to make 
them of value as a tonic. One quart of the water from the 
* Octagon Spring ' contains : 

Grains. 

Sulphate of magnesia 12.10 

Sulphate of lime 2.12 

Carbonate of lime 3.86 

Carbonate of magnesia 3.22 

Chloride of calcium 1.33 

Chloride of magnesium 1.12 

Chloride of sodium 2.24 

Vegetable matter .85 

"There is sufficient carbonic acid gas to give the whole a 
power over disease. As a beverage these waters resemble in 
taste the famed Saratoga. A few minutes' walk away is a beau- 
tiful spring called the Ninety Per Cent. It is all soda save ten 
per cent. The water is delicious. It contains no iron. 

"Four miles southeast of Soda Springs is Swan lake, one of 
the loveliest natural gems in the Wasatch chain. It reclines in an 
oval basin, whose rim is ten feet above the surrounding country. 
The shores are densely covered with trees, shrubs, and the luxu- 
riant undergrowth native to that country. The outlet is a series 
of small moss-covered basins, symmetrically arranged, the clear 
water overflowing the banks, trickling into the nearest emerald 
tub, then successively into others, until it forms a sparkling 
stream and dances away to a confluence with the Bear river in 
the valley below. 

" The rim is apparently formed by petrifaction, and extends 
down as far as the eye can penetrate the clear crystal water. 
Timber and bodies of trees coated with a calcareous substance 
can be seen in the depths, but no bottom has yet been reached 
in the centre, and it is supposed that it is fed by subterranean 
springs from the base of the mountain. 

"Adjacent to this fit abode for water nymphs is the singular 
sulphur lake, out of whose centre liquid sulphur incessantly boils 
and coats the shores with thick deposits, looking as though it 
might be a direct out-cropping of Plutonian regions. Near by 



THE ICE CAVES OF IDAHO. 787 

is a mountain, eighty-five per cent, of which is pure sulphur. 
Mr. Wilhams is now hauling several tons of it to Oneida Station 
for shipment to Mr. G. Y. Wallace, of Salt Lake, who will experi- 
ment with it to ascertain whether it will pay to make it an article 
of commerce. The great sulphur deposit extends from the base 
of the mountain to an unknown depth, width and breadth. Re- 
move the top crust anywhere near where it crops out and you 
find almost pure sulphur. The bed must be of immense area. 
You can load a wagon with your hands without pick or shovel 
as quickly as you could fill it with corn. You can take up a rock 
and touch a match to it and it will burn up, leaving a black sub- 
stance which probably represents the impurity. A piece that 
weighs a pound will leave a lump of this about as large as a pea. 
" Four miles from the village is the great ice cave, which a 
recent visitor describes as follows : ' This cave is situated very 
close to the roadside, on a level stretch of prairie about midway 
between the two crossings of the Bear river. We commenced 
the descent just as the heavens were reverberating with deep- 
rolling thunder and the rain pouring down in a perfecdy reckless 
manner, thereby making us feel that it was an opportune time 
to shelter ourselves beneath the arching rocky cavern. Follow- 
ing our guide, we descended a rocky stairway some twenty feet 
to a level grassy rotunda some hundreds of feet in circumference, 
walled in by solid lava rocks. From this we descended still fur- 
ther over a rugged, rocky pathway, about twenty feet, when we 
found ourselves on the congealed floor of the immense ice cave, 
where ice can be found all the year round. While our guide 
was lighting our tallow dips, we surveyed the rocky walls which 
surrounded us. The roof, some ten feet above our heads, was 
filled with little niches or pockets, which had been utilized by 
cave swallows, while the side walls were as perpendicular and 
solid as though hewn by the hand of man out of solid rock. 
Coursing our way over the ice, which was apparently firm and 
solid for a distance of about lOO yards, we came to a huge pile 
of lava rock which had rolled from the roof and almost choked 
up the passage-way. Our guide bade us follow him, and we 
soon found ourselves once again in a clear open way, wide and 



y88 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

high enough to drive a six-horse stage-coach comfortably. This 
smooth tunnel we follow for probably lOO yards, when we again 
descend a rocky stairway, some ten feet or more, and stand upon 
what apparently was once the bed of a large river, with a per- 
fectly solid sandy floor. The roof and side walls are here found 
to be covered with minute stalactites which, reflecting the light 
of our candles, lend a weird aspect to the surroundings. We 
now proceed onward several hundred feet through this perfectly 
.symmetrical tunnel to the end, or what appears to be the end.' 

"About two miles to the northwest of the ice cave is a slum- 

■bering volcano, out of which came part of the immense bodies 

of lava that cover this plain for miles around. The rim of the 

crater Is almost circular, and stands up about 200 feet above the 

devel of the plateau below. In the cooling process, the heart of 

^the crater settled down about 100 feet below the rim, leaving a 

perfect representation to the student of nature of an immense 

extinct volcano. We have been able, during our short sojourn 

in this wonderland, to clearly trace nearly fifty immense extinct 

volcanoes, which appear, from the apparent age of the lava beds, 

to have been flowing about the same time. 

"All kinds of o-ame common to the western mountains can be 
found in the region surrounding Soda Springs. Bear, deer, elk, 
mountain lions, mountain sheep, sage hens, and ducks are espe- 
cially plentiful. Trout fishing in Soda creek. Eight Mile creek, 
■ Bear river, and Blackfoot river, is of that character which can be 
appreciated even by the novice. Cast your hook in almost any 
of these waters, and prepare for a two or three pound trout as 
an almost instant result. 

"The altitude of Soda Springs is 5,738 feet. The warmth of 
summer is tempered by the coolness of the nights. Blankets are 
not uncomfortable even in the warmest nio-hts of Aupfust. The 
atmosphere is dry, like all mountainous regions, and is therefore 
very favorable to consumptives or those afflicted with pulmonary 
diseases. This was once the favorite resort of Brigham Young, 
and is still the regular summering place of numerous Salt Lake 
City merchants, who have built appropriate residences. 

" Salt is also one of the Idaho minerals. The Salt Springs 



THE ONEIDA SALT PRODUCTION. 78^ 

which have been utilized since 1866, are in Oneida county, near 
the Wyoming border, about fifty miles northeast of the Soda 
Springs, on the Old Lander emigrant road leading from South 
Pass to Oregon. The road passes directly along the fiat below 
the spring, where, before being concentrated in pipes, the water 
had spread out and, evaporating in the sun, formed large masses 
of salt crystals which attracted the attention of passers-by and 
led to the discovery of the spring fiowing from the hillside above. 
It is clear and sparkling as the purest spring water, and never 
would be suspected of containing mineral. The valley in which 
it is situated is known now as Salt Spring valley, and is about ten 
miles long by an average of one mile wide ; through it fiows a. 
rapid stream well filled with mountain trout. 

" The Salt Springs were first taken up by B. F. White, Esq. (the 
present owner), and partner, in June, 1866, and works have since 
been in constant operation, every year witnessing an increase in 
the demand, until almost the entire stream flowing from the 
spring has been utilized. The salt is made by boiling the wateri 
in large galvanized iron pans, into which it is led by wooden 
pipes leading direct from the spring, thus insuring perfect clean- 
liness, and a uniformly white, clean and beautiful product. The 
water is kept constantly running into the boilers, andjis kept at: 
a boiline heat all the time. The salt is shoveled out once in 
every thirty minutes, and after draining twenty-five hours is 
thence thrown into the drying-house, there to remain until 
sacked and prepared for shipping. The most scrupulous clean- 
liness is observed in every operation, and when the immense 
banks of salt lie piled up in the drying-house, they resemble huge 
snow-banks more than anything one could imagine. It takes 
from two to four months for salt made in this manner to dry and 
ripen, and for this reason it becomes necessary to keep on hand 
a large supply, so that at any time a thousand tons of the purest 
and whitest salt in the world may be seen here in these far west, 
* Oneida salt works.' 

"Following is an analysis of the Oneida salt, made by Dn 
Piggot, the well-known analytical chemist, of Baltimore. It shows 
a higher percentage of pure salt than the celebrated Onondaga 



7QO OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

brand, manufactured at Syracuse, while neither ' Liverpool,' 
'Turk's Island ' or 'Saginaw' salt approach it in purity, or are as 
white, clear or soluble in liquids : 

Chloride of sodium (pure salt) 97-79 

Sulph. soda 1.54 

Chloride of calcium .67 

Sulph. magnesia Trace 

Total 100.00 

"In 1866 only 15,000 pounds of salt were here manufactured; 
but the demand in Idaho, Utah and Montana has so steadily in- 
creased that the product has averaged about 600,000 pounds per 
annum up to 1877. In 1878 it ran up to 1,500,000 pounds, and 
in 1879 to nearly 2,000,000 pounds, much of the production of 
the last two years having been consumed in Montana smelting 
works. It is sacked in 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 pound bags, and is 
laid down at points 200 miles distant by wagon transportation at 
from three to four cents per pound." 

Soil and Vegetable Productions. — We have already stated our 
conviction that the amount of arable land in Idaho did not greatly 
exceed one-fifth of its surface, even including those lands ca- 
pable of successful irrigation. Of course in a Territory of which 
not one-seventh, including mining lands, has been surveyed, 
such a conviction must rest partly on general principles. Our 
reasons are these: The Rocky Mountains, which form the east- 
ern boundary of the Territory, present only their western face to 
it ; and in the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada and other 
high mountain ranges on this continent having a general di- 
rection from north to south, the western face or slope is precip- 
itous, and has very little arable land, though portions of the 
mountain below the snow-line may be covered with timber. But 
it is precisely these precipitous mountain sides which are oftenest 
the places of deposit of the precious metals. In Idaho we have not 
only the western face of the Rocky Mountains, but the long and 
bold spur of that range known as the Salmon River and Sawtooth 
Mountains, the latter name being given as characteristic of their 
precipitous faces. There is also a rocky wall overlooking the val- 



THE BARREN LANDS OF IDAHO. ygi 

ley of the Snake river for a long stretch of its course, and the deep, 
dark canon through which it flows for seventy-five miles in the lava 
lands. There are furthermore the alkaline lands, a desert and 
dreary waste, the lofty tnesas and plains, not irrigable, and unfit 
even for erazinof without it, and the hillsides and foothills facing- 
the east, which, though affording good pasture grounds in many 
instances for herds of cattle and flocks of sheep, are not adapted 
to cultivation. In short, it is only the river valley and bottom 
land, and not all of these, which can properly be called arable 
lands, and with an average rainfall of only twelve inches, more 
than three-fourths of it between November and April, even these 
must often, perhaps not always, be irrigated. 

The soil, when irrigated, is generally fertile ; perhaps not so 
rich as that of Montana, or California, or the Willamette valley, 
but it yields for a first crop from twenty-five to forty bushels of 
wheat, fifty bushels or thereabouts of barley, and fifty-five of oats. 
Corn does not do well, except in the river bottoms, the season 
being too short for it. Fruits are said to be raised with great 
success, especially in Northern Idaho. 

The forest trees of Idaho are mainly those of the Pacific slope, 
but rather of Oregon and Washington, than of California. The 
various species of pine, including the pinon or nut pine, the P. 
pondei^osa or yellow pine, and several other species of fir, spruce, 
tamarack and cypress, the red cedar, though not the "Redwood," 
the white cedar, the juniper, and some of the hardwood trees, as 
the oak of three or four species, chinquapin, hickory, etc., etc., 
are the principal frees of its forests. At full age, the pines, firs 
and cedars attain a height of about 1 50 feet. Like the Pacific 
States generally, it has very little sod, though the bunch grass is 
found on most of the grazing lands, and is so nutritious that cat- 
tle fatten upon it very readily. Wild flowers abound in the 
valleys, and many of them are of remarkable beauty. Lands 
upon which are found in luxuriant growth the bunch grass, 
larkspur and the wild sunflower of the Pacific coast, are well 
adapted to the growth of cereals, and these are the most com- 
mon products of the plateaux of Northern Idaho. Wild fruits 
abound in Northern and Central Idaho, especially the wild 



y^2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

berries and wild cherries, though the wild cherry of the Pacific 
coast is a shrub, and not a tree. Its fruit is, however, more 
edible and pleasant than that of the East. 

Zoology. — The wild animals of the Territory are, in general, 
those of Oregon and California. The grizzly bear is seldom 
seen, but has been found in the Territory. The black and cin- 
namon bear are common ; the puma, cougar, panther or moun- 
tain lion (the beast is known by all four names) is troublesome, 
especially in the grazing lands ; the gray wolf and the western 
coyote, all the fur-bearing animals, the martin, fisher, lynx, pos- 
sibly the ocelot, the otter, mink, muskrat and beaver, as well as 
the smaller rodents ; the marmot or gopher, sewellel and other 
species of mole are abundant. Moose {Alecs Americmitis) are 
found occasionally in Northern Idaho. Naturalists insist that 
the moose and true elk are identical ; but the animal generally 
known as the elk or Wapid {Cei^vus Canadensis) differs materially 
from the moose, and is the largest of the deer family in America ; 
it roams over the whole Territory ; two other species of deer are 
distinguished by the hunters ; the bighorn or Rocky Mountain 
sheep is found in considerable numbers on the mountains and in 
the lofty valleys, and occasionally the Rocky Mountain goat or 
goat antelope is seen. The antelope of the plains is rare, if seen 
at all, west of the mountains, and the buffalo is not now, we believe, 
seen in this Territory, though said formerly to have been found 
here in vast herds. Of birds, there are considerable numbers, 
the raptores or birds of prey predominaUng, though the grouse, 
pheasant and ptarmigan families are abundant. Song-birds are 
not as abundant as in more southern climes. There are a few 
reptiles and serpents. The rivers and lakes abound with fish. 
Salmon trout, brook and lake trout and many other species of 
edible fish, among which the Red fish, found only in four lakes in 
the world, of which two are in Idaho, is the special boast of the 
people of the Territory, are abundant in the lakes and streams of 
the Territory. 

Mines and Mifting. — The product of the mines of Idaho from 
the first attempt at mining there to the present time, a period of 
about twenty years, is somewhat more than ^70,000,000. More 



GOLD AND SILVER MINING IN IDAHO. 7^ 

than three-fourths of this has been from placer mining, and has 
been, of course, gold. The placers yielded, from 1866 to 1870 
or 1872, from ^7,000,000 to ^10,000,000 per annum. In 1868 
and 1S69 there had been signs of the exhaustion or unprofitable 
working of the placers, and attention began to be turned to 
quartz and lode mining. It should be said that the success of 
the placer mining on the Snake river was greatly impeded by 
the fineness of the gold dust ; it was, in the miner s language, 
flour gold, and pan, rocker and "Tom" could not separate it 
from the finely powdered clay in which it was found. A hundred 
pounds of pay dirt might contain, and often did, two or three 
pounds of gold or even more ; but the old process of washing 
would hardly gain a quarter of an ounce. Of late new and 
better processes have enabled the miners at some points to 
secure the greater part of this gold previously wasted. 

The gradual failure of the placers stimulated the prospecting 
for lodes of gold and silver, and from 1867 to the present time 
the discoveries of valuable mines have been very frequent, and 
some of them of veins which yielded remarkable quantities of 
gold and silver. Owyhee county, which had, in 1869, ten mines 
actively at work, and thirty or forty mining claims, and which 
was producing from ^1,000,000 to ^1,400,000 per annum, is now 
apparently almost deserted, very little having been done there 
since 1876, in consequence of the bad management and frauds 
of the officers of the laro-est mines and the failure of the Bank of 
California; while the greater attractions of the Salmon river gold 
fields, the Snake river gold fields, the gold and silver mines of 
the Sawtooth ran^e and the Wood river district, the Yellow 
Jacket district, Yankee Fork, East Fork, Bay Horse, Custer 
City, Challis, Silver Star and other districts and mines have com- 
pletely overshadowed them. A few mines are still worked in a 
small way in Owyhee county ; a larger number in Alturas county, 
though not very profitably ; most of these are silver and will be 
more profitable when transportation is cheaper. Boise county 
has many mines, both of gold and silver, in course of develop- 
ment, the mines of the south part of the county being gold, while 
those of the northern part are both gold and silver. The Snake 



y . OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

river gold fields belong to placer mining. Lemhi county, in 
which is the Yankee Fork mining district, and the remarkable 
Charles Dickens, Challis and Custer Mountain lodes, gives prom- 
ise of crreat producUveness for the next few years. In Idaho 
county, Northern Idaho, there are a large number of gold and 
silver-bearing veins, but no roads to bring in the machinery, no 
mills to work the ore, and nothing but pack-mules to carry the 
ore some hundreds of miles to points where it can be reduced. 
It requires ore of very high grade to pay such heavy expenses. 
Ada county, in which the capital, Boise City, is situated, has 
many excellent silver lodes, but very poor facilities for reducing 
them cheaply. The production of gold and silver in 1878 was 
estimated at $1,878,000, and for 1879 at over $1,000,000. 

There would be, if there were good roads to drive catde to 
market, excellent opportunities to extend the grazing interest 
gready in this Territory, for some of its grazing-lands are equal 
to those to be found anywhere, and a market could be found fof 
them from Northern Idaho by the Northern Pacific, and from 
Central and Southern Idaho by the Utah and Northern and 
Union Pacific Railroads. There are perhaps 20,000 catde sent 
out of the Territory yearly, but the business is not prosecuted 
with any energy, and amounts at the utmost to not more than 
$400,000 per annum. The wild animals are too numerous and 
fierce to make sheep-farming profitable at present. 

The farming crops are limited by want of a farming populadon, 
good roads and good and easily accessible markets, and small as 
is the populadon of consumers, the production of grains and root 
crops does not more than consume it. 

Indians. — There were formerly a considerable number of 
hosdle and warlike Indians in this Territory, but by wars and 
outbreaks they have been reduced until there were in 1880 only 
4,020 Indians in all in the Territory, viz.: 460 Bannocks, 1,040 
Shoshones, 1,208 Nez Perces, 712 mixed Shoshone Bannock and 
Sheep-eater, 600 Pend d'Oreille and Kootenai. Their reserva- 
tions amount to 2,748,981 acres, or more than a square mile to 
an Indian. About one-fifth of them have adopted citizen's dress 
and are pardally civilized. 



HINDRANCES TO IDAHO'S PROSPERITY. 705 

Surrounded on all sides by Territories in which the most in- 
tense activity and energy prevails, Idaho may be compared to a 
Sea of Sargasso, whose tranquil surface is ruffled by no wind, and 
over which are gathered vast masses of sea-weed and drift-wood, 
the home of foul birds of prey. 

There is undoubtedly great mineral wealth in Idaho ^Territory, 
but with the exceedingly imperfect facilities now existino- or 
likely to exist for some time to come, for reducing the ores, or 
sending the bullion to market, there can be very litde induce- 
ment for capitalists to engage in mining operations. There is 
hardly a good wagon road in the Territory ; most of the trans- 
portation of ores, machinery, farming implements, furniture, etc., 
is on the backs of pack-mules. The two railroads — the Utah and 
Northern, which passes near the eastern boundary into Montana, 
and the Northern Pacific, now being constructed across the ex- 
treme northern portion of the Territory — the Pend d'Oreille 
country — however much they may benefit other interests, are not 
so situated as to render any material aid to the mining interests 
of the Territory, or to diminish, except very slightly, the cost of 
transportation to reduction works and markets. If the projected 
Oregon division of the Utah and Northern Railroad, extending 
from Portneuf to Boise City, and thence west into Oregon, were 
likely to be built, it would afford prospective relief; but it was 
projected to prevent the progress and completion of the North- 
ern Pacific, and having failed in that, it will prove too unprofita- 
ble and too costly an experiment to be undertaken by so con- 
servative an institution as the Union Pacific Railway. 

There are, indeed, two projected branches of the proposed 
road of the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company from 
Wallula, on the Columbia, northeastward, to reach eventually 
Moscow, in Northwestern Idaho, near Lake Coeur d'Alene, and 
southeastward to Baker City in Oregon, a continuation of which 
might strike the mouth of Weiser river ; but these will not be 
built for some years, if ever, and without connections in the Ter- 
ritory, would be of little or no value. 

Meanwhile, all the interests of the Territory are suffering and 
are likely to suffer. She has not only the products of her mines. 



«^ OUR WESTERN^ EMPIRE: 

but might have also considerable amounts of grain to sell to her 
own people, if it could be transported, and if there were induce- 
ments in the market, which would be afforded by a rapidly in- 
creasing population, the amount might be gready increased. 
She might engage largely in stock-raising and dairy-farming, 
but she has no roads over which her agricultural and pastoral 
products could be sent to markets either within her own bounds 
or without them. It may be asked why does she not build wagon 
roads, which would at least facilitate inter-communication, and 
would in time lead to railroads ? There are several reasons. 
The construction of wagon roads over so rough a country, if not 
impracticable, is very difficult and expensive. If application had 
been made in season probably the general government would 
have made some grants of lands for their construction, though 
that would not perhaps have effected its object ; but the policy of 
the government has been for several years past decidedly 
opposed to land grants for either railroads or wagon roads. 
Private or corporate capital might do this, as It has In other 
States, but the obstacles are many, and capital is timid. The In- 
dian tribes have been, until recently, more or less hostile. But 
perhaps a still stronger objection to the free immigration which 
would have forced the construction of these roads, has been the 
fact that for the last ten years it has been the settled purpose of 
the Mormon leaders in Utah to take possession of Idaho and of 
other adjacent Territories also, If possible. They have planted 
their colonies In every eligible position In Southern and Central 
Idaho, and have driven away, as far as possible, other Immigrants, 
unless they would submit to their authority and dictation. 

The result has been disastrous. The Mormon authority is an 
autocracy or an oligarch^' ; and free and Independent men could 
not and would not submit to it. The Territory was settled much 
earlier than Montana or Dakota, but whereas it had in 1870 a 
population of 15,000, exclusive of Indians, It has now only 
32,611, and this Increase is very largely of Mormon colonists 
sent by the central authority at Salt Lake City to establish them- 
selves there. There is no enterprise, no progress, and the Ter- 
ritory, with its great mineral wealth and Its favorable position, is 



THE INDIAN TERRITORY. ygj 



likely to remain undeveloped and largely unpeopled as a conse- 
quence of Mormon greed and evil influence. In such a Terri- 
tory we cannot invite immigrants to settle. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE INDIAN TERRITORY. 



Minute Details concerning the Indian Territory not necessary at the 

PRESENT TIME IN THIS WORK WhY ? A FEW GENERAL PoiNTS IN VIEW OF 

the ultimate possibility of a change, which may permit immigration — 
Topography — Length and Breadth — Latitude and Longitude — Area — 
Boundaries — Division into Indian Reservations or Nations — Areas of 
MOST of these — Tracts not yet allotted, and Indian Bands not perma- 
nently located — Number OF Indians in the Territory in 1878 — Present 
number — The five leading Tribes, Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, 
Creeks and Seminoles — Their Progress in Civilization — The Capitals 
of their Respective Nations — Their Farm Products in 1879 — Their 
Live-Stock — Valuation of Real and Personal Estate — Schools, 
Churches, Benevolent Institutions — Newspapers — Post-Offices — The 
Smaller Tribes and Bands less Civilized — Surface of the Country — 
Mountains, Rivers, Lakes — Climate — Meteorology of Forts Gibson 
AND Sill — Geology and Mineralogy — Soil and Vegetation — Forests — 
Railroads — The Character of the Population — Rev. Timothy Hill's 
Account OF the Territory — The Indian Title to the Territory — His- 
tory of the Removal of the Five Tribes and other Indians — Re-pur- 
chase OF some of their Lands by the Government — Efforts to drive 
them from this Territory — The Outlook for the Future — Possession 
OF THEIR Lands in severalty their only hope — Indian Annuity Funds. 

Though comprised within the limits of "Our Western Em- 
pire," and probably destined eventually to form one of its States, 
when the Indians shall have become citizens, and the aeeressive 
spirit of the Western settlers shall have ceased to covet their 
lands, or to propound the atrocious sentiment "that the only 
good Indian is a dead one " — yet, in the present condition of 
affairs, we should not be justified in going into minute details 
respecting the Indian Territory, inasmuch as it is by solemn 
treaties the exclusive home of the red man, and all explorations 



7q8 our western empire. 

or descriptions of it, having in view the promotion of white emi- 
gration thither, are strictly forbidden. We shall therefore only 
describe it; briefly give an account of its Indian inhabitants, 
their locations, condition, property and productions, and their 
probable future, and pass on to other States and Territories to 
which the immigrant may have free access. 

The Indian Territory is situated between the parallels of 33° 
35' and ^^° north latitude, and between the meridians of 94° 20' 
and 103° west longitude from Greenwich. The greater part of 
the Territory is between 94° 20' and 100° west; but a narrow 
strip thirty-five miles in width, and extending from the looth to 
the 103d degree of longitude, separates Northwestern Texas 
from Kansas and Colorado, and that strip watered by the 
Cimarron and Canadian rivers, forms a part of the Indian Terri- 
tory. Its length from east to west along the northern border is 
470 miles, and south of latitude 36° 30', 310 miles. Its breadth 
east of the looth meridian averages about 210 miles. Its area 
is now stated as 69,304 square miles, or 44,154,240 acres. It is 
bounded on the north by Kansas and Colorado ; on the east by 
Missouri and Arkansas ; on the south by Texas, from which it is 
separated as far west as the looth meridian by the Red river; 
west of that meridian by the parallel of 36° 30'. Its western 
boundaries are Texas and New Mexico. Not quite one-thir- 
teenth of its surface is in forests; the remainder is prairie, deep 
ravines, or wider valleys, and pleasant mountain slopes. 

Besides a considerable portion still unassigned, the Territory 
contains eighteen or twenty Indian reservations. The Chero- 
kees have two tracts : one of 5,960 square miles in the north- 
east, east of the 96th meridian, and bordering on Kansas and Ar- 
kansas. They also own a strip containing about 8,500 square 
miles, about fifty miles wide along the Kansas border from the 
Arkansas river, west to the looth meridian. The Choctaw res- 
ervation, 10,450 square miles, is in the southeast, bordering on 
Arkansas and Texas. The Chickasaw reservation, 6,840 square 
miles, joins this on the west, and is separated from Texas by 
the Red river. The Creek reservation, 5,024 square miles, is 
in the eastern central part of the territory, between the Chero- 



ALLOTMENTS OF TERRLTORY TO DLFFERENT TRLBES. ygg 

kees and Choctaws. The Seminole reservation, 312.5 square 
miles, lies southwest of the Creeks, and north of this that of the 
Sacs and Foxes, 756 square miles. A tract of 900 square miles, 
lying west of the Seminole reservation, is set apart for the 
citizen Pottawatomies and the Absentee Shawnees. West of the 
Cherokees' second reservation, and bounded north by Kansas, 
and southwest by the Arkansas river, is the Osage reservation 
of 2,345 square miles ; and northwest of this is the little reserva- 
tion of the Kaws, 156 square miles in extent. These are late 
comers, though not the latest, having been removed from 
Kansas in 1873. T^"""*^ Kiowas, Comanches and Apaches occupy 
a tract of 5,546 square miles in the southwest, bounded on the 
east by the Chickasaw reservation. North of these the Arapahoes 
and Cheyennes have a tract of 6,205 square miles. Fragments 
of ten tribes, viz.: the Quapaws, the Confederated Peorias, 
Kaskaskias, Weas, Piankashaws and Miamies, the Ottawas, 
the Shawnees, the Wyandots and the Senecas, severally, have 
reservations, aggregating in all 297 square miles, in the north- 
east corner of the Territory, east of the Neosho river. There 
are eight affiliated bands of Wichitas, Keechies, Wacoes, 
Tawacanies, Caddoes, lonies, Delawares and Penetethka 
Comanches, who are gathered around an agency on the 
Washita river, west of the Creek country, but they have no 
reservation. The Modocs, the remnant of Captain Jack's band, 
and about 400 Kickapoos and Pottawatomies, were sent to the 
Indian Territory in 1873, and the Modocs were placed tem- 
porarily on the Shawnee reservation, and the latter settled on a 
tract on the Kansas border west of the Arkansas river. The 
Poncas and some bands of the Sioux were sent into the Terri- 
tory in 1876 and 1877; some of the Arizona Indians about 
the same time, and some bands of Utes still later. 

In 1878 the Indian office reported the whole number of In- 
dians in the Indian Territory as 75,479. The increase by births, 
and the additional bands which have been sent in since that time, 
may have increased the total number to 78,000. These are for 
the most part recognized as civilized or partly civilized Indians. 
The greater part of them wear citizen's dress, and a fair propor- 



gQQ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

tlon have farms or herds of cattle or sheep, and can read or 
write at least in their own language. This is especially true of 
the five leading tribes, the Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Chicka- 
saws and Seminoles. They are capable now of becoming citizens. 
They have churches and schools, legislatures of their own, and 
have for many years maintained self-government with perhaps 
no more failures than some of the States of the Union. The 
capital of the Cherokee nation is Tah-le-quah ; of the Chicka- 
saws, Tishemingo ; of the Choctaws, Armstrong Academy ; of the 
Creeks, Ok-mul-kee ; of the Seminoles, We-wo-ka. 

In 1878-9 these five civilized tribes cultivated 237,000 acres 
of land, and raised 565,400 bushels of wheat, 2,015,000 bushels 
of corn, 200,500 bushels of oats and barley, 336,700 bushels of 
vegetables, and 176,520 tons of hay. They own 45,500 horses, 
5,500 mules, 272,000 head of cattle, 190,000 swine, and 32,400 
sheep. Among other products of Indian labor during the same 
year were 8,100,360 feet of lumber sawed, 132,886 cords of wood 
cut, 200,600 shingles made, 387,000 pounds of maple sugar made, 
164,000 pounds of wild rice gathered, 17,000 woollen blankets 
and shawls woven, 2,530 willow baskets made, 3,800 cords of 
hemlock bark peeled, 211,000 pounds of wool clipped for sale, 
and 3,600 barrels of fish sold. These tribes were much broken 
up during the late civil war, many of them having taken part in 
it, a majority probably on the side of the South, yet in 1872 they 
had so far recovered from its effects that their property, real and 
personal, was valued at $15,257,700, and is now estimated at 
over $20,000,000. The population of these tribes is about 55,000. 
In 1873 they maintained 164 schools with 182 teachers, and 4,300 
scholars in average attendance. The number of churches is not 
known, but in 1872 there were 7,090 Indian members of the 
different churches. The Cherokees have an orphan asylum 
with ninety inmates. The Creeks have also an orphan asylum. 
There are three weekly papers published in the Territory, one 
English and Cherokee at Tah-le-quah, one English and Choctaw 
at New Bogy, and one English at Caddo. There are twenty- 
eight post-offices in the Territory. 

Of course, many of the smaller bands of Indians, especially 



SURFACE AND CLIMATE OF INDIAN lERRITORY. gOI 

those more recently sent there, have not attained to this measure 
of clvihzation, but for the most part they are improving and will 
continue to improve if under favorable influences. 

Su7^face, Moitntams, Rivers, Lakes. — The surface of the Terri- 
tory, like that of Kansas, at the north of it, has a general declina- 
tion toward the East. In the southwest the Wichita Mountains 
attain to a moderate elevation, and in the east there is a continu- 
ation of the Ozark and Washita hills from Arkansas ; beyond 
these the country spreads out into rolling prairie lands rising 
gradually to the west, and in the north there are table lands 
rising from 3,500 to 4,500 feet above the sea. The Territory is 
well watered. The Red river, which forms its southern boun- 
dary, receives numerous affluents great and small on Its northern 
bank : the Arkansas, which is the principal river of the Territory, 
has for its largest tributaries the Canadian, the north fork of the 
Canadian, the Cimarron or Red fork, and the Little Arkansas, 
on its south bank, and the Neosho, Verdigris, and Illinois on the 
north, and is Itself a mighty stream where It enters the Territory 
from Kansas. Owing to the falls which obstruct it, the Arkansas 
is only navigable in the Indian Territory as far as Fort Gibson, 
where the Missouri, Kansas, and Texas Railway crosses It. The 
Red river Is navigable for nearly the whole distance along the 
southern border of the Territory. None of the tributaries of 
the Arkansas are navigable for any great distance, though sev- 
eral of them are large streams and afford permanent water power. 
The Territory Is well watered, surpassing Kansas in that respect. 

Climate. — The climate is generally mild and salubrious, but 
inclined to be dry in the northwest. In the southwest there are 
tracts of marshy lands where intermittent and remittent fevers 
prevail. The mean annual temperature in the southeast is 60°, 
in the northwest 55°. The annual rainfall, which, in the south- 
eastern extremity of the Territory is fifty-two inches, decreases 
to thirty-five inches in the central region, and is less than twenty 
inches in the northwest corner. 

The followinof table olves the meteorological statistics of Fort 
Gibson, on the Arkansas river ; at the mouth of the Neosho, and 
at Fort Sill, on Cache creek, in the southwest of the Territory. 
51 



802 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 







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Geology and Mineralogy. — The geology of the Territory has 
not been very thoroughly explored. It seems to partake more 
of the characteristics of Kansas than of Arkansas, and some of 



SOIL AND VEGETATION. 303 

its formations extend across the Red river into Northern Texas. 
Some of its mountains have azoic rocks near the surface, while 
in others, especially those of the central part of the Territory, 
the cretaceous period seems to have been predominant. There 
are in the west and northwest extensive deposits of gypsum, 
and in the Cherokee country are found coal, iron, good brick clay, 
marble of fine quality, and a yellow sandstone suitable for build- 
ing purposes. It is probable that there is copper, and perhaps 
salt in the southwest, as the beds of copper ores come to the Red 
river in Wichita and Clay counties, Texas,"^' and there are salt 
springs in the same vicinity. Salt also abounds in the northwest 
of the Territory, and many of the springs and streams are very 
salt. There has been no search for the precious metals in the 
Territory, and their existence is not known with certainty. 

The coal beds are an extension of the coal deposits of Mis- 
souri and Arkansas. At McAllister, in the Choctaw country, a 
mine is worked by a large force of white men, who pay a royalty 
to the Choctaw government; and near Muscogee, in the Creek 
Nation, is a fine mine of rich coal. All the coal mined in the 
Territory is bituminous, and of the best quality. 

Soil and Vegetation. — The valleys of the Wichita range are 
fertile and have good timber, water and grass, and generally the 
region south of the Canadian river possesses a fertile soil and is 
well adapted alike to cultivation and grazing. There are exten- 
sive forests in the northeastern portion of the Territory, but 
about three-fifths of the Cherokee country is rocky, and only fit 
for grazing. Between the 97th and 98th meridians there is a nar- 
row belt of timber called the " Cross Timbers," extending from 
the Cimarron, or Red fork of the Arkansas, to and beyond the 
Texas border. The region west of this and north of the Cana- 
dian river is reported to be sterile, without trees or niuch grass, 
with only a few sickly shrubs and cacti, and the soil covered with 
an alkaline or saline deposit. This land will produce nothing 
without irrigation, and may require also a plentiful application 
of gypsum, but with these measures it may yield abundant crops. 
The principal forest trees are the cottonwood, oak of several 

* Copper has been discovered, but not mined, at several points in the Territory. 



3o4 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

species, sycamore, elm, hickory, ash, yellow pine, osage orange or 
bois d'arc, pecan and hawthorn. Wild grapes of excellent flavor 
abound. The arable lands of the Territory are well adapted to 
cereal and root crops, and the yield per acre of wheat, Indian 
corn and oats is large. In the hilly and broken country the 
fruits of the temperate zone do well. Apples, peaches, pears, 
plums, cherries, and small fruits of good quality are largely 
raised. 

Railroads, etc. — Aside from the river navigation, there is one 
railway which crosses the eastern portion of the Territory from 
north to south, viz. : the Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway, 
extending from Sedalia, Missouri, to Denison, Texas, where it 
joins other Texas roads. The Atlantic and Pacific Railway, from 
Pacific, Missouri, also enters the Territory from the northeast, 
and forms a junction with the Missouri, Kansas and Texas at 
Vinita, in the extreme northeast of the Territory. This road, the 
Atlantic and Pacific, had projected a route crossing the Indian 
Territory from east to west along the valleys of the Cimarron 
and Canadian rivers, but in the strife of the different transconti- 
nental routes and the difficulty of obtaining the right of way 
through the Territory, we believe this project has been given up. 

The Character of the Popidation. — Rev. Timothy Hill, D. D., 
long a missionary in the Indian Territory, and thoroughly con- 
versant with the tribes which occupy it, thus describes them in a 
communication to the New York Evangelist in the summer of 
1880: 

" The present population is about 80,000. I have conversed 
with a large number of men, native and long resident there, and 
none have placed it less than the number given, and some have 
placed it as high as 100,000. There can be but little doubt of 
80,000. Without any claim to absolute accuracy, I place the pop- 
ulation as Indians and people of Indian extraction about 62,000 ; 
colored, 8,000; and whites, 10,000. The Indians are well classi- 
fied into civilized and uncivilized. In the former class come the 
Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, Chickasaws, a remnant 
of Delawares, who are Cherokee citizens ; a part of the Shaw- 
nees, Pottawatomies, and Senecas. We shall gain in definite 



REV. MR. HILL ON THE INDIAN TERRITORY. 805 

impression if we consider each of these tribes and classes by 
themselves. 

" Easily foremost are the Cherokees. They occupy the north- 
east portion of the Territory (except a limited portion in the ex- 
treme northeast corner), with only one district or county south 
of the Arkansas river. The Cherokee government has a popu- 
lation of about 18,000, but only some 12,000 of them are Indians, 
the remainder are colored and white. These people all live in 
houses, some of them large and well furnished. They live com- 
fortably, and are slowly gaining property and increasing the com- 
forts of life around them. The war stripped them bare, and they 
are now only regaining some of their lost property. The lan- 
guage of the Cherokees is extremely difficult to acquire ; but a 
large number of them speak English, and no difficulty would be 
found in travelling nearly all over their country without an inter- 
preter. But to reach the full bloods, an interpreter will fre- 
quently be needed. 

" 2. The Creeks occupy a region directly west of the Chero- 
kees. They are a lower type of men, less attractive in personal 
appearance, less keen in intellect, than the Cherokees ; but they 
are more industrious than the Cherokees, and are probably 
making more rapid advances in civilization. The Creeks are 
greatly intermingled with the blacks. The Creek government 
has probably a populadon of about 13,000, of whom some 2,000 
are blacks. 

" 3. Next to the Creeks are the Seminoles, a separate tribe 
of the same general origin as the Creeks, and speaking nearly 
the same language, but with a separate government. They are 
much mingled with the blacks, but are gaining in civilization 
rapidly. The long contest which they kept up with the United 
States in Florida, sufficiently attests their courage and general 
skill. 

"4. The Choctaws occupy the southeast portion of the Terri- 
tory. I have been among them but little, and from personal 
observation cannot say much. They are the strongest in numbers 
of the civilized tribes, numbering about 16,000 Indians. They 
refused to give the blacks — their former slaves — citizenship, as 



gQ5 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the Cherokees, Creeks and Seminoles did. They are less ad- 
vanced in the arts of civiHzed Hfe than the Cherokees, but are 
gaining steadily. 

" 5. The Chickasaws are a small tribe of the same general 
origin as the Choctaws, and speaking nearly the same language. 
They are, in some things, in advance of all the other civilized 
tribes, as their land is sectionized, although not yet allotted in 
severalty, as they cannot do that without consent of the Choc- 
taws. There are many white men living among them, probably 
a larger number than any other tribe, many of them intermarried 
with the half-breeds, and thus citizens, and others living among 
them as renters of land, mechanics, or hired laborers, of the 
Indians or Indianized whites. 

" 6. Besides the five civilized tribes who have a separate gov- 
ernment, there are others quite as much advanced as any Indians. 
There is a remnant of the Delawares, who are well advanced in 
all the arts of life. They are more quiet and orderly than any 
other Indians cultivating their land. 

"Added to the Delawares are the Ottawas, not long since resi- 
dent in Kansas — a quiet people, supporting themselves by culti- 
vating their land. The Pottawatomies, a small tribe recently 
from Kansas, are partially civilized, some of them United States 
citizens. 

"All these civilized tribes live in houses, dress like other peo- 
ple, and many of them speak the English language well. I never 
saw a blanket-Indian among any of these people ; and perhaps 
the only peculiarity that would be noticed in the dress, is a 
fondness for bright colors with the women, and a disposition to 
place a feather or plume of some sort in the hat of the men. 
But a trader, who has lived among them many years, recently 
said to me, ' The change in the character of goods now sold is 
very marked. We sell fewer beads and trinkets and cheap 
jewelry, and we sell in the place of these a much better quality 
of cloth, and much more substantial goods for woman's wear. 
The advance in these things has been quite marked.' 

"The uncivilized Indians are the remnants of a large number 
of tribes gathered from widely different regions, and greatly 



CIVILIZED AND UNCIVILIZED INDIANS. 807 

differing- in character. I suppose them to amount to about 
12,000. These remnants differ greatly in personal appearance 
and prospective importance. The Osages, Nez Perces and 
Modocs are fine-looking people, fair size, well formed, and inter- 
esting in personal appearance — at least some of them. The 
Poncas are less interesting in appearance, and the Kaws and 
Quapaws are vile in character, and far gone in physical ruin, in 
consequence of the diseases of crime and vice. With most of 
these bands I have no intimate acquaintance, but I have seen the 
Modocs, Poncas and Nez Perces, and have been in the Quaker 
school of the Ouapav^s. 

" In looking at the present condition of the Territory, the 
negro has a prominent place. The civilized Indians were all 
slaveholders before the war, and some of them held large num- 
bers. In the reconstruction that followed the war, the Chero- 
kees. Creeks and Seminoles admitted their former slaves to citi- 
zenship ; but the Choctaws did not, and I think also the Chicka- 
saws. These negroes are more industrious, as a class, than the 
Indians, and more thievish. 

" The prejudices of the Cherokees against the blacks are as 
intense as any white man's can well be, but the Creeks are much 
less prejudiced than the whites. I never saw a half-breed Chero- 
kee and negro, but some of the most prominent families of the 
Creek and Seminole nations are of this mixed race, and it is not 
a very rare thing to find persons whose ancestry will be found 
in the three. A former politician of the Creek tribe, a man of 
honor and influence, possessed the general features and personal 
, appearance of an Indian ; but his African relationship was appa- 
rent in a woolly head, which he shaved, and covered with a wig 
of Indian hair. 

" The white population is an element of great importance, and 
rapidly gaining in numbers and influence. This class consists of 
missionaries and teachers, and their families, aggregating quite a 
number ; railroad employes, licensed traders, mechanics, and a 
large number who have intermarried in the Indian tribes. There 
is a Iaro;e force of coal-miners at McAlister. The crovernment 
officials are not numerous, but they are in positions where their 



8o8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

influence is strong, and in some instances extremely deleterious. 
The licensed traders are a numerous and influential body. The 
entire trade of all the Territory is in the hands of white men or 
half breeds. I do not think a full-blood can be found behind a 
counter in all the Territory. These men remain long in the 
Territory, have their families there, and many of them intermarry 
with the educated half-breeds, and thus become citizens. From 
the contact I have had with this class of white men, I should 
place them higher in morals and influence for good than the 
average government officials. Another class of white men are 
scattered all over the Territory — those intermarried with the 
Indians. Many of them are respectable, honest and good men ; 
but many others of them are abandoned men, outcasts from 
society. Wicked, corrupt and criminal, they become the teachers 
of crime and villainy, and the source of unmitigated evil to the 
Indians. 

"A most important element in the estimate of this country, is 
the mixed race, commonl)^ known as half-breeds. All persons 
who lay claim to any consanguinity with the Indians, are popu- 
larly designated half-breeds. This class is rapidly increasing, 
both by the frequent intermarriage of new-coming white men, 
and the raising of larger families by the native half-breeds than 
are usually seen among the full-bloods. It is said that in a given 
number of half-breed families, and an equal number of full- 
bloods, the children will be more numerous in the half breed 
families. The number of births in the two classes of families 
would probably not be materially different, but a larger propor- 
tion of full-bloods will die in infancy and childhood. The full- 
blood father will take but little care of his babe, especially if it is 
sick ; while the white or half-breed father will have more knowl- 
edge, and take better care of his child, so that the death-rate 
will be less. The half-breeds occupy the great majority of all 
the offices in the native governments ; they are the law-makers 
and executive officers and teachers of the people. Some of them 
are well-educated gentlemen, and occasionally some of the young 
ladies possess a fair share of personal beauty." 

The Indian Title to this Tej'r'itory. — At the first settlement of 



INDIAN TITLE TO TERRITORY. gOQ 

this country by whites, they found the whole continent peopled, 
sparsely it is true, by tribes of Indians. They were of diverse 
origin, and were not themselves in all probability the original 
inhabitants of the land. Every year brings us new evidence that 
one or two, possibly three, races had preceded them in the occu- 
pation of this vast continent. Yet at that time they had the 
right of possession, and had held, at least by that title, much of 
it for some hundreds of years. The whites, coming in by hun- 
dreds of thousands, pushed the Indian tribes westward step by 
step, and gained possession of their lands — sometimes by con- 
quest, oftener by treaty, and, perhaps, oftener still by purchase. 

As a result of these various methods there were, in 1825, two 
centuries after the advent of the whites in what is now the United 
States, east of the Mississippi, only some small fragments of 
tribes in New England, New York and Pennsylvania, some 
larger but not hostile bands in Michigan and the Northwest 
Territory generally, a considerable body of Indians in Wisconsin 
Territory, and the partially civilized but resolute tribes of Chero- 
kees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks and Seminoles in Northern 
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida. These tribes had 
once or twice been at war with our people, and though they had 
been defeated after a long and vigorous struggle, their defeat 
was not an inglorious one. The first four tribes were no lonorer 
nomadic ; they occupied their own farms and dwelling-houses, 
had their own churches and schools, and were in many respects 
as fully civilized as most of the whites around them. But the 
white people of these States had looked with envious and greedy 
eyes upon their lands, and were determined to drive them out 
and take possession. Some of the streams running through 
these lands were discovered to carry gold in moderate quanti- 
ties ; the land in these mountain farms was rich, and the careful 
culture of the Indians put to shame the slovenly farming of the 
whites ; though there were millions of acres of government 
lands in these States to be had at nominal prices, yet they 
seemed poor by comparison with these Indian farms, and it was 
these that they wanted and must have. Added to this was the 
argument so decisive with a class of Southern people: "The 



3 10 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

owners of these lands were nothing but Indians, anyhow ; and 
therefore had no rights which a white man was bound to respect." 
The claim of the whites to these lands, it should be said in justice 
to the State of Georgia, had been anticipated as early as 1802 ; 
for in that year the United States government entered into a 
compact with that State, covenandng for certain consideradons, 
that as soon as it could be done peaceably and on reasonable 
terms, the tide of the Cherokee Indians to land within the limits 
of Georgia should be exdnguished. It was not until the adminis- 
tration of President Monroe (181 7-1825), that the State of 
Georofia became clamorous for the fulfilment of this covenant, 
and very soon thereafter the other States, Alabama, Mississippi 
and Tennessee, though they had no such compact with the 
United States, added their clamor to hers, demanding, under 
threats of forcible duster, the prompt removal of these tribes 
from their limits. In consequence of their persistence President 
Monroe sent a message to Congress, we think in 1824, in which 
he submitted a proposition for the removal of all the Indian 
tribes from the lands then occupied by them within the several 
States, and organized Territories east of the Mississippi, to the 
country west of that river, i. e., to Louisiana Territory. At that 
time neither Texas nor any part of the region west of the 
summits of the Rocky Mountain range, below latitude 42° north 
beloneed to us. In that messacre President Monroe said, that 
" experience had demonstrated that in the present state of these 
Indian tribes it is impossible to incorporate them, in such masses, 
in any form whatever, into our system. It has been demonstrated 
with equal certainty, that without a timely anticipation of, and 
provision against the dangers to which they are exposed, under 
causes which it will be difficult if not impossible to control, their 
degradation and extermination will be inevitable. The great 
object to be accomplished is the removal of these tribes to the 
country designated, on conditions which shall be satisfactory to 
themselves and honorable to the United States. This can be 
done by conveying to each tribe a good title to an adequate 
portion of land to which it may consent to remove, and providing 
for it there a system of internal government which shall protect 



DELAY IN TRANSFERRING THE INDIANS. gn 

its property from invasion, and by regular progress of improve- 
ment and civilization prevent that degeneracy, which has gener- 
ally marked the transition from one to the other state." Presi- 
dent Monroe in this message overlooked two things, viz., that 
the lands to which he proposed to move these tribes were already 
held by other tribes whose title to them was better than ours ; 
and that in our onward progress as a nation the time might come, 
as it has within little more than half a century, when the new 
lands to which he proposed to remove them would be demanded 
by the whites, and efforts made to drive them to some other 
region. Congress was not ready to act, and the matter went 
over to the administration of President John Quincy Adams. In 
1826 the Secretary of War made a full and exhaustive report, in 
which he suggested many difficulties in carrying out such a pro- 
ject as President Monroe had advocated, and expressed his fears, 
" that should the removal be made, it would not be effective, since 
it was probable the same propensity which had conducted the 
white population to the remote regions which the Indians now 
occupy, will continue to propel the tide of immigration, till it is 
arrested only by the distant shores of the Pacific.'* 

Notwithstanding these apprehensions, the Secretary of War 
felt it necessary to submit a plan and prepare a bill for the con- 
sideration of Congress, providing for this removal. Among the 
provisions of this bill were: that the country to the west of the 
Mississippi, to which the tribes should be removed, should be set 
apart for the exclusive abode of the Indians ; that they should 
be removed as individuals or families, and not as tribes ; and if 
circumstances should justify it, the tribal relation should eventu- 
ally be dissolved, and the Indians amalgamated in one common 
nation, with a distribution, of the property among the individuals. 

The great difficulty, that the Indian from past experience could 
not be induced to trust our promises, must in some way be ob- 
viated. Notwidistanding the urgency of the Southern people 
and the excited and anxious condition of the Indian tribes, no ac- 
tion was taken until 1830, the second year of General Jackson's 
administration, when Congress passed a law authorizing the 
President to cause the territory west of the Mississippi, to which 



gl2 OUR IVES TERN EMPIRE. 

the original title had been extinguished, and which was not 
included within the limits of any State or organized Territory, to 
be divided into a suitable number of districts for the reception 
of such tribes or nations of Indians as might choose to exchange 
the lands on which they then resided, and to remove West. 
The law authorized the President to solemnly assure the Indian 
tribes with whom the exchange was made, that tke United States 
would forever secure and guarantee to them and their heirs or suc- 
cessors^ the country so exchanged with them. 

The President, in pursuance of this law, offered the most sol- 
emn guaranties, on the faith of the nadon, to the tribes that might 
be willing to make the exchange, and offered them transportation 
and certain annuities as a further inducement. Under this offer 
the larger part of the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, 
and subsequently the Seminoles, Delawares, Shawnees, Miamis, 
Kickapoos, Pottawatomies, Chippewas of Roche de Bceuf, Sacs 
and Foxes, Wees, Piankashaws, Kaskaskias, Peorias, and other 
tribes, made the exchange, and were told that these lands should 
be their permanent homes forever. Except the tracts which were 
ofranted to the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and 
Seminoles, the remainder of the transplanted tribes were allotted 
lands within the boundaries of the present State of Kansas. 
Since the organization of that State, all these emigrant tribes 
have, notwithstanding these solemn guaranties and pledges, 
been removed to the Indian Territory, and their permanent 
homes taken from them. 

The government purchased from the Creeks in 1867 a por- 
tion of their lands, which it still holds, as well as some other 
lands in the Territory, with the inteHtion of placing other small 
bands of Indians there, when it has extinguished the titles to 
their lands elsewhere. 

Efforts to Drive the Indians from their Territory. — Meanwhile, 
there has been a very strong pressure on the part of western 
adventurers, to enter upon these lands solemnly pledged to the 
Indians, with the ultimate purpose of crowding them out. Dur- 
ing the last session of Congress, in May, 1880, a bill was intro- 
duced and strongly urged, for the organization of the Indian Ter- 



EFFORTS TO DRIVE THE INDIANS FROM TERRITORY. 813 

ritory as a regular Territory under government control, by the 
name of Oklahoma. Thus far, the government has successfully 
resisted the encroachments of white settlers and adventurers 
upon this Territory, except the passage of one or two railways, 
and these, it is said, were asked for by the Indians ; but the pres- 
sure is growing stronger every day, and unless the Indians agree 
to hold their lands in severalty or individually (under certain 
restrictions in regard to alienating them), it may require the 
whole military power of the nation to restrain these lawless 
adventurers from taking it by force. If the lands are allotted 
to the Indians in severalty, and they, as fast as they become 
civilized, become citizens, the surplus of their lands may be sold 
by the government as their guardian for their account and the 
amount received funded, furnishing a further annuity to each 
member of the tribes. There are now held by the United 
States Government funds invested for the Indian tribes to the 
amount of 5^5,180,066.84, besides ^84,000 abstracted by officials 
at the beginning of the late civil war and not yet replaced. Of; 
this amount ^1,768,175.30 is held for the Cherokees ; ^1,308,- 
664.82 for the Chickasaws ; ^513,161.70 for the Choctaws ; 
$467,501.62 for the Delawares ; $76,993.66 for the Creek 
orphans, and the remainder for other tribes, some of them those 
removed from Kansas in 1867. 

If these measures can be effected without injustice and wrong, 
the time may come when a part of this great Territory may be 
legitimately opened to white settlement, and the Indian farmers 
be led, by the sharp competition which will follow, to become bet- 
ter agriculturists and better citizens than they would under any 
other circumstances. But until that time shall come, and it must, 
in any event, be several years hence, we cannot consider the 
Indian Territory as either a legitimate or desirable field for 
immigration. 



gj^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

IOWA. 
The Situation of Iowa — Meaning of the Name — Migration of the Pau- 

HOO-CHEES thither IN 1690 CONTEMPORANEOUSLY CLAIMED BY THE FRENCH 

ON Account of Father Hennepin's Discovery — Wars of the Pau-hoo- 

CHEES, OR lOWAS, WITH THE SlOUX FrENCH TrADING-PoSTS ON THE RlVER 

Sale OF THE Province OF Louisiana TO the Spanish in 1763 — Retroces- 
sion TO France in 1800 — Sale to the United States in 1803 — Settle- 
ment OF Julian Dubuque — The Wars of the Iowas and Sioux — A New 
Enemy — The Sacs and Foxes Attack them, and drive them across the 
Missouri, about 1828 — Great Reduction in Numbers of the Iowas — 
White Settlement Commenced in 1832 — Death of Black Hawk — The 
Events in Civil History of Iowa to its Organization as a State in 
1846 — Topography and Extent of Iowa— Its Surface — Rivers — Lakes — 
Prairie and Timber Lands — Black Walnut Shipped to England — Geol- 
ogy and Mineralogy — The Drift, Loess and Alluvium — Cretaceous 
Rocks — Coal Measures — The Character of Iowa Coal — Comparison 
with European and other Coals — No Gold or Silver in the State — 
Lead, Iron, Copper and Zinc — Lime — Building Stone — Gypsum Clays — 
Soil — Mineral Paint — Spring and Well-water — Natural Curiosities — 
Climate, General Remarks — Professor Parvin's Tables — The Signal 
Service Statistics of the River Cities — Zoology — Soil and Agricultu- 
ral Productions — Iowa an Agricultural State — Statistics of its Crop? 
— Spring and Winter Wheat — Stock-raising — Dairy Farming — Popula- 
tion OF Iowa at Different Periods — Railroads and Steamboat Lines — 
The State Easy of Access — Public Lands — Railroad Lands — State 
Lands — Partially Improved Farms — Manufactures — Iowa as a Home 
for Immigrants — Education — Churches — Future Prospects of the 
State. 

Iowa, the name of one of the easternmost of the central belt 
of States and Territories composing " Our Western Empire," 
lying between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. The name, 
which was that of a river within its bounds, and also of the 
Indian tribe which dwelt on the banks of that river, is said to 
mean, in the Indian tongue, " The Beautiful Land." The Indians 
who eave it and themselves this name were not the original in- 
habitants of this region, but migrated hither from the country of 



THE IOWA INDIANS OR PAU-HOO-CHEES. 815 

the great lakes (perhaps Michigan) where they had borne the 
name of the Pau-hoo-chees, about 1690. They increased in 
numbers and power here till they became the most formidable of 
the Indian tribes of the Northwest except the Sioux, with whom 
they were constantly at war. That portion of the State lying on 
the Mississippi is supposed to have been visited by Father Hen- 
nepin in 1680, and it was probably in consequence of his explo- 
rations that the French government soon after took formal pos- 
session of it and erected two or three trading-posts along the 
river. Their occupation of the Territory was, however, of so tri- 
fling a character as not to excite the displeasure of the Iowa 
chief, Mau-hau-gaw, or his successors, Mahaska I. and II. 
Their power remained undiminished, though the French title to 
this as a part of the province of Louisiana had passed to Spain 
in 1763, returned to France in 1800, and been purchased as 
Louisiana Territory by the United States in 1803. In this long 
interval, two or three French families had settled in the Terri- 
tory. Notable among these was Julian Dubuque, who, in 1788, 
settled on the banks of the Mississippi, and commenced trading 
and mining lead there. Eleven years later another Frenchman, 
Louis Honori, established himself as a trader at the head of the 
" rapids of the river Des Moines." But the power of the lowas 
was beginning to wane. They had fought off their old enemies, 
the Sioux, and held possession of most of the Territory, but a new 
enemy now came upon them. The Sacs and Foxes, Illinois 
tribes, finding civilization pressing hard upon them, crossed the 
river about 1824, and began to make encroachments upon the 
hunting-grounds of the lowas. Conflicts followed, and finally, 
about 1828, a fierce battle was fought between the invaders and 
the invaded near the present village of lowaville, in Davis 
county, in which, after a long and terrible struggle, the lowas 
were vanquished and the Sacs and Foxes occupied their hunting- 
grounds along the Mississippi. The lowas moved sullenly 
westward, and finally crossed the Missouri. When the whites 
began to setde west of the Mississippi, in what was then the 
Territory of Missouri, in 1831 and 1832, the Sacs and Foxes 
were the occupants of all the eastern and southern pordons of 



8i6 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the Territory, while the warlike Sioux held undisputed posses- 
sion of the northern portion, about the headwaters of the Des 
Moines and the lakes. At this time the lowas, once so powerful 
and warlike a tribe, had been reduced, in their new home beyond 
the Missouri, by wars, whiskey and small-pox to about 1,300 
souls. 

After the close of the " Black Hawk War," in 1833, the power 
of the Sac chief. Black Hawk, waned, and his rival, Keokuk, who 
had favored peace with the whites, was recognized as the chief 
of the Sacs and Foxes. Black Hawk died in October, 1838, on 
the Des Moines river. 

Let us now recapitulate its political or civil history, aside from 
any claim of Indian proprietorship, which in this case, as we have 
seen, was merely the right of the strongest. 

1. It was first claimed by France in 1682 or 1683, by virtue of 
Hennepin's discovery. 

2. In 1 763, as a part* of the province of Louisiana, it was ceded 
to Spain. 

3. October i, 1800, it was retroceded with the same bounda- 
ries by Spain to France. 

4. April 30, 1803, France ceded the province of Louisiana to 
the United States. 

5. October 31, 1803, a temporary government was authorized 
by Congress for the newly acquired Territory. 

6. October i, 1804, it was included in the "District of Louisi- 
ana," and placed under the jurisdiction of the territorial gov- 
ernment of Indiana. 

7. July 4, 1805, it was included as a part of the "Territory of 
Louisiana," then organized with a separate territorial govern- 
ment. 

8. June 4, 181 2, it was embraced in what was then made the 
"Territory of Missouri." 

9. June 28, 1834, it became part of the "Territory of Michi- 
gan." 

10. July 3, 1836, it was included as a part of the newly organ- 
ized " Territory of Wisconsin." 

11. June 12, 1838, it was included in, and constituted a part 
of the newly organized " Territory of Iowa." 



AKEA AND EXTENT OF lOlVA. 317 

12. December 28, 1846, it was admitted into the Union as a 
State. 

A7'ea and Extent. — Iowa is about 300 miles in length, east and 
west, and a litde over 200 miles in breadth, north and south ; 
having nearly the figure of a rectangular parallelogram. Its 
northern boundary is the parallel of 43° 30', separating it from 
the State of Minnesota. Its southern limit is nearly on the line 
of 40° 31' from the point where this parallel crosses the Des 
Moines river, westward. From this point to the southeast cor- 
ner of the State, a distance of about thirty miles, the Des Moines 
river forms the boundary line between Iowa and Missouri. The 
two great rivers of the North American continent form the east 
and west boundaries, except that portion of the western boun- 
dary adjoining the Territory of Dakota. The Big Sioux river 
from its mouth, two miles above Sioux City, forms the western 
boundary up to the point where it intersects the parallel of 43° 
30'. These limits embrace an area of 55,045 square miles; or, 
35,228,800 acres. When it is understood that all this vast ex- 
tent of surface, except that which is occupied by the rivers, lakes 
and peat-beds of the northern counties, is susceptible of the 
highest cultivation, some idea may be formed of the immense 
agricultural resources of the State. Iowa is nearly as large as 
England, and twice as large as Scotland ; but when we consider 
the relative area of surface which may be made to yield to the 
wants of man, those countries of the Old World will bear no 
comparison with Iowa. 

Surface. — The surface of the State is remarkably uniform, 
rising to nearly the same general altitude. There are no moun- 
tains, and yet but little of the surface is level or flat. The whole 
State presents a succession of gentle elevations and depressions, 
with some bold and picturesque bluffs along the principal streams. 
The western portion of the State is generally more elevated than 
the eastern, the northwestern part being the highest. Nature 
could not have provided a more perfect system of drainage, and 
at the same time leave the country so completely adapted to all 
the purposes of agriculture. Looking at the map of Iowa, we 
see two systems of streams or rivers running nearly at right 
52 



3t^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

angles with each other. The streams which discharge their 
waters into the Mississippi flow from the northwest to the south- 
east, while those of the other system flow toward the southwest, 
and empty into the Missouri. The former drain about three- 
fourths of the State, and the latter the remaining one-fourth. 
The water-shed dividing the two systems of streams represents 
the highest portion of the State, and gradually descends as you 
follow its course from northwest to southeast. Low-water mark 
in the Missouri river at Council Bluffs is about 425 feet above 
low-water mark in the Mississippi at Davenport. At the cross- 
ing of the summit, or water-shed, 245 miles west of Davenport, 
the elevation is a,bout 960 feet above the Mississippi. The Des 
Moines river at the city of Des Moines has an elevation of 227 
feet above the Mississippi at Davenport, and is 198 feet lower 
than the Missouri at Council Bluffs. The elevation of the east- 
ern border of the State at McGregor is about 624 feet above 
the level of the sea, while the highest elevation in the northwest 
portion of the State is about 1,400 feet above the level of the 
sea. In addition to the grand water-shed mentioned above, as 
dividing the waters of the Mississippi and Missouri, there are 
between the principal streams, elevations commonly called " di- 
vides," which are drained by numerous streams of a smaller size 
tributary to the rivers. The valleys along the streams have a 
deep, rich soil, but are scarcely more fertile than many portions 
of these undulating prairie "divides." 

Rivers. — As stated above, the rivers of Iowa are divided into 
two systems or classes — those flowing into the Mississippi, and 
those flowing into the Missouri. The Mississippi, the largest 
river on the continent, and one of the largest in the world, 
washes the entire eastern border of the State, and is most of 
the year navigable for a large class of steamers. The only 
serious obstructions to steamers of the largest size are what are 
known as the Lower Rapids, just above the mouth of the Des 
Moines. The government of the United States has constructed 
a canal, or channel, around these rapids on the Iowa side of the 
river — a work which will prove of immense advantage to the com- 
merce of Iowa for all time to come. The principal rivers which 



RIVERS OF IOWA. 3jg 

flow through the interior of the State, east of the water-shed, are 
the Des Moines, Skunk, Iowa, Wapsiplnicon, Maquoketa, Turkey 
•and Upper Iowa, One of the largest rivers of the State is the 
Red Cedar, which rises in Minnesota, and flowing in a south- 
easterly direction, joins its waters with the Iowa river in Louisa 
county, only about thirty miles from its mouth, that portion 
below the junction retaining the name of Iowa river, although it 
is really the smaller stream. 

The Des Moines is the largest interior river of the State, and 
rises in a group or chain of lakes in Minnesota, not far from the 
Iowa border. It really has its sources in two principal branches, 
called East and West Des Moines, which, after flowing about 
seventy miles through the northern portion of the State, converge 
to their junction in the southern part of Humboldt county. The 
Des Moines receives a number of large tributaries, among which 
are Raccoon and three rivers (North, South and Middle) on the 
west, and Boone river on the east. Raccoon (or 'Coon) rises in 
the vicinity of Storm lake, in Buena Vista county, and after re- 
ceiving several tributaries, discharges its waters into the Des 
Moines river, within the limits of the city of Des Moines. This 
stream affords many excellent mill privileges, some of which have 
been improved. The Des Moines flows from northwest to south- 
east, not less than 300 miles through Iowa, and drains over 10,000 
square miles of its territory. At an early day, steamboats at 
certain seasons of the year navigated this river as far up as the 
" Raccoon Forks," and a large grant of land was made by Con- 
gress to the State for the purpose of improving its navigation. 
The land was subsequently diverted to the construction of the 
Des Moines Valley Railroad. Before this diversion several dams 
were erected on the lower portion of the river, which afford a 
vast amount of hydraulic power to that part of the State. 

The next river above the Des Moines is Skunk, which has its 
source in Hamilton county north of the centre of the State. It 
traverses a southeast course, having two principal branches — 
their aggregate length being about 450 miles. They drain 
about 8,000 square miles of territory, and afford many excellent 
mill sites. 



g2o <5<^^^' IVE STERN EMPIRE. 

The next is Iowa river, which rises in several branches among 
the lakes in Hancock and Winnebago counties, in the northern 
part of the State. Its great eastern branch is Red Cedar, having 
its source among the lakes in Minnesota. In size, Red Cedar is 
the second interior river of the State, and is of great importance as 
affording immense water-power. Shell Rock river is a tributary 
of Red Cedar, and is valuable to Northern Iowa, on account of 
its fine water-power. The aggregate length of Iowa and Red 
Cedar rivers is about 500 miles, and they drain about 12,000 
square miles of territory. 

The Wapsipinicon river rises in Minnesota, and flows in a 
southeasterly direcdon over 200 miles through Iowa, draining, 
with its branches, a belt of territory only about twelve miles 
wide. This stream is usually called " Wapsi " by the setders, 
and is valuable as furnishing good water-power for machinery. 

Maquoketa river, the next considerable tributary of the Mis- 
sissippi, is about 160 miles long, and drains about 3,000 square 
miles of territory. 

Turkey river is about 1 30 miles long, and drains some 2,000 
square miles. It rises in Howard county, runs southeast, and 
empdes into the Mississippi near the south line of Clayton 
county. 

Upper Iowa river also rises in Howard county, flows nearly 
east, and empties into the Mississippi near the northeast corner 
of the State, passing through a narrow, but picturesque and 
beautiful valley. This portion of the State is somewhat broken, 
and the streams have cut their channels deeply into the rocks, 
so that in many places they are bordered by bluffs from 30c to 
400 feet high. They flow rapidly, and furnish ample water- 
power at numerous points. 

Having mentioned the rivers which drain the eastern three- 
fourths of the State, we will now cross the great "water-shed" 
to the Missouri and its tributaries. 

The Missouri river, forming a little over two-thirds of the 
length of the western boundary line, is navigable for large-sized 
steamboats for a distance of 1,950 miles above the point (Sioux 
City) where it first touches the western border. It is, therefore, 



THE MISSOURI AND BIG SIOUX RIVERS. 821 

a highway of no little importance to the commerce of Western 
Iowa. During the season of navigation last year, over fifty. 
steamers ascended the river above Sioux City, most of which, 
were laden with stores for the mining region above Fort Benton. 
We will now refer to the larger tributaries of the Missoni, which 
drain the western portion of Iowa. 

The Big Sioux river forms about seventy miles of the western 
boundary of the State, its general course being nearly fn -m north, 
to south. It has several small tributaries, draining the counties 
of Plymouth, Sioux, Lyon, Osceola and O'Brien, in NortL western 
Iowa. One of the most important of these is Rock river — a bt ;- 
tiful little stream runnino; throuo;h the counties of L,?n and 
Sioux. It is supported by springs, and affords a volume of 
water sufficient for propelling machinery. Big Sioux river v/ac 
once regarded as a navigable stream, and steamboats of a small 
size have on several occasions ascended it for some distance. It 
is not, however, now considered a safe stream for navigation. 
It empties into the Missouri about two miles above Sioux City, 
and some four miles below the northwest corner of Woodbury 
county. It drains about i,ooo square miles of Iowa territory. 

Just below Sioux City, Floyd river empties into the Missouri. 
It is a small stream, but flows through a rich and beautiful valley. 
Its length is about lOO miles, and it drains nearly 1,500 square 
miles of territory. Several mills have been erected on this 
stream, and there are other mill sites which will doubtless be 
improved in due time. 

Little Sioux river is one of the most important streams of 
Northwestern Iowa. It rises in the vicinity of Spirit and Okoboji 
lakes, near the Minnesota line, and meanders through various 
counties a distance of nearly 300 miles to its confluence with 
the Missouri near the northwest corner of Flarrison county. 
With its tributaries it drains not less than 5,000 square miles. 
Several small mills have been erected on this stream, and others 
doubtless will be when needed. 

Boyer river is the next stream of considerable size below the 
Little Sioux, It rises in Sac county and flows southwest to the 
Missouri in Pottawotamie county. Its entire length is about 



g22 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

150 miles, and drains not less than 2,000 square miles of terri- 
tory. It is a small stream, meandering through a rich and lovely- 
valley. The Chicago and Northwestern Railroad passes down 
this valley some sixty miles. 

Going down the Missouri, and passing several small streams, 
which have not been dignified with the name of rivers, we come 
to the Nishnabotna, which empties into the Missouri some twenty 
liiiles below the southwest corner of our State. It has three 
principal branches, with an aggregate length of 350 miles. 
These streams drain about 5,000 square miles of Southwestern 
T'owc . They flow through valleys of unsurpassed beauty and 
iiertility, and furnish good water-power at various points, though 
in this respect they are not equal to the streams in the north- 
eastern portion of the State. 

The Southern portion of the State is drained by several streams 
that flow into the Missouri river, in the State of Missouri. The 
most Important of these are Chariton, Grand, Platte, One Hun- 
dred and Two, and the three Nodaways — East, West and Middle. 
All of these afford water-power for machinery, and present 
splendid valleys of rich farming lands. 

We have above only mentioned the streams that have been 
designated as rivers, but there are many other streams of great 
importance and value to different portions of the State, draining 
the country, furnishing mill-sites, and adding to the variety and 
beauty of the scenery. So admirable is the natural drainage of 
almost the entire State, that the farmer who has not a stream 
of living water on his premises is an exception to the general 
rule. 

Lakes. — In some of the northern counties of Iowa there are 
many small, but beautiful lakes, some of which we will notice. 
They are a part of the system of lakes extending far northward 
into Minnesota, and most of them present many interesting fea- 
tures which the limits of our sketch will not permit us to give in 
detail. The following are among the most noted of the lakes of 
Northern Iowa: Clear lake, in Cerro Gordo county; Rice lake, 
Silver lake, and Bright's lake, in Worth county; Crystal lake, 
Eagle lake, Lake Edward, and Twin lakes, im Hancock county; 



THE LAKES OF IOWA. 823 

Owl lake, in Humboldt county; Lake Gertrude, Lake Cornelia, 
Elm lake, and Wall lake, in Wright county; Lake Caro, in Ham- 
ilton county; Twin lakes, in Calhoun county; Wall lake, in Sac 
county; Swan lake, in Emmet county; Storm lake, in Buena 
Vista county; and Okoboji and Spirit lakes, in Dickinson county. 
Nearly all of these are deep and clear, abounding in many 
excellent varieties of fish, which are caught abundantly by the 
setders at all proper seasons of the year. The name "Wall 
Lake," applied to several of these bodies of water, is derived 
from the fact that a line or ridge of boulders extends around 
them, giving them somewhat the appearance of having been 
walled. Most of them exhibit the same appearance in this 
respect to a greater or less extent. Lake Okoboji, Spirit lake, 
Storm lake, and Clear lake are the largest of the Northern Iowa 
lakes. All of them, except Storm lake, have fine bodies of tim- 
ber on their borders. Lake Okoboji is about fifteen miles long, 
and from a quarter of a mile to two miles wide. Spirit lake, 
just north of it, embraces about ten square miles, the northern 
border extending to the Minnesota line. Storm lake is in size 
about three miles east and west by two north and south. Clear 
lake is about seven miles long by two miles wide. The dry 
rolling land usually extends up to the borders of these lakes, 
making them delightful resorts for excursion or fishing parties, 
and they are now attracting attention as places of resort, on 
account of the beauty of their natural scenery, as well as the 
inducements which they afford to hunting and fishing parties. 

Prairie and Timber. — One of the peculiar features of the 
topography of the northwest is the predominance of prairies. 
It has been estimated that about nine-tenths of the surface of 
Iowa is prairie. The timber is generally found in heavy bodies 
skirting the streams and lakes, but there are also many isolated 
groves standing, like islands in the sea, far out on the prairies. 
The eastern half of the State contains a larger proportion of 
timber than the western. The following are the leading varie- 
ties of timber: White, black, and burr oak, black walnut, of ex- 
cellent quality, but now almost entirely picked out and shipped 
to England, butternut, hickory, hard and soft maple, cherry, red 



82J, OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

and white elm, ash, linn, hackberry, birch, honey locust, cotton- 
wood, and quaking asp. A few sycamore trees are found in 
certain localities alone the streams. Groves of red cedar also 
prevail, especially along Iowa and Cedar rivers, and a few 
isolated pine trees are scattered along the bluffs of some of the 
streams in the northern part of the State. 

The oreat demand for timber for railroad construction, for 
ties, stations, bridges, and for a time for fuel, as well as for dwell- 
ings, telegraph poles, for agricultural and mining machinery, and 
mine supports, has within the last decade nearly stripped Iowa 
of its most valuable timber ; and the English movement for cull- 
ing out all her valuable black walnut trees, working them up 
roughly by portable saw-mills, and shipping the timber at once, 
is likely to deprive the country of one of its best sources of 
supply of this valuable wood. 

Nearly all kinds of timber common to Iowa have been found 
to grow rapidly when transplanted upon the prairies, or when 
propagated from the planting of seeds. Only a few years and a 
lltde expense are required for the setder to raise a grove suffi- 
•rlent to afford him a supply of fuel. The kinds most easily 
propagated, and of rapid growth, are cottonwood, maple, and 
walnut. All our prairie soils are adapted to their growth. 
Tree-planting is encouraged by national and State laws, and is 
now actively practised, but it will be long before these trees will, 
blither in quality or quantity, supply the loss of those which have 
been so recklessly sacrificed. 

Geology and Mineralogy. — The surface geology of Iowa, like 
that of Nebraska and pardy of Kansas, is peculiar and very 
interestine from its relation to the soil of the State. Far back 
in the glacial period this whole region, including Iowa. South- 
eastern Dakota, Nebraska, and Eastern Kansas, was less ele- 
vated thar. It now is, and formed the bed of a vast lake at least 
500 miles in length and nearly that in width. Through this lake 
flowed the Missouri, which had then received its greatest affluent, 
the Yellowstone. Its other principal tributaries at that time 
(lowed into the lake. For ages numerous streams brought Into 
\he lake the debris of mountain and hill, and the glaciers added 



lOJVA COAL. 325 

their contribution from their moraines. At length there came a 
time of upheaval ; this vast lake was drained till it became an 
immense marsh of soft and plastic mud ; through this the rivers 
ploughed their way, cutting through the deposits of gravel, of 
silica, and of decayed vegetation easily, and left on either side 
high bluffs, which, however, having no rocky bond of union, often 
crumbled and fell into the streams. After another long period 
the marsh became dry land, and its surface, composed of drift 
or gravel, loess or bluff deposit, a very fine and rich silicious 
powder, and alluvium as the result of decayed vegetation, fur- 
nished the finest soil in the world. But beneath this surface, 
which is of varying, though everywhere of considerable thick- 
ness, the rivers, which have plowed their way through its lowest 
layers, reveal other important and economically valuable strata. 
The cretaceous beds underlie this vast alluvial and diluvial 
deposit, and below them we come to the coal measures of the 
carboniferous era, whose existence was first discovered from 
their outcrop in the river bluffs. 

"The coal of Iowa is bituminous, and is a true coal, not a lig- 
nite. It covers an area of at least 20,000 square miles, and coal 
is successfully mined in more than thirty counties of the State. 
It is not of identical quality in all parts of the coal field, but that 
produced in Appanoose, Boone, Davis, Dallas, Hamilton, Har- 
din,- Jefferson, Mahaska, Marion, Monroe, Polk, Van Buren, 
Wapello, Webster, and perhaps some other counties, is of excel- 
lent quality and easily raised. 

"The great productive coal field of Iowa is embraced chiefly 
within the valley of the Des Moines river and its tributaries, ex- 
tending up the valley from Lee county nearly to the north line 
of Webster county. Within the coal field embraced by this val- 
ley deep mining is nowhere necessary. The Des Moines and 
its larger tributaries have generally cut their channels down 
throuofh all the coal measure sfrata. 

"The coal of Iowa is equal in quality and value to coal of the 
same class in other parts of the world. The veins which have 
so far been worked are from three to eight feet in thickness, but 
it is not necessary to dig from one thousand to two thousand feet 



826 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



to reach the coal, as miners are obliged to do in some countries. 
But little coal has in this State been raised from a depth greater 
than one hundred feet. 

" Professor Gustavus Hinrich, of the State University, who 
also officiated as State Chemist in the prosecution of the State 
geological survey, gives an analysis showing the comparative 
value of Iowa coal with that of other countries. The following 
is from a table prepared by him — lOO representing the combus- 
tible : 



Name and Locality. 



Brown coal, from Arbesan, Bohemia . 
Brown coal, from Bilin, Bohemia . . 
Bituminous coal, from Bentheu, Silesia 
Cannel coal, from Wigan, England 
Anthracite, from Pennsylvania . 
Iowa coals — average 

















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t 


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u 










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O" 


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U 


pa 


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36 


64 


3 


II 


114 


88 


40 


67 


16 


00 


123 


81 


51 


49 


21 


5 


126 


80 


61 


39 


10 


3 


113 


«7 


94 


6 


2 


2 


104 


96 


50 


50 


5 


5 


no 


90 



"In this table the excess of the equivalent above 100, ex- 
presses the amount of impurities (ashes and moisture) in the 
coal. The analysis shows that the average Iowa coals contain 
only ten parts of impurities for one part of combustible (carbon 
and bitumen) being the purest of all the samples analyzed except 
the anthracite from Pennsylvania. 

"Twelve years ago (in 1868) the production of this coal in 
Iowa was reported as 241,453 tons, or more than six million 
bushels. It has increased steadily since that time, and in 1877 
had reached over 1,500,000 tons, or about forty million bushels. 
It is still increasing, and is used in several of the adjacent States. 

''Peat. — During the last thirteen or fourteen years large deposits 
of peat, existing in several of the northern counties of the State, 
have attracted considerable attention. In 1866, Dr. White, the 
State Geologist, made careful observations in some of those 
counties, including Franklin, Wright, Cerro Gordo, Hancock, 
Winnebago, Worth and Kossuth. In 1869, Hon. A. R. Fulton 
dlso visited the counties named, and from personal observation 



THE PEAT BEDS. 827 

was convinced that the deposits of peat were as extensive as repre- 
sented by the State Geologist. It is estimated that the counties 
above named contain an average of at least four thousand acres 
each of good peat lands. The depth of the beds is from four 
to ten feet, and the quality is but little, if any, inferior to that of 
Ireland. As yet, but litde use has been made of it as fuel, but 
when it is considered that it lies wholly beyond the coal-field, in 
a sparsely timbered region of the State, its prospective value is 
regarded as very great. Dr. White estimates that i6o acres of 
peat, four feet deep, will supply two hundred and thirteen fami- 
lies with fuel for upwards of twenty-five years. It must not be 
inferred that the presence of these peat beds in that part of the 
State is in any degree prejudicial to health, for such is not the 
case. The dry, rolling prairie land usually comes up to the very 
border of the peat marsh, and the winds, or breezes, which pre- 
vail through the summer season, do not allow water to become 
stagnant. Nature seems to have designed these peat deposits 
to supply the deficiency of other material for fuel. The penetra 
tion of this portion of the State by railroads and the rapid 
growth of timber may leave a resort to peat for fuel as a matter 
of choice, and not of necessity. It therefore remains to be seen 
of what economic value in the future the peat beds of Iowa may 
be. Peat has also been found in Muscatine, Linn, Clinton, and 
other eastern and southern counties of the State, but the fertile 
region of Northern Iowa, least favored with other kinds of fuel, 
is peculiarly the peat region of the State. Neither gold nor sil- 
ver has been found in Iowa, except a very small percentage of 
the latter in the galena or lead ores. 

"■Lead. — Since the year 1833, large quantities of lead have 
been mined in the vicinity of Dubuque, and the business is still 
carried on successfully. From four to six million pounds of ore 
have been smelted annually at the Dubuque mines, yielding from 
sixty-eight to seventy per cent, of lead. So far as known, the 
lead deposits of Iowa that may be profitably worked are con- 
fined to a belt of four or five miles in width along the Mississippi, 
above and below the city of Dubuque. 

''Other Metals. — Iron, copper and zinc have been found in 



g28 OUR WESTER ^r EMPIRE. 

limited quantities in different parts of the State — the last-named 
metal being chiefly associated with the lead deposits. 

"Lime. — Good material for the manufacture of quick-lime is 
found in abundance in nearly all parts of the State. Even in the 
northwestern counties, where there are but few exposures of 
rock * in place,' limestone is found among the boulders scattered 
over the prairies and about the lakes. So abundant is limestone, 
suitable for the manufacture of quick-lime, that it is needless to 
mention any particular locality as possessing superior advan- 
tages in furnishing this useful building material. At the fallow- 
ing points parties have been engaged somewhat extensively in 
the manufacture of lime, to wit: Fort Dodge, Webster county; 
Springvale, Humboldt county ; Orford and Indiantown, Tama 
county; Iowa Falls, Hardin county; Mitchell, Mitchell county; 
and at nearly all the towns along the streams northeast of Cedar 
river. 

''Building Stone. — There is no scarcity of good building stone 
to be found along nearly all the streams east of the Des Moines 
river, and along that stream from its mouth up to the north line 
of Humboldt county. Some of the counties west of the Des 
Moines, as Cass and Madison, as well as most ot the southern 
counties of the State, are supplied w^ith good building stone. 
Building stone of peculiarly fine quality is quarried at and near 
the following places: Keosauqua, Van Buren county; Mt. 
Pleasant, Henry county ; Fairfield, Jefferson county ; Ottumwa, 
Wapello county; Winterset, Madison county; Fort Dodge, 
Webster county; Springvale and Dakota, Humboldt county; 
Marshalltown, Marshall county; Orford, Tama county; Vinton, 
Benton county ; Charles City, Floyd county ; Mason City, Cerro 
Gordo county; Mitchell and Osage, Mitchell county; Anamosa, 
Jones county; Iowa Falls, Hardin county; Hampton, Franklin 
county; and at nearly all points along the Mississippi river. 
In some places, as in Marshall and Tama counties, several spe- 
cies of marble are found, which are susceptible of the finest 
finish, and are very beautiful. 

''Gypsum. — One of the finest and purest deposits of gypsum 
known in the world exists at Fort Dodge, in this State. It is 



MINERALS AND SOIL OF IOWA. 826 

confined to an area of about six by three miles on both sides of 
the Des Moines river, and is found to be from twenty-five to 
thirty feet in thickness. The main deposit is of uniform gray 
color, but large masses of almost pure white (resembling alabas- 
ter) have been found embedded in the main deposits. The quan- 
tity of this article is practically inexhaustible, and the time will 
certainly come when it will be a source of wealth to that part of 
the State. So far, it has only been used to a limited extent for 
paving and building purposes, if we except the fraud practised 
upon our Eastern cousins by those who manufactured from it that 
great humbug and swindle of the century, the ' Cardiff Giant! ' 
Plaster-of-paris manufactured from the Fort Dodge gypsum has 
been found equal to the best in quality. 

''Clays. — In nearly all parts of the State the material suitable 
for the manufacture of brick is found in abundance. Sand is ob- 
tained in the bluffs along the streams and in their beds. Potter's 
clay, and fire-clay suitable for fire-brick, are found in many 
places. An excellent article of fire-brick is made at Eldora, 
Hardin county, where there are also several extensive potteries 
in operation. Fire-clay is usually found underlying the coal- 
seams. There are extensive potteries in operation in the coun- 
ties of Lee, Van Buren, Des Moines, Wapello, Boone, Hamilton, 
Hardin, and perhaps others. 

''Soil. — It is supposed that there is nowhere upon the globe an 
equal area of surface with so small a proportion of untillable land 
as we find in Iowa. The soil is generally a drift deposit, with a 
deep covering of vegetable mould, and on the highest prairies is 
almost equal in fertility to the alluvial valleys of the rivers in 
other States. The soil in the valleys of our streams is largely 
alluvial, producing a rapid and luxuriant growth of all kinds of 
vegetation. The valleys usually vary in extent according to the 
size of the stream. On the Iowa side of the Missouri river, from 
the southwest corner of the State to Sioux City, a distance of 
over one hundred and fifty miles, there is a continuous belt of 
alluvial ' bottom,' or valley land, varying in width from five to 
twenty miles, and of surpassing fertility. This valley is bordered 
by a continuous line of bluffs, rising from one to two hundred 



gjo OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

feet, and presenting many picturesque outlines when seen at a 
distance. The bluffs are composed of a peculiar formation, to 
which has been given the name of loess or ' bluff deposit.' It is 
of a yellow color, and is composed of a fine silicious matter, with 
some clay and limey concretions. This deposit in many places 
extends eastward entirely across the counties bordering the Mis- 
souri river, and is of great fertility, promoting a luxuriant growth 
of grain and vegetables. 

''Mineral Paint. — In Montgomery county a fine vein of clay, 
containing a large proportion of ochre, was several years ago 
discovered, and has been extensively used in that part of the 
State for painting barns and out-^houses. It is of a dark red 
color, and is believed to be equal in quality, if properly manufac- 
tured, to the mineral paints imported from other States. The 
use of it was first introduced by Mr. J. B. Packard, of Red Oak, 
on whose land there is an extensive deposit of this material. 

"Spring and Well Water. — As before stated, the surface of 
Iowa is generally drained by the rolling or undulating character 
of the country, and the numerous streams, large and small. 
This fact might lead some to suppose that it might be difficult to 
procure good spring or well water for domestic uses. Such, 
however, is not the case, for good pure well water is easily ob- 
tained all over the State, even on the highest prairies. It is 
rarely necessary to dig more than thirty feet deep to find an 
abundance of that most indispensable element, good water. 
Along the streams are found many springs breaking out from 
the banks, affording a constant supply of pure water. As a rule, 
it is necessary to dig deeper for well water in the timber portions 
of the State, than on the prairies. Nearly all the spring and 
well waters of the State contain a small proportion of lime, as 
they do in the Eastern and Middle States. There are some 
springs which contain mineral properties, similar to the springs 
often resorted to by invalids and others in other States. In 
Davis county there are some 'Salt Springs,' as they are com- 
monly called, the water being found to contain a considerable 
amount of common salt, sulphuric acid, and other mineral ingre- 
dients. Mineral waters are found in different parts of the State. 



CLIMATE OF IOWA. g^j 

^'Natural Curiosities. — Aside from Its walled lakes and some 
very beautiful waterfalls, the State does not abound in natural 
wonders. The ' Ice Cave ' at Decorah, in the northeastern part 
of the State, deserves notice. It is under a bluff on the north 
bank of the upper Iowa river, and has this wonderful peculiarity 
that while in winter no ice is to be found in it, it forms in spring 
and summer, and thaws out again upon the advent of cold 
weather. Nine miles east of Decorah, on Trout river, there is 
an underground stream navigable for canoes, and which has 
been explored for a long distance. 

''Cliinatc and Meteorology. — The average or mean temperature, 
from a series of observations taken at different points and in 
different years, is found to be 48°. The temperature of the win- 
ters is usually somewhat lower than that of the Eastern States, 
but that of the other seasons higher, so that all vegetation is 
forced forward rapidly to maturity. There is a somewhat less 
average amount of rain than that which falls in the States bor- 
dering on the Atlantic. The quantity which falls yearly in Iowa 
is lound to average about forty and one-half inches, and of snow 
thirty inches — equivalent to three inches of rain, making a total 
of forty-three and one-half inches. There is occasionally a sea- 
son which greatly exceeds the average in the fall of rain, but 
never one marked with such extreme drought as to occasion a 
failure of crops. 

"The opinion may prevail to some extent that the climate, 
especially of Northern Iowa, is rigorous, and the winters long 
and severe. It is true that the mercury usually sinks lower than 
in the States farther south, but at the same time the atmosphere 
is dry and invigorating, and the seasons not marked by the fre- 
quent and sudden changes which are experienced in latitudes 
farther south. The winters are equally as pleasant and more 
healthful than in the Eastern or Middle States. Pulmonary and 
other diseases, arising from frequent changes of temperature 
and miasmatic influences, are almost unknown, unless contracted 
elsewhere. Winter usually commences in December and ends 
in March. The spring, summer, and fall months* are delightful. 
Iowa is noted for the glory and beauty of its autumns. That 



832 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



gorgeous season denominated 'Indian summer' cannot be de- 
scribed, and in Iowa it is peculiarly charming. Day after day, 
for weeks, the sun is veiled in a hazy splendor, while the forests 
are tinged with the most gorgeous hues, imparting to all nature 
something of the enchantments of fairyland. Almost imper- 
ceptibly, these golden days merge into winter, which holds its 
stern reign without the disagreeable changes experienced in 
other climes, until spring ushers in another season of life and 
beauty." 

We have endeavored to obtain definite and detailed statistics 
of the meteorology of localities which should represent as fully 
as possible the differences of temperature and rainfall, etc., in 
different sections of the State. Our statistics are very full for 
the whole eastern border, and for some of the cities of the 
interior, but are defective for the western counties, though we 
know in general that as we proceed westward the average tem- 
perature on the same parallels is somewhat higher, the winters a 
little less severe, and the rainfall slightly diminished as compared 
with those on the eastern border. The following statistics of 
the meteorology of Muscatine and Iowa City are by Professor 
Parvin, and are from the averages of thirty years : 

Table showing the Average, or Alean Temperature of the Seasons, for the years 1839 to 1 869, 
inclusive ; also the Mean Temperature of the months nearest thereto, and the Extremes of 
Temperature. 



Seasons. 


Temperature. 


Months Nearest Seasons. 


SorinfT . ... 


47° 44' 
70° 37' 
44° 52' 
23° 37' 
47° 57' 


April 


48° 50' 
70° 70' 

49° 50' 
23° 25' 




Aupust 


Autumn ... 


October 


December 


Year 







RANGE OF TEMPERATURE. 



Highest 


99° OO'' 
-30° 00' 
129° 00'' 


August 31st, 1854. 
January l8th, 1857. 


Lowest 


Range .'. 



METEOROLOGY OF IOWA. 



333 



Table giving the MontJily Thermometrical Results in degrees for the years lS68 and 1869 — the 
ob^rvQfions being made at the door of the State University, Iowa City, by Prof. T. S. Parvin. 



Mp^HS. 



January.. . 
February . 
March .... 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August... . 
September 
October . . 
November 
December 

Sums... . 

Means . . 



6.4 
14.6 

36.2 

547 
63.8 

75-6 
60.9 
52.2 
42.9 
33-2 



48S.9 



40.7 



24.4 
32.1 
48.4 
52.2 
71.0 

78.5 
89.1 
78.7 
66.2 
58.4 
43-9 
28.2 



nz 

21. 1 

430 
44.0 
61.7 

693 
76.5 
69.4 
59-6 
48.3 
36.6 
20.9 



673-1 5637 



56.1, 46,9 



50 

55 
75 
78 

84 
92 
96 
92 
81 
IZ 
63 
50 



576.151 889 



'3-37 
25.29 
42.69 
44.69 
61.69 

70.75 
80.79 
69.12 
58.76 
49.84 

37-97 
21.19 



-16 

-27 

3 
18 

46 
47 
53 
48 

32 

30 

18 

-18 



234 
48.01 74 19 







1 


369. 












c 












% 






7 


2 


9 


£ 


E 


g 








>, 


3 




A. M. 


p. M. 


p. M. 


.5 


E 


E 








c 



« 


B 








-* 


S 


% 




















18.9 


34-1 


24.9 


26.02 


48 


-14 


19.9 


34-7 


27.4 


27.00 


62 


-^ 


22.3 


39-2 


29.7 


30.26 


72 


-12 


.S9-4 


55.6 


45.3 


47.09 


80 


20 


52.8 


69.8 


62.3 


60.01 


82 


40 


60.3 


75-2 


65.1 


66.07 


85 


44 


64.7 


7«.3 


70.0 


70.86 


86 


55 


68.8 


80.6 


74-9 


74-36 


93 


57 


56.1 


72.7 


62.3 


63-23 


88 


33 


34.7 


53-1 


40.8 


42.72 


78 


16 


27.5 


z'>^.z 


30.6 


32.12 


70 


5 


21.6 


29.9 


25-3 


25.46 


46 


- 2 


487.0691.5 


557.0565.20 


890 


234 


40.6 


57.6 


46.4I 47- 10 


74 


19 



Table giving the Monthly and Annual Quantity of Rain and Snow reduced to water ; the Maxi- 
mum, Minimum, and Alean Amounts from 1848./0 1869. 



Years. 


3 
c 
« 
•—1 




March. 


0, 

< 


May. 
June. 

July. 

August. 


1 

0. 


u 

2 



% 
> 



B 

1 


For 
the , 
Year; 

■ 


Mean ....... 


1.52 


2.21 


2.78: 3.79 


\ \ - 

4.95 4-59' 4-68 


5-69 


4.24 


3-65 ; 3-27 


2.34 


44.27 


Least 


.12 


.38 .43 .55 1.42 .21 .80 1.36 1.13 .21 .19 


•32 


23-3^5 


Greatest 


4.19 


580 


8.60 j 1 1.80I 12.60! 14.30! 8.6p 1 14.00! 9.92 !,9-i6 ! 5.76 

i 1 1 ! 11 1 1 


6.25 


74-49 



Table showing the Monthly and Annual Quantities of Snow in inches, for the years 1848 to 
1869, inclusive, according to records kept by Prof. T. S. Pai~vin, at Muscatine and Iowa City. 



Years. 


3 
>— < 






a. 
< 


October. 


November. 


E 
Q 


For 

the 

Years. 


Means 


6.70 


6.73 


3-93' 


.76 


.40 


4-73 


9.21 


33.23 




. .00 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.10 


7.90 




Greatest 


24-25 


27.00 


16.15 


6.00 


4.10 


30.00 


29.52 


61.97 



53 



834 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



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METEOROLOGY OF IOWA. 



835 



.. Table skowiKg the Dates cf the Earliest and Latest Frost and Ice for the years 1839 to 1869, 
inclusive ; also, the Time of Disappearance and Depth of Frost, and the Thickness of Ice 
from 1856 to 1869, according to records kept by Prof. T. S. Parvin, at Muscatine attd Iowa 
City, Iowa.. 



Years. 



1^39 

1840 

1841 

1842 

iJ^43 •■•• 

1844 

1845 

1846 

1847... 

1848 

1849 

1850 

1851 

T852 

1853 

1854 

1855 

1856 

1857 

185S 

1859 

i860 

1861 ,... 

1862; . ... .. ...i 

1863 

1864 ....i.. 

1865.... ,,^,.1. 

1866 .;■..•.. 

1867 

1868 

1869 



Apr. 17 
Apr. 27 
Apr. 12 
May 4 
May 2 
M.iy 21 
May 25 
Apr. 15 
May 26 
May 10 
May I 
Apr. 23 
May 5 
May 20 
May 25 
May 2 
May 6 
Apr. 19 
May 20 
Apr. 26 
Apr. 23 
May I 
May 4 
Apr, 24 
Aug. 25* 
May II 
May n 
May 2 
May 6 
Apr. 5 
May 19 



Latest May 26 

Earliest | Apr, 5 

Mean . | May 4 



Sept. 12 
Sept. 28 
Sept. II 
Sept. 17 
Oct. 8 
Oct. 10 
Sept. 21 
Oct. 2 
Oct. 9 
Sept, 23 
Oct. 8 
Sept. 7 
Sept. 28 
Sept. 26 
Sept. 10 
Oct. 5 
Sept. 27 
Sept. 24 
Oct. 14 
Sept. 12 
Sept. 2 
Sept. II 
Oct. 23 
Oct. II 
Aug. 29 
Sept. 19 
Oct. 2 
Sept. 21 
Oct. 23 
Sept. 17 
Sept. 26 

Oct. 23 

Aug. 29 



M ay 23 
Mar. 12 



Sept. 24 Apr. 10 



29 

12 
II 
II 

20 
20 
18 
18 
20 
20 
18 
20 
21 



II 

18 



Ice. 






A 




4J 




^ 


4) "■ 


jz 




1 i 




►J 


w a 




Mar. 25 


Nov. 7 




Apr. 18 


Oct. 3 




Apr. 14 


Oct. 17 




Apr. 28 


Oct. 19 




May I 


Oct. 8 




Mar. 30 


Oct. 16 




Apr. 8 


Oct. 5 




Apr, 13 


Oct. 18 




May 4 


Oct. 14 




Apr. 26 


Oct. I 




Apr, 20 


Oct. 13 




Apr. 23 


Sept. 29 




May I 


Oct. 15 




Apr. 22 


Sept. 26 




May 13 


Oct, 2 




May 2 


Oct. 15 




May 6 


Oct. 25 




Apr. 19 


Sept. 24 


27 


May 12 


Oct. 20 


12 


Apr. 16 


Oct. 7 


[O 


Apr. 23 


Oct. 6 


[O 


Apr. 2 


Oct. 24 


[I 


Apr. 16 


Sept. 24 . 


21 


Apr. 6 


Oct. 25 : 


20 


Apr. 8 


Oct. 7 


20 


Apr. 14 


Oct. 18 . 


JO 


Apr. 6 


Oct. 15 


t8 


Apr. 6 


Oct. 31 , 


24 


Apr. : 6 


Nov. 4 


18 


Apr. 8 


Nov. I 


22 


Apr. 13 
May 13 

Apr. 2 


Oct. 13 . 


20 

27 
[O 


Nov. 7 


Sept. 24 


Apr. 18 


Oct. 15 


18 



On page 834 we give the Signal Service statistics for Keokuk, 
Davenport, and Dubuque, which, though a little differently 

* The year 1863 was very cold, not only in Iowa, but throughout the country, and there was 
frost in evei^ month of the year. It has only once or twice in thirty years seriously injured the 
corn crop. When the spring is late the fall is generally lengthened, so that the crop has time 
to mature. 



536 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

arranged, give substantially the same particulars in regard to 
these cities ; the chapter on Nebraska will give the meteorology 
of Omaha, which very fairly represents Western Iowa. 

Zoology. — The wild animals of Iowa are rather those of the 
Mississippi valley than of the "Plains" or the Rocky Mountains. 
The buffalo and the antelope, which once coursed over its prairies, 
are not now among Its wild game ; and the elk (wapiti), if he 
ever had his habital in the State, has it no longer. The Virginia 
deer is abundant in some parts of the State, the black-tailed or 
mule deer is seldom if ever seen east of the Missouri river. 
Bears, the black or brown species, are still found, though less 
numerous than formerly. The felidce — panthers, wild cats and 
lynxes — and the mustelidcB — fishes, martens, minks, skunks (espe- 
cially the last), and the muskrat and beaver — are sufficiently 
numerous to reward the hunter and trapper for his labors. The 
gray wolf is much less abundant than formerly, and so is the 
yelping prairie wolf, perhaps miscalled coyote. The common 
or red fox is still found in considerable numbers, especially in the 
northern, western and southwestern parts of the State. Marmots 
or gophers, woodchucks or ground-hogs, the porcupine, the 
raccoon, and more rarely the opossum, are among the other 
wild animals of the State. Rabbits and hares, squirrels of sev- 
eral species, brown and black rats, half a dozen kinds of mice 
and moles of several species, are the other principal mammals 
of the State. Of birds and especially game birds Iowa has its 
full share. Wild geese, many species of ducks, brant and teal, 
a half dozen or more species of the grouse tribe, including the 
prairie-hen, the quail, the partridge and the ptarmigan, many 
species of snipe, woodcock and other waders, pigeons and doves 
of several species. Song-birds are also In great variety, and the 
birds of prey, especially eagles, vultures, hawks and owls, are 
sufficiendy numerous. There are not so many reptiles as in 
some States, though the number of serpents is considerably 
large, and Includes with many harmless species three or four 
poisonous serpents, among which two species of rattlesnakes are 
the most numerous. There are several species of batrachians, 
but no true saurians in the State. The numerous rivers, streams 



BETTER FARMING NEEDED. g^^ 

and lakes are well stocked widi fish, mosdy of edible species. 
There are many excellent trout streams, especially in the north 
and west of the State. 

Agriculture, Sail and Productions. — We have already described 
the constituents of the soil of the State. It is only necessary to 
say, further, that a soil from four to ten feet deep composed of 
these substances and with such rocks underlying it as those 
which constitute the basis of the Iowa lands, and an abundance 
of water both in its streams and the rainfall, should not be sur- 
passed in fertility by any soil on the globe. Yet bad farming 
may make even this soil less productive than it should be. If 
there is no rotation of crops, and the same fields are devoted to 
wheat or corn, or other cereals or root crops year after year, 
and the constituents thus drawn from the soil are not in any way 
returned to it ; if there is very shallow plowing, no manuring, 
.ind little or no care to eradicate weeds, it will not be matter for 
surprise if the yield of wheat or corn grows less and les^ with 
each year. 

In this neglect of deep plowing, rotation of crops, and the use 
of fertilizers, we do not mean to insinuate that Iowa farmers are 
sinners above the farmers of other States or Territories adjacent ; 
on the contrary we believe that much of the Iowa farming is 
better than that of the neighboring States. It is now thirty-four 
years since her admission into the Union as a State, and her 
eastern counties have been long cultivated. In many respects in 
the diversity of her products, the excellence and perfection of her 
fruits, and the wide introduction of new varieties from Northern 
and Northeastern Europe, and the general thrift of her farming, 
she is entitled to high commendation. But with that magnificent 
soil, and the constant breaking of new land for wheat, the first 
crop of which is usually the largest, and on lands immediately 
adjacent, in Dakota and Minnesota, yields from twenty-five to 
forty bushels to the acre, we cannot but think there is something 
wrong, when the average wheat crop of the State, year after year, 
is only from thirteen to fifteen bushels per acre. In Eno-land 
with a soil by no means so well adapted to wheat culture as 
that of Iowa, and after centuries of culture, the average crop is 



838 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

thirty-four bushels to the acre. Spring wheat is a more certain 
crop than winter wheat, yields better, and brings a higher price. 
Iowa is not quite so well adapted to corn as Illinois, Nebraska or- 
Kansas, an untimely frost sometimes, though rarely, injuring the 
crop ; but in average years she might very easily produce a much 
larger amount to the acre than she does, and with the attention 
she is giving to earlier ripening varieties of both corn and 
sorghum, she might make sure of a crop sufficiently early to 
escape all danger of frost save in an exceptional year like 1863, 
when there was frost every month. The average crop of corn 
per acre in the State ranges from thirty to thirty-five bushels per 
acre, an amount which leaves very little if any margin of profit. 
The Agricultural College of the State at Ames, in the centre of 
the State, raised in 1879, on new land and in a somewhat un- 
favorable year, fifty-seven bushels to the acre on sixty-five acres. 
The superintendent insists that eighty bushels to the acre ought 
to be 'the minimum crop in an average season with fair culture. 
It is a matter of satisfaction that in 1879 there was a small 
advance in the average product per acre. 

Oats are of excellent quality, but the yield is very much less 
per acre than it should be. In 1876 it was but twenty-three and 
a half bushels to the acre ; in 1878 thirty-six and a third bushels 
to the acre, and in 1879 thirty-six bushels. All over the State 
there are farms, where, with ordinarily good culture, oats, in 
large fields, average year after year sixty to sixty-five bushels 
per acre. 

Barley should yield somewhat more than wheat, especially on 
new lands, but the average yield, which should be from thirty-five 
to forty bushels, ranges from twenty to twenty-five bushels. 

Rye and buckwheat are for the most part raised on the poorest 
lands, and seldom yield more than from nine to twelve bushels 
per acre, and are not therefore profitable crops to raise. 

Potatoes, and the root crops generally, do well in Iowa, espe- 
cially on the western or Missouri slope, the soil being admirably 
adapted to them, but the yield, though fair, is not so large as it 
should be. At the Agricultural College at Ames, in the centre 
of the State, the yield averages about 240 bushels of potatoes to 



THE CROPS OF 1878 AND 1879. 83a- 

the acre; elsewhere it is much lower. With such a soil as that 
of Iowa, 350 bushels to the acre should be the minimum, in an^ 
ordinarily favorable year, and of turnips, beets, carrots, etc.,; 
from 600 to 750 bushels. \ bnk 

The following table shows the acreage, yield, quantity raised^ 
per acre, average price and total value of each of the principal 
crops of Iowa in 1878 and 1879, according to the United States 
Agricultural Department: 



Crops and unit 


The Crop of 


1878. 


The Crop of 


1879. 




>.-d 


2 




£ 


1 


>r6 


1. 


"-■S 


X. 


c 



of measure. 


II 




i^2 

3 S " 


1. 


3 

2 


iiantit 
oduce 


< 




I. 

0. u 


3 


1 


o;5. 


s s. 

> 

< 


^l 


<4 0. 
> 




O-o. 


3 u 


> 


2 


H 


Indian com, bus. 


175,256,400 


.37-4 


4,686,000 


Jo i6 


^28,041, 024 


191,600,000 


40. 


4,790,000 


^•24 


$47,421,000 


Wheat, 


30,440,960 


9-4 


3,238,400 


■ 50 


15,220,480 


37,485,000 


10,2 


3,675,000 




92 


34,486;2oo 


Rye, 


431,600 


16,6 


26,000 


35 


151,000 


437.250 


15.6 


27,500 




54 


236,115 


Oats, 


38,332,800 


^6.3 


i,o5,6,oco 


•13 


4,983,264 


37,008,000 


S6. 


1,028,000 




23 


8,511,840 


Barley, " 


5,088,000 


24- 


212,000 


•33 


1,679,040 


4,796,000 


22. 


218,000 




45 


2,158,200 


Buckwheat, " 


123,200 


14. 


8,800 


•51 


62,832 


i57>5oo 


18. 


8,750 




69 


106,925 


Potatoes, " 


10,070,000 


I.03 


100,700 


.26 


2,618,200 


8,901,000 


86. 


103,500 




32 


2,848,320 


Hay,* tons. 


3,564,000 


1.80 


1,980,000 


3.60 


12,830,400 


3,064,600 


1.54 


1,990,000 


4 


54 


i3.9'3,284 


11,307,900 


$65,586,300 


11,840,750 






11109,681,884 



Other crops have attained a considerable magnitude in Iowa. 
Among them we may name : Sorghum, which has been cultivated 
to a moderate extent for fifteen or twenty years, but in 1878, 
1879 and 1880 has taken a new departure. The Early Amber 
Sorghum, though not the most profitable variety in the amount 
of its yield of the saccharine juice, is yet better adapted than 
most of the others to Iowa, in consequence of its early ripening, 
the ripening of the seed being the condition precedent to the 
production of the greatest amount of crystallizable sugar, and 
giving the additional advantage, that the seed and the leaves, both 
furnishing excellent food for cattle, can be preserved. The 
crops of 1879 and 1880 are both very large, and are likely to in- 
crease very greatly in the future. 

Other plants of the Zea family, such as broom corn, Hungarian 
grass, the German and pearl millet and the dhurra and Egyptian 

* This includes also hay from forage crops, Alfalfa, Hungarian grass, millet, etc. • 



840 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

rice corn, if these two are not, as some suppose, identical, are 
coming into somewhat extensive cultivation in the State, and will 
prove valuable additions to its forage crops, while the rice corn 
and pearl millet yield grains which are valuable for the food 
of man and animals, and the broom corn is always a profitable 
crop. 

Iowa is well adapted to the culture of the castor-bean, and it 
proves a profitable crop when it is planted early and has time to 
ripeti before the frost. This crop is one which will be more prof- 
itable if a sufficient number of farmers engage in its culture to 
furnish employment to an oil mill in the immediate vicinity, as 
they can then obtain a much better price for the beans. The 
pea-nut or ground-nut might be successfully cultivated, especially 
in Southern and Southwestern Iowa, and while the vines are ex- 
cellent for forage, the nuts command a good price, and if there 
is an oil mill near, they may be ground for the oil at a good 
profit. 

But notwithstanding its extremes of temperature, Iowa has be- 
come famous for its fruits. The soil is well adapted to these, and 
great attention has been paid to the production and culture of 
hardy varieties which would withstand the extreme cold of some 
of the winters. The efforts made for this purpose have been 
Very successful. Many varieties of apples and pears have been 
importedfrom Northern Russia, Northern China and Japan, which, 
after acclimation, have proved the best of these fruits for sum- 
mer, autumn and winter use. The peach does not flourish quite 
as well, though some of the more hardy varieties do well. The 
plum and cherry are very successfully cultivated. 

The value of farm, market garden and orchard products re- 
ported in the State census for 1875, as gathered the preceding 
year, was $133,440,855. The census of the present year will 
probably show nearly double the amount. 

But Iowa has been most successful, perhaps, in stock-raising. 
Her live-stock, as enumerated at the last State census, in 1875, 
was as follows. We give for the sake of comparison the statis- 
tics of the United States Department of Agriculture, January, 
1880: 



LIVE-STOCK IN IOWA, 



841 



Live-stock according to Census of 1875, 


Live-stock Report of U. S. Agricultural Depart- 
ment, 1880. 


Animals. 


Number. 


Number. 


Price per 
Head. 

;^52.oo 
66.00 
24.20 
23.12 

2.50 

6.36 


Value. 


Horses .... 

Mules and asses 

Milch COWS . 

Other cattle* . . 

Sheep .... 

Hogs 

Hogs slaughtered and 
sold for slaughter 
in 1875 • • • 


700,617 

36,820 

528,483 

1.405.582! 

3.139.973 
2,514,421 


778,407 
44,702 

723.534 
1.370,368 

454.410 
2,798,400 


$40,477,164 
2.950,332 

17,509.523 

31,682,908 

1,136,125 

17.797.824 






Total value . 


. . . 


$111,553,876 



Iowa has maintained the front rank in the production of pork, 
(or which its agricultural products give it great advantages. The 
question has come to be one of mathematics entirely. Given 
corn, sorghum seed, rice corn or millet at a certain price per 
bushel, and also given a fixed price per loo pounds forpork, either 
live or dead weight, which pays best, all things considered — 
to sell the corn or other grain, or to fatten hogs with it ? We 
have seen in Part II. that in Kansas, with corn at from twenty to 
thirty cents a bushel according to locality, the farmers decided 
that there was more profit in using it to fatten hogs than in selling 
it. The Iowa farmers nearer the great markets have come to 
the same conclusion with corn at a somewhat higher price. But 
with the new demand for corn for glucose sugar, the price may 
be so much enhanced, that unless other grains can be substituted 
for corn for fattening purposes, such as sorghum seed, millet, 
rice, corn, etc., the quantity of pork made may be seriously 
diminished. The present year there seems to be no diminution 
in the quantity, but what there may be in the future remains to 
be seen. 

Iowa is, we believe, sixth or seventh among the States and 
Territories of •* Our Western Empire " in the number of her 



* Except working oxen in the census of 1875. In 1880, working oxen are included, 
f This includes 9,690 thoroughbred short -horns. 



g^a OUR WESTERN EMPIRE, 

sheep. While the cost of rearing a sheep is somewhat greater 
than in Western Kansas, Colorado or New Mexico, care in the 
selection of the best breeds and in preserving them from disease 
and enemies makes it a fairly profitable pursuit. On this 
subject, facts are worth very much more than theories. We 
introduce therefore without apology the carefully tabulated 
results of five years of sheep-farming in Crawford county, 
Western Iowa, by one of a num.ber of Holstein farmers who had 
been accustomed to the care of sheep all their lives, and who 
had emigrated to Iowa, and engaged in the business there. 

As these farmers all started substantially alike in the business, 
they have followed the same course of feeding, and the results 
have been about the same. The staple of wool has been combing, 
delaine, medium, coarse and fine ; it has been sold in the 
Philadelphia market at prices ranging from eighteen to twenty- 
eight and a half cents per pound, netting twenty cents per 
pound. 

In feeding, they have found the blue joint grass most excellent, 
and ample for summer feed. In winter they feed corn in the 
stalk, cut for fodder. The ewes have sheaf oats after January 
I St. The grain consumed per head is about five bushels, costing 
eight to ten cents per bushel, in the shape in which it is fed ; as 
Mr. Henry Lehfeldt said : " The sheep husk their own corn and 
thresh their own oats, and the sheep farmer has nothing to do 
but be lazy." The theory of feeding is, as the food is cheap, to 
keep the sheep at all times in the very best condition ; and to 
that end they are allowed all the grain they will eat. They are 
fed no hay. They found a little trouble in that the sheep some- 
times ate too freely of corn and became over-heated. This they 
have learned to remedy. They also found it injurious to feed 
corn to ewes with lambs after the first of January ; some losses 
were had from this cause. Straw sheds, open to the east, about 
four feet high, in a protected yard, are all that is used for shelter. 
We asked if any diseases affected the sheep. We received the 
emphatic reply, " No, none whatever." 

These farmers are from Holstein, and are thoroughly intelli- 
gent in their business. They were raised shepherds. The 



EXPERIENCES OF HOLSTEIN SHEEP FARMERS. 843 

business of raising and fattening sheep for the Hamburg-London 
market they were brought up to. They handled Cotsvvolds in 
Holstein, and said Cotswolds did as well here as in Holstein, 
if not better. They prefer the Cotswold. The Southdown is 
good for mutton but deficient in wool. It was as profitable to 
raise and fat them here as in Holstein and more so. 

COST. 

Sept., 1875, cost of 500 ewes at ^2.50 $1,250 00 

Sept., 1875, co^^ ^^ ^5 bucks at $20 (Cotswold) ...... 300 00 

May, 1876, fed 50 acres corn and oats in sheaf at $5 per acre . . 250 00 

Sept., 1876, cost of attendance i year 200 00 

May, 1877, fed 100 acres of corn in stalk and oats in sheaf at ^5 

per acre 500 00 

Sept., 1877, cost of attendance i year 250 00 

May, 1878, fed 125 acres of corn in stalk and oats in sheaf at $5 

per acre 625 00 

Sept., 1878, cost of attendance i year 250 00 

May, 1879, fed 125 acres of corn ia stalk and oats in sheaf at $5 

per acre 625 00 

May, 1879, cost of attendance i year 190 00 

Add for annual interest account — 
Sept., 1876, intferest On ^1,^50 i year at lO per cent, per 

annum , ^155 00 

May, 1877, interest on $250 i year at 10 per cent, per 

annum 25 00 

Sept., 1877, interest on $1,855 ^ year at 10 percent, per 

annum 185 50 

May, 1878, interest on $775 i year at 10 per cent, per 

annum 77 50 

Sept., 1878, interest on $2,200 i year at 10 per cent, per 

annum 220 00 

May 30, 1879, interest on $1,477.50 13 months at 10 per 

cent, per annum 160 96 

May 30, 1879, interest on $2,769 9 months at 10 per cent. 

per annum 207 67 

Amount of interest charged $1,040 (>2, 

Total cost of investment $5,480 63 

RETURNS. 

May 30, 1876, sold 4,125 pounds wool, clip 1876, 500 ewes at 20 

cents per pound net $825 00 



844 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



May 30, 1877, sold 8,992 pounds wool, clip 1877, 500 ewes, 525 

yearlings, at 20 cents $^3798 40 

May 30, 1878, sold 8,992 pounds wool clip 1878, 500 ewes, 525 

yearlings, at 20 cents i;798 40 

May 30, 1878, sold 525 fat sheep at 1^7.50, sold in March and April . 3,937 50 
May 30, 1879, sold 8,992 pounds wool, clip 1879, 500 ewes, 525 

yearlings, at 20 cents Ij798 40 

May 30, 1879, so^d 525 fat sheep at $7.50, sold in March and April . 3,937 50 
May 30, 1879, on hand 500 ewes with lamb at ^4.50 per 

ewe ^2,225 00 

15 bucks for service at ;^2o 300 00 

535 yearlings (shorn) at ^2 . . I5050 00 

Add for annual interest account — 
May 30, 1879, interest on $825 i year at 10 per cent, per 

annum $82 50 

May 30, 1878, interest on 52,705.90 i year at 10 per cent. 

per annum 270 59 

May 30, 1879, interest on ;^8, 712.30 i year at 10 percent. 

per annum 871 23 

Amount of interest credits $1,224 32 



Total returns from investment ;g 18,894 52 

Net returns %^ZA^l ^9 



A large proportion of the stock-raising in Iowa consists in the 
purchase of " store cattle," as the English farmers call them, from 
Dakota, Montana, Colorado, Wyoming and Kansas, and fattening 
them either for exportation to England or for the Chicago, New 
York or Boston markets. The distance which the cattle are to 
be driven is somewhat less, the grain and forage somewhat 
cheaper, and the distance to a shipping port or to market about 
the same as from Central Illinois. 

There is also a greatly increasing demand in Iowa for cattle 
for dairy farming. At the recent National Dairy fairs and 
congresses Iowa has taken the first prizes for the best butter, 
and has attained high rank also for the production of the best 
cheese. The demand for these products all over the West is 
constantly increasing and they command high prices. 



POPULATION OF IOWA. g^P 

Raih'oads and Steam Navigation. — Iowa is traversed from east 
to west by five railroad lines, which, with their branches, reach 
nearly all the counties ; these are, beginning with the northern 
tier of counties, the Chicago, Milwaukee and St, Paul, the Iowa 
Division of the Illinois Central, the Chicago and Northwestern, 
the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, and the Chicago, Burling- 
ton and Ouincy. As all these have Chicago for their eastern 
terminus, so all of them, either directly or by the intervention of 
north and south roads, centre at Council Bluffs and Omaha, on 
the western border of the State. Six railroads cross the State 
from north to south, many of them having branches. These are 
the Dubuque and Minnesota and its continuation, the Chicago, 
Clinton and Dubuque, the Davenport and St. Paul, the Burling 
ton. Cedar Rapids and Minnesota, with which a northern branch 
of the Illinois Central forms a junction at Cedar Falls; the Cen- 
tral Railway of Iowa, the Fort Dodge, Des Moines and Keokuk, 
and the St. Paul and Sioux City, which hugs the eastern bank of 
the Missouri. The entire number of miles of railway in opera- 
tion in Iowa, January i, 1880, was 4,750. This was aside from 
sidings, double tracks, etc. 

Popidation. — The growth of population in Iowa has been rapid, 
not quite equalling, perhaps, in its percentage that of some of 
its younger sisters, but sufficiently so for a healthy development. 
During the last decade, when the tendency of the inhabitants of 
the States of the Mississippi valley has been to migrate to the 
newer west, Iowa has not only held her own, but has increased 
twenty-six per cent. The following table shows the population 
at different periods of its history. The official figures of the 
population in 1880 have just been made public, and they give a 
total footing of 1,624,463. 



In 1838 . 
1840 . 

1844 . 

1846 . 

1847 . 

1849 . 

1850 . 

1851 . 

1852 , 



22,859 


In 1854 


43»ii4 


1856 


75-152 


1859 


97,588 


i860 


116,651 


1863 


152,988 


1865 


191,982 


1867 


204,774 


1870 


230,713 


1880 



326,013 
519,055 
638,775 
674,913 
701,732 

754,699 

902,040 
1.194,020 

1,024,463 



3-5 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

There are large German and Scandinavian elements in the 
population, but the majority of the inhabitants are of American 
birth. There is one small Indian reservation of 692 acres, occu- 
pied by a band of the Sac and Fox Indians. It is on the Iowa 
river, in Tama county, and the Indians number 345 ; 164 males 
and 181 females. They have made considerable progress in 
civilization, own and occupy permanent houses of their own, cul- 
tivate their lands and raise horses. They have a considerable 
amount of property aside from their annuities, good schools, and 
many of them have adopted citizens' dress. 

Counties. — There are ninety-nine organized counties in the 
State, the names of which follow : 







Counties. 




Adair, 


Davis, 


Jefferson, 


Pocahontas, 


Adams, 


Decatur, 


Johnson, 


Polk, 


Allamakee, 


Delaware, 


Jones, 


Pottawatomie, 


Appanoose, 


Des Moines 


Keokuk, 


Poweshiek, 


Audubon, 


Dickinson, 


Kossuth, 


Ringgold, 


Benton, 


Dubuque, 


Lee, 


Sac, 


Black Hawk, 


Emmet, 


Lind, 


Scott, 


Boone, 


Fayette, 


Louisa, 


Shelby, 


Bremer, 


Floyd, 


Lucas, 


Sioux, 


Buchanan, 


Franklin, 


Lyon, 


Story, 


Buena Vista, 


Fremont, 


Madison, 


Tama, 


Butler, 


Greene, 


Mahaska, 


Taylor, 


Calhoun, 


Grundy, 


Marion, 


Union, 


Carroll, 


Guthrie, 


Marshall, 


Van Buren, 


Cass, 


Hamilton, 


Mills, 


Wapello, 


Cedar, 


Hancock, 


Mitchell, 


Warren, 


Cerro Gordo, 


Hardin, 


Monona, 


Washington, 


Cherokee, 


Harrison, 


Monroe, 


Wayne, 


Chickasaw, 


Henry, 


Montgomery, 


Webster, 


Clarke, 


Howard, 


Muscatine, 


Winnebago, 


Clay, 


Humboldt, 


O'Brien, ' ' 


' Vv^inneshiek, 


Clayton, 


Ida, 


Osceola, 


Woodbury, 


Clinton, 


Iowa, 


Page, . , 


; Worth, 


Crawford, 


Jackson, 


Palo Alto, . , 


. Wright. 


Dallas, 


Jasper, 


Plymouth, • • 





Cities and Large Towns. — The following are the largest cities 



CITIES AND LARGE TOWNS OF IOWA. 



847 



and towns of the State, with the population of the first seven 
according to the census of 1880; the others according to the 
census of 1875 : 



Des Moines . . 






22,408 


Dubuque . . . 






22,254 


Davenport , 






21,834 


Burlington . . 






i9'45o 


Council Bluffs . 






18,059 


Keokuk . . 






12,117 


Muscatine . 






9'987 


Clinton , . 






7,028 


Sioux City . 






4,290 


Ottumwa 






6,326 


Mount Pleasant 






4,563 


Iowa City . 






6,371 


Lyons . . 






3,784 


Cedar Rapids 






10,104 


Cedar Falls . 






. 3,270 


Marshalltown 






. 4,384 


Waterloo 






. 5,508 


Waverley 






2,405 


Washington 






2,189 


Oskaloosa . 






. 4,263 


Fort Dodge , 






• 3,537 


Fort Madison 






• 4,305 



Vinton 2,389 

Indianola i-,884 

Bella 2,536 

McGregor . . . . 1,852 

Charles City . . . 2,269 

De Witt ..... 1,754 

Hamburg 2,058 

Independence . . . 3,424 

Osceola 1,701 

Maquoketa . . . . 2,112 

Webster 2,262 

Atlantic 1,832 

Albia 1,883 

Chariton 2,174 

Mason City .... 1,703 

Boone 2,332 

Winterset 2,433 

Newton 2,354 

Lansing 2,280 

Marion 2,047 

Fairfield 2,343 

Decorah 2,597 



Lands for Settlers. — The whole area of the State, which origi- 
nally belonged to the United States, has been surveyed. Of the 
amount — 35,228,800 acres — there have been granted to the State 
the School and University lands, and 3,449,720 acres selected 
(not all yet approved or patented) as swamp lands ; to railroad 
companies in the State about 3,000,000 acres, or in all somewhat 
more than 10,000,000 acres of lands. The greater part of the 
desirable government lands have been taken up either by pur- 
chase or pre-emption, or under the Homestead or Timber-Cul- 
ture Acts. There are, however, in the western part of the State, 
some lands, mostly alternate sections with the railroad land 
grants, still unsold. These are generally double minimum 
lands; that is, they are held at $2.50 per acre. In the fiscal 



g^g ^UR WESTERN EMPIRE, 

year 1879 the government disposed of 11,600 acres of these 
lands to actual settlers, 9,750 acres of which were under the 
Homestead or Timber-Culture Acts, 

The State has a large amount of land yet for sale, including 
its School, University, Agricultural College, and swamp lands. 
The latter are for the most part only entitled to this name in a 
Pickwickian sense, being, in many instances, the best lands in 
the State. All the State lands are held at prices above the 
government rates, though varying with different localities or 
market facilities, the range of prices being generally from ^3 to 
^10 or ^12. The railroads have also a considerable quantity 
of land to sell, and most of it of very good quality. The rail- 
road lands are all prairie, and are divided according to location, 
soil, etc., into grazing and farming lands ; the grazing lands, 
though of fair quality for pasturing cattle or sheep, are not so 
rich or fertile as the farming lands. They are held at about 
^2.50 per acre, and where taken in considerable quantities are 
sold on a liberal credit. The farming lands bring from $3.50 or 
^4 to ^10, according to locality, fertility, and convenience of 
access to markets. It is also often possible to buy partially im- 
proved farms at very reasonable prices. The long period of 
financial depression, the partial failure of the best crops from 
storms, cyclones, or other disasters, the grasshopper plague, the 
prevalence of the Colorado beetle, and epidemics of hog cholera, 
which greatly reduced their herds of swine for several years, 
have interfered with the prosperity of Iowa very sensibly in the 
past. About nine or ten years ago, the farmers of Iowa were 
very generally in debt either for their farms or their agricultural 
machines, and the ironclad notes, which the manufacturers' agents 
exacted from the farmers, gave a lien on the farms which resulted 
in the foreclosure of the mortoras^es in thousands of cases, and 
it seemed for a time as if the entire body of farmers would have 
to go into bankruptcy. It was at this time that the organization 
known as " Patrons of Husbandry " became very popular in the 
State. The granges, local, county, and State, were well man- 
aged, and, by associated action, they succeeded in rescuing the 
greater part of the farmers from their nearly bankrupt condition. 



LANDS FOR IMMIGRANTS IN IOWA. g^p 

enabled them to procure their agricultural machines for cash at 
one-half (sometimes at one-third) of their previous credit price, 
and their farm supplies in the same way. This course pursued 
energetically for a series of years, has enabled the Iowa farmers 
very generally to redeem their lands from mortgages, and though 
they had a succession of poor or indifferent crops, and did not 
till their farms to the best advantage, they have emerged into a 
condition of comparative independence, and, with better crops 
and their ambition roused to attempt better culture, the future 
of agriculture in Iowa seems much brighter than a few years 
ago. It is no part of our purpose to chant the praises of the 
Patrons of Husbandry or any other secret organization. All of 
these organizations have their faults, and at times undoubtedly 
may exert a prejudicial influence on the interests of the State or 
nation ; but, at the time of which we speak, their influence in 
Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, and some other States was highly 
beneficial to the farmers. 

In many instances, the settler of limited means, who has pur- 
chased a tract of Iowa prairie lands, has found himself compelled 
to wait for eighteen or twenty months before he could realize 
anything from his land, inasmuch as the thick, tough prairie sod 
beaten down for ages by the hoofs of the buffaloes and the In- 
dian ponies, will not rot sooner than that time, sufficiently to 
yield a crop of any value. To such an immigrant, looking for- 
ward with anxiety and terror, to coming months of privation for 
himself and family, and ready to give way to despair, we beg 
leave to commend the following very practical suggestions from 
an Iowa farmer who knows by personal experience the success 
of the plan he recommends : 

" How to bridge over the first year on a new piece of prairie 
has been one of the most difficult of problems for the settler of 
limited means to solve. The uncertainty of being able to sup- 
port their families until a crop of grain could be raised, has pre- 
vented thousands from beginning the healthful and independent 
life of the farmer. Nature, though ever kind and bountiful, will 
allow no trifling with her requirements and processes. To raise 
grain successfully, the tough, thick prairie sod, the result of 

54 



gco OUR Western empire. 

untold years of luxuriant vegetation, must be thoroughly rotted. 
This will not take place the first season of breaking, and there- 
fore, the most that can be hoped for that season, in the way of 
grain, is a crop of 'sod corn,' w^hich, though sometimes excel- 
lent, is yet an uncertain and unreliable resource as a means of 
support. 

"Is there any crop which can be planted the first season upon 
breakinor of that year which will afford the farmer assurance of 
return for his labor from the very beginning of his operations ? 
This question has occupied the most thoughtful attention of 
many of our best and most intelligent farmers, and a complete 
answer has been found during the past three or four years in 
the culture of flax upon new breaking. From the experiments 
made during several seasons, it may be considered as setded 
that the requirements for the growth and maturity of this crop 
are afforded as amply by new breaking, as by land previously 
cultivated. From many instances within our knowledge, em- 
bracing fields varying from lo to 400 acres in extent, we select 
one, and give below the details. The net result in this case is 
not as favorable as in some others, but the selection is made 
because the details are complete, and have been verified by 
affidavit. 

•' Mr. Eugene Fuller, formerly of Sandwich, 111., upon his farm 
near Storm lake, in Buena Vista county, Iowa, raised fifty acres 
of flax on new breaking last year (1878) with the following 
result : 

Receipts. — 275 bushels of flax-seed raised on 50 acres of breaking, sold 

at $1.25 per bushel $343 75 

Expenses. — Breaking 50 acres at $2 per acre |ioo 00 

25 bushels seed at $1.25 per bushel 31 25 

Cost of putting in seed, 25 cents per acre .... 12 50 
Cost of cutting and stacking, 50 cents per acre . . 25 00 
Threshing, 9 cents per bushel 24 75 ;^i93 50 

Profit $150 25 

" It will thus be seen that the farmer doing his own breaking, 
seeding, and cutting would be at an expense of only $1.12 per 



JOIVA MANUFACTURES. 85 I 

acre for seeding and threshing, and that the net result, after 
paying all expenses, is ^3 per acre. Other cases reported to 
us have given the net profit as high as $5.50 per acre. Besides 
the profit on cultivation, the crop is a great advantage to the 
land for the succeeding crop, as it leaves it clean and in better 
condition than if permitted to remain idle.* The importance of 
this new departure in farming cannot be over-estimated, for it is 
nothing less than a year's gain in cropping, and that at the mosi 
important time to the settler, the beginning of his enterprise, 
when the call upon his resources is greatest. The man of 
limited means need no longer be deterred from buying a home 
by the fear that a year must be lost after breaking before the 
farm will yield returns." 

Manufactures, — Iowa has always been regarded as an essen- 
tially agricultural State, yet she has from the first taken a deep 
interest in manufactures, for which her fine water-powers and 
her large production of excellent coal give her extraordinary 
facilities. 

Her flouring mills are very numerous and on a large scale. 
She has also extensive smelting works, agricultural implements 
and machine works, carriage, wagon, and car works, creameries, 
cheese factories, plaster mills, sorghum mills and sugar refineries, 
cotton, woollen, and silk mills, etc. The growth of manufactures 
in the State has been very large during the last decade and is 
now rapidly increasing.-]* Until the returns of manufactures for 
the census of 1880 are received and published, it is useless to 
conjecture thepresentamount of these in the State ; but, though the 
aggregate is certainly less than that of the great manufacturing 
State of Missouri, which joins Iowa on the south, yet it will 
reflect high honor upon its industry and enterprise, 

*The cortical fibre of the flax stalk, though nearly worthless as flax, is valuable for pap>er 
stock, after being run through a flax breaker, and will bring, anywhere within icx» miles of a good 
paper mill, from seventy to eighty dollars a ton, for that purpose. The best writing and map 
papers can be made from it. 

fin 1874, the State censns, which omitted all the small industries, and only enumerated 
nineteen kinds of manufactures, reported 3,203 establishments, employing 18,854 men, and 
producing goods valued at ;S39,263,3lo. The probability is that this sum was not at that time 
oiie-half of the actual production of that year; and the progress since 1854 has been enormous. 



852 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Educatio7ial Advantages. — The State has made ample pro- 
vision from the first for the education of all its children and 
youth. Beginning- with the higher instruction, it has a State 
University at Iowa City fully organized and under an able faculty, 
having 284 students in its collegiate and 232 in its professional 
departments, and taking rank with any State University in the 
country; a State Normal School at Cedar Falls, having a prin- 
cipal and five other professors and 237 teacher pupils in 1879; 
a State Agricultural College at Ames, well endowed, and with a 
faculty of 24 professors and teachers, and 305 students. There 
are also 99 Teachers' Institutes held every year, one in each 
county, where for from two to four weeks the teachers of the public 
schools are instructed by the ablest professors and teachers who 
can be obtained. Below these come the public schools, graded 
and ungraded. Of these schools there are now 10,951, occupy- 
ing 10,791 school-houses, of which 10,719 are substantial build- 
ings of frame, brick, or stone. The appraised value of these 
school-houses in 1879 was ^9,066,145, an increase from $38,506 
in 1849, thirty years before, of 241 times the amount. There 
were 21,152 teachers employed in these schools, viz.; 7,573 
males, 13,579 females, and the average compensation for the 
whole State was $31.71 per month for males, s.nd $26.40 for 
female teachers. The whole number of persons of school age 
of both sexes (between five and twenty-one years) in the State 
was 577,353, out of a total population of about 1,500,000; of 
these, 431,317 were enrolled on the school registers, and the 
average attendance vi^as 264,702. The average cost of tuition 
per month was $1.49 per head. The total expenditure for 
school purposes annually was $5,051,478, or about %Z-ZZ ^^^ 
each inhabitant of the State ; of this amount $2,927,308 was for 
teachers' salaries, $1,149,718 for school-houses, apparatus, etc., 
and $979,452 for fuel and other contingencies. The permanent 
school fund amounts to $3,484,411, and is constantly increasing. 
The income from this, $276,218 in 1879, is distributed to the 
schools, but the remainder, $4,775,260, is raised by district taxa- 
tion and local funds. The teaching is for the most part of a 
very high order. 



BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS AND CHURCHES. 853 

Beside this liberal course of public instruction, the State has 
special schools for deaf mutes, the blind, and for orphans and 
deserted children, and refonnatories for neglected, wayward, and 
vicious children. There are, moreover, fifteen or twenty colleges, 
and very many academies, collegiate schools and seminaries, 
mostly under the control of the different religious denominations. 
The immigrant coming to Iowa with his family need not fear that 
they will be deprived of the opportunities of gaining an educa- 
tion, whatever his own circumstances m'ay be. 

Religious Denominations. — The general tone of society in Iowa 
is eminently moral, and, to a considerable extent, religious. In 
no State west of the Mississippi are so large a proportion of the 
inhabitants connected with some religious denomination. The 
Methodists take the lead, both in the number of members and 
the adherent population ; the Presbyterians, Catholics, Congre- 
gationalists, Baptists, German Reformed, Lutherans, Episco- 
palians, and minor sects follow after in about the order desig- 
nated. Every village, even the newest, has one or more 
churches. The religious, like the secular teaching, is generally 
of a hi^h order. 

The immigrant coming to Iowa either with a large or small 
capital may not find the avenues to large immediate wealth so 
wide as in some of the newer States and Territories, but if tem- 
perate, industrious, and frugal, he is sure to acquire a com- 
petence in a few years ; and, meanwhile, he has the advantages 
of established organizations, good society, excellent educadonal 
and religious institutions, a fertile soil, and easily accessible 
markets. 



§54 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

CHAPTER IX. 

KAMAS. 

Kansas Geographically the Central State — Its Boundaries — Latitude, 
Longitude, Length, Breadth and Area — Its Surface, Declination and 
Elevation at Various Points — Rivers — Lakes — Hills — No Mountains 
IN the State — Geology and Mineralogy — The Geological Formations 
— The Quaternary, Tertiary, Cretaceous and Carboniferous and 
Lower Carboniferous Systems Represented — Fossils — Great Variety 
OF these — Economic Geology — Coal — Salt — Lead and Zinc — Gypsum — 
Building-Stone, etc., etc. — Gas or Burning Wells — Soil and Vegeta- 
tion — Native Trees — Trees Planted under the Timber-Culture Acts — 
Flowers — Zoology — Natural Curiosities and Phenomena — Climate and 
Meteorology — Meteorological Statistics — Rainfall — Agricultural 
Productions — Tables of Productions of 1877, 1878, 1879 — Live-Stock — 
Valuations of Real and Personal Estate — School Statistics — No 
Mines or Mining except Coal, Lead and Zinc — Manufactures — Popu- 
lation — Indians — Sources from which Population is Derived — Counties, 
Cities and Towns — Schools and Education — Churches — Railroads — 
Kansas a Home for Immigrants. 

Kansas is, geographically, the central State of the American 
Union, and one of the largest and most enterprising of the great 
States of the central belt of " Our Western Empire." It is 
bounded on the north by Nebraska, on the east by Missouri, on 
the south by the Indian Territory, and on the west by Colorado. 
It would be a perfect parallelogram, but that the Missouri river 
cuts off a slice of its northeast corner, and hands it over to Mis- 
souri. It is situated between the 37th and the 40th degrees of 
north latitude, and between the meridians of 94° 35' and 102° of 
west longitude from Greenwich, and is 404 miles long from east 
to west, and 208^ miles wide from north to south. The latest 
Land Office Report makes its area 80,891 square miles, or 
51,770,240 acres. 

Topography and Surface — Rivers and Lakes — Plains, Pi'aines 
and Valleys. — The topography of the State shows an alternation 
of broad, level river valleys and high rolling prairies, the whole 
forming a series of gentle undulating plateaus, sloping at an 



TOPOGRAPHY OF KANSAS. 855 

average inclination of seven and a-half feet per mile from the 
mountains toward the Missouri river. Thus at Monotony the al- 
titude is 3,792 feet; at Wallace, Kansas, 3,319 feet; at Ellis, 
2,135 feet; at Abilene, 1,173 feet; at Topeka, 904 feet, and at 
Wyandotte, ']Q'] feet. The elevations of corresponding points 
in the Arkansas valley and on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa 
Fe Railway, are a little lower in the west, but a little higher as 
we eo east, showinor a moderate declination from north to 
southwest, as well as a more marked one from west to east; 
thus, Sargent, at the west boundary of the State, is 3,129 feet; 
Lakin, 3,013; Kinsley, 2,200; Newton, 1,433; Burlington, 1,055, 
and Fort Scott, 912 feet. 

The principal rivers of the State are the Missouri, which 
washes its northeastern corner for a distance of forty or fifty 
miles ; the Arkansas, which leaves the State near the 97th meri- 
dian, after traversing the whole southern and southwestern por- 
tion of it ; the larger tributaries of this noble river, the North and 
South Forks of the Cimmaron, Salt and Red Forks of the Arkan- 
sas, Chikaskia, Verdigris and Neosho rivers on the south bank, 
and the Pawnee and Walnut creeks on the north bank ; but most 
important of all for the State, the Kansas or Kaw river, one of 
the largest tributaries of the Missouri, with the Republican and 
Smoky Hill rivers, by whose union it is formed, and its numer- 
ous affluents, the Big Blue, the Solomon, the Saline, the Soldier, 
the Beaver, the Delaware, the Stranger, the Sappa, the Grass- 
hopper and the Wakarusa, There are also a few smaller 
streams in the northeast, affluents of the Missouri, like the 
Nemaha, etc. These streams form one of the grandest systems 
of water-courses in the whole country. 

Though the surface is rolling and attains so considerable an 
elevation toward the western border of the State, there are no 
mountains, nor hardly any ranges of hills in the State ; occasion- 
ally the bluffs along the rivers are of considerable height above 
the streams, and in rare instances one or two isolated buttes, or 
masses of rock, like Castle Rock, in Gove county, the Twin 
Buttes, in Rooks county, or the Bluff, in Clarke county, attract 
attention. The State is not remarkable for lakes or ponds, but 



8^6 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

rather for their absence. There are more in the comparatively arid 
western counties than in the eastern. The river valleys or river 
bottoms, as they are called, are very fertile, but except in the Ar- 
kansas valley, are sometimes flooded by the swelling of the 
streams from the melting of the snow. 

Geology and Minera/ogy. — Professor B. F. Mudge, the emi- 
nent State Geologist, has described at considerable length, and 
with maps and sections, the geology, general and economic, of the 
State. The following summary gives as good an idea of its very 
simple geological formations as can be obtained without a geo- 
logical map. As we have already said, the surface has a gradual 
but double descent to the east and to the south, or south-south- 
east. The streams follow the same general direction. The sur- 
face, for the most part, is a gentle rolling prairie, with few steep 
hills or bluffs, and the ravines are not often precipitous or deep. 
The soil which forms the surface of the whole State, in both val- 
ley and high prairie, is the same fine, black rich loam, so common 
in the Western States. The predominating limestones, by disin- 
tegration, aid in its fertility, but the extreme fineness of all the 
ingredients acts most effectively in producing its richness. On 
the high prairie it is from one to three feet deep ; in the bottom 
it is sometimes twenty feet. There are a few exceptions to this 
general fertility in the most western and southwestern counties, 
but they constitute only a small proportion of the whole. The 
State is so well drained that there are very few valleys with stag- 
nant ponds, and there is not a peat swamp of fifty acres within 
its boundaries. The lands toward the Colorado border are often 
spoken of as alkaline lands, but Professor Mudge says that they 
are not so. In fifteen years of exploration he had never found 
but two springs containing alkalies, and had never seen ten acres 
of land in one place which had been injured by it. 

Professor Mudge says that there is nowhere to be seen in the 
State any violent disturbance of the strata, marks of internal fire, 
or even any slight mctamorphic action in any of the deposits. 
The uplifting of this State and the adjoining country from the 
level of the ocean must have been slow, uniform and in a per- 
pendicular direction, which has left all the strata in a nearly hori- 



GEOLOGY OF KANSAS. 357 

zontal position. He believes, from his knowledge of western 
geology, that this took place after the rise of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, and probably did not come to a close until the Drift Period. 
A general vertical section of all the formations seen in Kansas 
would be, in descending series, as follows : 

I. Quaternary System. 

Alhiviiwi. The surface deposit all over the State, from five to fifty feet 
deep in the river valleys, and forming the richest soil. 

Bluff or Loess. Found most largely in the eastern part of the State, par- 
ticularly on the banks of the Missouri and for some distance back from 
it. It is the same deposit seen in Iowa, Missouri, and Nebraska. 

Drift. Mostly in the form of boulders found on the tops of bluffs and 
high prairies along both sides of the Kansas river, especially on the 
north side from the Missouri nearly to the Republican river. 
II. Tertiary System. 

Pliocene. Seen only in the northwestern portion of the State, where it 
covers an area of about 9,000 miles. It occupies the greater part of 
seven counties along the Nebraska border beginning at the Colorado 
line, and a part of ten other counties in the northwest and west. The 
following are the names of these counties : Cheyenne, Rawlins, Deca- 
tur, Norton, Phillips, Smith, Jewell, Sherman, Thomas, Sheridan, 
Graham, Wallace, Greeley, Wichita, Scott, and small tracts of Gove 
and Ellis. Ten of these counties are yet unorganized. The material 
of the Pliocene deposits consists of sandstone of various shades of gray 
and brown, with occasionally a small admixture of lime. The total 
thickness of it is about 1,500 feet. When it appears on the surface it 
resembles coarse gravel. It is seldom seen above the alluvium except 
where it caps the hill-tops in Wallace and Sheridan counties. 
III. Cretaceous System. This system covers an area of over 40,000 square 
miles, or more than half the surface of the State. It extends from the 
Colorado border in the west and southwest as far east as Marshall 
and Morris counties, touching the Nebraska line in Jewell, Republic, 
Washington, and Marshall counties; the Indian Territory in Kansas, 
Stevens, Seward, Meade, and Clark counties, and the Colorado line 
in Wallace, Hamilton, Stanton, and Kansas. 

Niobrara Group. The Niobrara occupies a belt of the country next 
adjoining the Pliocene, about thirty miles in width in the northern 
part of the State, but gradually widening to more than twice that 
extent in the Smoky Hill valley. It is composed of chalk and chalky 
shales. This is said to be the only genuine chalk in North America. 
It ranges from seventy-five to two hundred feet in thickness. The 
shales sometimes contain fine crystals of calc spar. The soil overlying 
this group is rich and fertile and admirably adapted both for culture 
and grazing. 



8^3 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Fort Benton Group. This group is composed of a white or yellowish 
limestone, about sixty feet in thickness, a bluish black or slate-colored 
shale of about the same thickness, and shales interstratified with lime- 
stone layers containing an abundance of fossil shells, and ranging from 
50 to 140 feet in thickness. There are some thin impure beds of 
lignite in the lower strata, but of little value. The Fort Benton occu- 
pies the central and northeftstern portions of the tertiary system in the 
State. 
Dakota Group. This group occupies mostly the southwestern portion 
of the State. There are no triassic or Jurassic rocks in the State, and 
the Dakota group rests directly on the Permian. The maximum thick- 
ness may be 500 feet. It is almost wholly composed of sandstone. 
The soil overlying this formation is regarded as the best in the State, 
being admirably adapted to wheat, easily drained, and very fertile. 
It is also an excellent fruit district, especially adapted to pear culture. 
The whole thickness of the cretaceous formations in the State is 
estimated to be 960 feet. 
IV. Carboniferous System — Permian Group. — Upper Carboniferous. 

These two groups may be described together. They cover wholly 
or in part thirty-eight counties, and an area of nearly 20,000 
square miles with a thickness of about 2,000 feet. The strata are 
nearly horizontal, though dipping slightly to the northwest in most 
cases. The deposits consist of limestones, clay shales, sandstone, 
and, m the upper portions, gypsum and chert beds. In the lower 
strata the hmestones are more compact and uniform and the chert 
beds less numerous. This limestone contains from three to five per 
cent, of magnesia. The soil which overlies them is good, and the 
underlying limestone helps to fertilize it. Some of the oldest and best 
counties in the State are in these formations. 
Coal Measures. The area embraced in the coal measures is about 9,000 
square miles, and .seventeen counties in tlie southeastern and eastern 
part of the State lie wholly or in part within its limits. All these 
counties are in some degree supplied with coal. How large a portion 
of this territory may be so situated as to give the opportunity for work- 
ing profitable mines cannot at present be decided. Most of the mines 
which have been opened yield good and some of them largely profit- 
able returns. The material of the deposits of the coal measures, in 
which seams or veins of coal are found, are siipilar to those of the 
Upper Carboniferous, but more varying. The blue clay shales and 
other shales are in some locations very thick and soft — sometimes 
1,000 feet or more. The sandstones are firmer, and are used for flag 
and grindstones. 

Professor Mudge believes that the indications show that this part of 
Kansas was under the ocean, and then raised to dry land at least sixty 
times during the period of the coal measures. 



FOSSILS OF KANSAS. 3 eg 

V. Lower or Sub-Carboniferous System. 

Keokuk Group. The only representation of the Lower Carboniferous 
in Kansas is to be found in a small triangle in the extreme southeast, 
in Cherokee county. Here alone in the entire State of Kansas there 
is some evidence of local disturbance of the strata, which, however, 
may have taken place gradually, as there seems to be no evidence of 
volcanic action. 

This little tract seems to be allied to the adjacent region of Mis- 
souri, which contains some of the richest mines of lead and zinc in 
that State. Both metals, or rather their ores, have been found in pay- 
ing qiianlitiis in this corner of Kansas, along Short creek, and nowhere 
else in the State, except in most insignificant amounts. 

The thickness of the stratified rocks of Kansas is in all esti- 
mated by Professor Mudge as 5,210 feet. 

All these groups and formations contain more or less fossils, 
and some of them are very rich in them. In the Bluff or Loess 
are a few fresh water and land mollusks, the mastodon gigmiieus^ 
the elephas Americanus, a gigantic horse, probably eqttus excelsMs, 
and several small mammals. In the Pliocene there are numerous 
fossils, most of them silicified. Among them are bones of deer, 
beaver, a large animal of the ox kind, two and possibly three 
species of the horse, one three-toed and of very small size, an- 
other very closely allied to the present horse, a wolfj ivory and 
bones from the elephant or mastodon, bones of the rhinoceros 
and camel, etc. There have also been found the bones and cara- 
pace of a large fresh water turde, five feet in length, smaller 
turtles and mollusks. 

But the great field for fossils is in the cretaceous system, and 
especially in the Niobrara group, where from the mollusks and 
fishes to the saurians. Pterodactyls and birds with jaws and 
teeth, the palaeontologist is constantly stumbling upon new 
wonders. Fossil sharks, nearly fifty species of fossil fish, of 
which many hundred specimens have been collected, half a dozen 
of marine turtles, between thirty and forty species of crocodiles 
and other saurians, some of monstrous size, one seventy feet 
long with a head six feet in length, huge Pterodactyls of forms 
and size hitherto unknown, and birds with teeth and vertebrae 
like a fish. 



g5o ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The Fort Benton group is more noted for the number and 
variety of its Ammonites, and has also a few fish and saurian 
remains. 

The Dakota group has a few fossil mollusks and fish, and one 
saurian, but is most noteworthy for its fossil flora and plants, 
especially dicotyledonous plants. Professor Lesquereaux found 
over seventy species, mostly dicotyledons, in Kansas, and all in 
this formation. Among these are four sequoias, closely allied to 
the gigantic redwoods of California, one or more pines, and 
eight other conifers, five poplars, six willows, eight oaks, six 
buttonwoods, seven species of sassafras, five magnolias, two figs, 
one palm, two cinnamon trees and a considerable number of 
extinct genera and species. Intermingled with these were 
numerous ferns, some of gigantic size. Professor Gray thinks 
all these plants migrated hither from Greenland, which once had, 
a sub-tropical climate. 

In the Permian and upper carboniferous groups there are land 
plants and a considerable number of mollusks and corals. 

In the coal measures are found fossil ferns and calamites, 
crinoids and trilobites, numerous species of fish, and especially 
fossil sharks, one with nearly 2,500 teeth in the lower jaw, and 
footprints of reptiles and saurians equal to the famous ones of 
the Connecticut valley. 

Eco7iomic Geology and Minerals. — Coal is the first mineral in 
this State in point of Importance. It is mined at many points in 
the region of the coal measures ; and though differing some- 
what in quality, it is in general a good bituminous coal, coking well 
and yielding from 8,000 to 9,000 cubic feet of gas to the ton, 
but requiring more than average care in the purification. That 
mined at Leavenworth is of the same class as the rest, a shaft 
over seven hundred feet in depth having been sunk to the coal 
measures. About 1,500,000 bushels (45.000 tons) are raised 
here annually, and about 120,000 tons in all the region. 

Lead and zinc are found in paying quantities in Cherokee 
county, in the extreme southeast of the State. About 6,000,000 
pounds of lead ore are raised at Short creek, and zinc is smelted 
at New Pittsburg, in Crawford county. 



ECONOMIC GEOLOGY AND MINERALS OF KANSAS. 86 1 

Kansas possesses salt springs and saline deposits of sufficient 
strength and purity to supply the whole Mississippi valley if 
necessary. In the southwestern part of the State, below the great 
bend of the Arkansas, there are extensive beds of salt from six to 
twenty-eight inches in depth, caused by the drying up of salt 
ponds, or the salt branches of the Cimmaron river ; but as this 
region is not yet settled or easily accessible, it will be some dme 
before it is ready for market. A more accessible region is that 
in the Republican and Saline valleys, where there are extensive 
salt marshes, yielding a brine of great purity. The magnesia 
in the brine just as it comes from the marsh, is only from three 
to five-tenths of one per cent. 

Gypsum is found in many places in Kansas; in the western 
part of the State, in Wallace county, in most beaudful compound 
crystals; in Seward and Mead counties, in the southwest, near 
the Cimmaron river, there are beds of selenite crystals of great 
extent. In Marshall county, in the north, there is a heavy bed of 
it underlying at least four townships. It is manufactured at 
Blue Rapids. In Saline county is another bed of nearly equal 
extent. It is in demand both as a fertilizer and for buildino- 

o 

purposes. 

Lime and hydraulic cement are produced at Leavenworth, 
Lawrence and Fort Scott. Kansas has a great variety of 
excellent building stone, limestone, sandstone and gypsum, and 
all are extensively quarried. 

There are numerous gas or burning wells in the eastern part 
of the State. There is probably a deposit of petroleum some- 
where in the coal measures, but borings to the depth of 
i,ooo feet have failed to reach it, though they have yielded a 
permanent supply of gas. A well at lola yields 10,000 cubic feet 
daily. These wells are at Wyandotte — one there yielding 48,000 
cubic feet daily — at Fort Scott, Rosedale and many other places. 
The illuminating power is about seven-tenths that of the best 
coal ofas. 

Soil and Vegetation. — From what has been said under the head 
df geology, the reader will naturally and correcdy infer that 
there is very little poor land in Kansas ; i. e., land which cannot 



862 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

by proper cultivation and irrigation be made to yield good crops. 
This is true. Aside from the barren salt basins and desert lands 
of Southwestern Kansas on bodi sides of the Cimmaron (if, 
indeed, that is wholly an exception), and some few gravelly 
patches in the northwest, both together not amounting to a 
single county, there is a smaller quantity of barren land in 
Kansas than in any State in the Union. We say this with a full 
knowledge that the counties west of the hundredth meridian are 
generally unorganized as yet, that the amount of rainfall is less 
than in th€ Eastern counties, and that where the land is as yet 
unbroken, the sage-brush and the bunch-grass grow, and but 
little else, and that except in the valleys of the streams, or when 
planted by man, there are very few trees, and the winds rush 
down from the Rocky Mountains with terrific force. We are 
not disposed to conceal or diminish any of these apparently 
untoward facts; yet we adhere to our declaration. 

This soil, beaten down by the hoofs of buffaloes for centuries, 
is not now their pasture-ground, and when the hard-packed 
roots of the bunch-grass and the sage-brush are broken up by 
the plow, and loosened so that air and moisture can get in, the 
rainfall increases, the soil drinks it in instead of letting it run 
away, and ^s the soil is broken up again, and planted or sown 
with wh^;at, or corn, or flax, or turned over to the blue joint 
erass, \he moisture continues to increase, and in three or four 
years the rain, which comes most largely in May, June, July, and 
August (four-fifths of the whole falling in those months), pushes 
forward large crops, while the trees which have been planted for 
about the same length of time, break the fierce winds, and help 
to increase the amount of rain. Of five towns beyond the 
ninety-ninth meridian — Fort Hays, McPherson, Kinsley, Dodge 
City and Fort Wallace — the rainfall, which has hitherto been about 
twelve to fourteen inches, was as follows in the order in which 
they are named, in 1879: 16.26 inches; 32.05; 15.03; 15.43; 
16.58. 

The season of the year at which the rain comes makes an 
immensfe difference ; the growing crop has the moisture just 
when it needs it, and it grows thriftily in consequence. This 



SOIL AND VEGETATION OF KANSAS. 863 

rainfall will continue to increase, and will make this portion of 
the State as fruitful in its crops as any other. But if there 
should be a lack of rain, it is easy, with the constantly increasing 
elevation of the land and the rivers and streams westward, to 
irrigate all these lands when once broken to the plow, and then 
their yield will demonstrate that they are indeed the most fertile 
lands upon which the sun shines. Land which will yield thirty- 
five to forty bushels of wheat or a hundred bushels of corn, 
eighty bushels of oats and fifty of barley, or 250 to 300 or more 
bushels of potatoes to the acre, cannot be called barren land, 
even if it requires irrigation to enable it to do this. 

Alono- the banks of the rivers of Kansas and elsewhere there 
are now many trees, those not on the river banks having been 
very generally planted. The practice of using the Osage orange 
for hedges in place of any other fence is very common, and adds 
very greatly to the beauty of the farms as well as to the protec- 
tion of the crops and stock from the high winds. 

The trees planted under the Timber-Culture Act and under 
State laws have been possibly to a larger extent than was desir- 
able, the quickly growing trees, such as the white and yellow 
Cottonwood, willows, box elder, honey locust, ailantus, soft maple, 
and basswood or linden ; the State Agricultural Society have 
strongly urged the addition to the list of the elms, black walnut, 
white and other oaks, hickories, pecan, coffee bean, several spe- 
cies of ash, the red cedar, the sugar or hard maple, and the 
western catalpa {catalpa speciosa), a fine, hardy, and handsome 
tree. 

The native flowers of Kansas are very abundant and beautiful, 
and deck the broad prairies with a glory which must be seen to 
be fully appreciated. 

Zoology. — The wild animals of Kansas are those of the plains, 
not those which are peculiar to the Rocky Mountains, still less 
those of the western side of the Great Divide. The buffalo or 
bi^pn are not plenty anywhere in these days, but the remnants of 
the vast herds which formerly shook the solid earth by their 
steady, heavy gallop still pass at some seasons of the year :)ver 
Southwestern Kansas and thence into the Indian Territory and 



354 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Western Texas. The antelope of the plains is also found in 
larofe numbers in Western and Southwestern Kansas. We 
doubt if the elk is now to be found in Kansas, though some 
years ago he occasionally appeared in the western counties. 
Deer are plenty, and the smaller game, hares, rabbits, squirrels, 
and the rodents generally. Of beasts of prey the black and 
brown bear, the panther or cougar, lynx, wild cat, opossum, rac- 
coon, weasel, fisher, marten and skunk, are most common. The 
gray or black wolf is not abundant in the State, and the coyote 
or the prairie wolf is found mainly in the central and western 
countieDo Game-birds are very abundant in the west and south- 
west, ducks, brant, teal, mallards, and wild geese being found in 
great numbers in their season on the Arkansas river as well as 
on the Republican and Smoky Hill. On the plains the prairie 
hen still exists in moderate numbers ; if it had been as plenty as 
formerly the "grasshoppers" or Rocky Mountain locusts would 
never have reached the farm lands. Other members of the 
grouse family are quite abundant, especially sage-hens, quails, 
and ptarmigan. Song-birds are numerous, and many of them of 
fine plumage. 

The native edible fish of Kansas are several species of perch, 
sunfish, catfish, roach, black bass, one or two species of trout, etc. 
Shad, salmon, salmon trout, grayling, an eastern species of black 
bass, etc., have been introduced through the Fish Commission, 
but the success of these introductions is not yet fully demon- 
strated. The reptiles are much the same as those of Arkansas 
and Missouri. 

Natural Curiosities and Phenomena. — In a prairie State like 
Kansas there are comparatively few of these. The most re- 
markable are the Monument Rocks in Gove county, the Pulpit 
Rock in Ellsworth county, the Rock City, and the Perforated 
Rock near by, in Ottawa county, the Table Rock in Lincoln 
county, and the masses of gypsum and selenite in the gypsum 
beds. Some of the fossil bones of vertebrates in the tertiary had 
been so thoroughly silicified as to be converted into moss agates 
of great beauty. This is particularly the case in Wallace and 
Sheridan counties. The moss agates of that region, not fossils, 
are very perfect. 




^ T>k 



KISSIAN VILLAGE. KANSAS — A UUG-OUT — HAVING 



CLIMATE OF KANSAS. 85r 

Climate and Meteorology. — No State in the Union, certainly 
none in " Our Western Empire," has been so thorough in record- 
ing its climatic changes as Kansas. This has been due largely, 
indeed almost entirely, to the persistent and untiring efforts of 
the excellent Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, the 
late Hon. Alfred Gray, to whom not only the State but agricul- 
turists and scientists everywhere owe a debt of gratitude which 
can never be fully repaid. His admirable reports, prepared with 
so much labor and with such accuracy and completeness amid 
great bodily suffering and wasting disease, attest alike his philan- 
thropy and his devotion to his work. We may say in general 
that the climate of Kansas is a very desirable one. The summer 
months are in most parts of the State rather hot, the average 
mean temperature being for June about 75°, for July about 84.5°, 
and for August about 77.5°. The extremes of the winter months 
are sometimes very great, though not of long continuance; the 
average minimum of December is about — 12^, that of January 
about the same, while February was about +7°. The mean 
temperature of December was about 31°, of January about 24.5°, 
and of February 34.5°. These extremes are very great, but the 
air is so pure, and the extreme heat and cold are so tempered 
by it that the climate is a very healthy one. There are, as in all 
prairie States, at times, very high winds, sometimes accompanied 
with storms, though oftener not ; and these winds are sometimes 
destructive, and oftener annoying, but their general effect is puri- 
fying and healthful. The rainfall is increasing, and may, at some 
not very remote day, become excessive. A marked character- 
istic of it is that it is much larger in the months of May, June, 
July, and August than in all the rest of the year, and that the 
month of June has from one-third to one-half of the whole rain- 
fall of the year. With these general remarks we submit the 
meteorological tables of fifteen places in different parts of the 
State for 1877-1880. 
55 



866 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 





November, 1877. 


December, 1877. 


January, 1878. 


February, 1878. 







1.1 


U 1 J^ 


" is 't; •=' 


2 ! h If! 1 X 


1 s 


s -p 




3 


0.-- 




r; cj: : clj- c 


eratu 
h. 

emp< 
onth 

emp 
onth 

VIon 


i ^-^ 


ax : c 


Stations. 


rt . 


ES 


:-i oMrt 'p"'p"l oil 


e ^- Es 


ei ■ 


S 




can Temp 
of Mont 

aximum T 
ature of M 

inimum T 
ature of M 

ainfall for 


ean Temp 
of Mont 

aximum T 
ature of M 

inimum T 
ature of M 




^1 : 

p 

a 


aximum T 
ature of M 

inimum T 
ature of M 

ainfall for 


p 

R 


■"2 

E ^j 

rt rt ' 


U 

Srt 


u 

3 

"rt 




S [S IS ] P< ! 


S F jS 1 


« 


° 


s 


S S 1 


Pi 


^ 


S 


s 


OS 


Paxter Springs '42". 64: 68°! 


10°: 3.05 


46°.26 


68°! 14°! 


5-: 


36°. 75 


64° 


10° 


2.10 


43° -23 


64° 


20° 


3-97 


Lawrence .... 


39 23 


64 I 9 


I 


47 


44 -43 68 i 


10 


2.21 


33 -97 


ss 


7-5 


3-°5 


40 


22 


6b 


15.5' 2.Hb 


Leavenworth.. 


39 -5 


64 9 


2 


44 


44 -2 


67 


13 


.3-18 


33 80 


56 


6 


2-34 


40 


20 1 


6b 


18 1 2.94 


Manhattan. ... 
Independence. 


38 .70 
44 -90 


65 
7^ 




_ 


90 
07 








1.65 


33 09 

37 -7° 








59 
42 


18 


bH 


6 1.14 


10 


2 


47 -2° 


71 


15 


3.10 


64 


10 


2.69 


80 68 


18 


398 


Fort Hays 


„ .66 


68 


10 


I 


28 38 .00] 


72 


4 


3-5° 


33 -oo 


57 


— I 


1.24 


37 


33 1 70 


8 


•78 


Fort Larncd. 


37 -ofi 


66 


— 2 


20 


37 .66 


70 


8 


2.44 


30 .31 


58 


5 


• 51 


30 


75 j 68 


13 


.80 


Salina 


41 .00 


66 


9 I 


38 


45 -ool 


66 


ID 


2.50 


31 .88 


56 


6 


1.25 


3« 


47; 72 


14 


1.29 


Osborne 


37 -7' 


64 


2 


57 


39 -78 62 1 


IS 


1-35 


35 -oo 


60 


7 


■13 


40 


00 73 


8 


1-75 










I 


50 
93 
=;6 








2.65 
2.70 
4.36 


30 .50 
30 .61 


54 




2.60 
.50 


'■,6 


84 64 


'i6 


.40 
.69 


Kinsley . . . 














Dodge City... 


38 .60 71 


°i 


39 -oo 


68 


10 


64 


— I 


.21 


34 


90 70 


12 


■13 


Fort Wallace.. 


36 .31, 73 

! ! 


—6 1 


06 


28 .11 


75 


8 


2.15 


32 .00 


57 


9 




38 .20 1 70 


18 


i->3 




March, 1878. 


April, 1878. 


May, 1878. 


June, 1878. 




u 

3 


O.X. 


I.A 


•5 


i 




3 




Ou= P 


" if; 




.p 

c 


Stations. 5 ^ 


E 3 


p 





^^ 


s c:e c 


ux 


E 3 

<u 


^.S ^ 


2 • Bt 
«•£ -'"0 


E B 

u 


?• 




n 

c 


i'o 
X 5 




1 


p = 

E 
c 


ximum T 

ture of M 
limum T 
ture of M 

mfall for 


p 


5 5 


nimum T 
ture of M 

nfall for 


II 
p 

rt 


E a 

■S2 


E'o 

.is 












rt rt .3 rt ci 














ct 




s 


S !§ 1 « 


s 


s s 


P5 


S S 


k 1 Pi 


S 


)i 


^ 


K 


Baxter Springs 


54° -17 


80° 


34° 3-00 


63° .35 


86° 40° 


4.6j 


670.33! 88° 


48°, 6.80 


74° -41 


90° 


60° 


5.92 


Lawrence 


50 .90 1 81 


27 2.67 


58 .6o| 82 


36 


5 


48 


;62 .60 1 85 


38-5 


5-66 


•69 .79 


89 


50 


S.67 


Leavenworth.. 


50 .90 Bo 


28 2.35 


58 .80 


80 


35 


2 


86 


62 .30 85 


37 


5.28 


70 -50 


91 


49 


527 


Manhattan. . 


49 -29 81 


17 ! I-77IJ57 -77 


85 


27 


2 


02 


J64 .07 


85 


33 


4.04 


67 .21 


87 


41 


■;.n2 


Independence. 


51 .10 87 


26 1 3.i3;:6i .70 






3 


50 


'66 .80 


90 


48 


10.06 


I74 -5° 


94 


60 


H.I3I 




1 


1... 


■68:^57 -33 
1.201156 .79 


86 

85 


23 

34 




82 
61 


62 .43 

;63 ,17 


94 
94 


37 
35 


1.68 
4.65 


I70 .74 


Qi 


53 
50 


9-3i 
11.22 


Fort Lamed . . 


49 421 80 


25 


I72 -5° 95 


Great Bend . . . 


50 .00; 87 


28 


.88,157 -77 


84 


28 


I 


37 


65 .00 


91 


40 


1.95 1 73 .00 


91 


48 


8.60 


Salina 

Gaylord 

Osborne 


54 ■°o\ 87 






62 .00 




30 




55 
70 
50 














4-79 
4.10 




•52 
1. 00 






61 .80 


86 


3» 


1.961 69 .56 


92 


5° 


49 -75 


80 


31 


57 -07 


82 


36 












10.3.. 


McPherson . . 








1-95 
1.65 
1.48 









2 


30 
60 


59 -37 
6d .70 


91 
2' 


33 
38 


5-i8 1 

1.65IJ69 .27 
5.32170 .30 


95 
91 


54 


5-37 
6.37 


Fort Wallace.. 


45 -7° 


74 


24 


53 -71 


84 


34 




44 


50 


6.72 


Creswell 


48 .90 


81 


30 


S.08 


58 .15 


88 


30 


2 


42 


,67 -94 


89 


4b 


7.09 


74 .91 


95 


57 


4-97 


Cedar Vale . 








4-35 
1. 01 








3 


t6 


'61 .91 


93 


36 


4.63 


70 .50 


95 


48 


2.19 


Dodge City... 


49 -31 


79 


26 


55 -88 


84 


30 


r,fi 


































July, 1878. 


August, 1878. 


September, 1878. 


October, 18 


78. 




^ 


u 


-^ 


u 


^ 


,;;_ 


j: 


a 


U. V> 


j= 


^ !s :i : - 






ex. 


o-j: c 


^ 


O.J= 


i-ri 


c 


- 


a^- ax 


c 


:j i D.j= P.X c 


Stations. 


E 

c = 
« 


S c 
u 

E j; 
■s 2 

rt rt 


E c 
•-" 

G'o 

■ 3 ,, 

E i 



^o 


p 
rt 


E c 
H^ 

S V. 
■53 

rt rt 


3 ■) 

.eg 




1 vJ: 

^^ 
p 

rt 


aximum Tem 
ature of Mont 

inimum Tem 
ature of Mon 


U 

1 ■- 


ean Tempers 
of Month. 

aximum Terr 
ature of Mon 
inimum Ten- 
ature of Mon 


1 1 

'rt 




S 


s s 


fii 


^ 


■s. 


s 


oi 


S 


S >^ \ ti 


S jS 


Hi 


OS 


Baxter Spring! 


80° -.ni 


loo'^ 


70° 


3.00 










1 








1 
1 


I^wrence . . . 


78 -45 


P8 


sS 


4-3" 


177°. 14I gS^ 


56- 


2.22 


67° -ss 


94° -5^ 


4i°| 2.51 


55° .55; 87 


' 20° 1 .44 


Leavenworth. 


80 .3c 


100 


61 


3.08 


1 78 .90; 99 


58 


3-3' 


67 .8c 


93 


41 1 2.6^ 


55 .201 86 1 20 1. 10 


Manhattan... 


78 .09 


95 


52 


12.71 

1 


76 .88 97 


47 


2.66 


66 .gt 


93 


37 3-22 


50 .361 8g 17 1.06 



METEOROLOGY OF KANSAS. 



867 



Stations. 



Independence 
Fort Hays. . 
Fort Lamed 
Croat Bend 

Salina 

Gaylord . . . 
Oiborne . .. 
McPiierson 
Kinsley.... 
Fort Wallace 
Creswell . . 
Cedar Vale 



July, 18 



c o 



E p 

3 ° 
6 H 
'S 3 



81°. 70 



49 106 

40 [ 99 
54 1 '°° 
00: 102 



So 

.is 

.5 15 1 



65^ 



August, 1878. 



September, 18 






es'e = 
t-'S i^S 

E^ 
3 o 



81°. 50 



81 .50 

82 .00 



78 .83 



79 .62 
79 -'o 



61' 79 .02 



64^ 



E o 



6s .50 
72 .00 



68 .65 



63 -97 

66 .22 
72 .40 

67 .87 



■^ o 
y. 3 



46° 



•45 
2.25 
1.46 



2-53 
2.40 



.76 



October, 1078. 



E£ 
^§ 

p o 



58'^. to 



55 •<» 
60 .00 



Esie c' 

r" O »J O i 



E oi 



56 .66, 86 



52 .00 91 

55 .60 88 



4.70 
Spr. 

■39 
4.06 



.09 



Stations. 


January, 1879. 


February, 1879. 


March, 1879. 


April, 1879. 


3 

y 

c ° 

s 


s t 
■S2 


D.JP 

1 = 


P 


p 

'3 


^? 
E 

p ° 
S 


n 

ES 
■S2 


04= 
SS 

^% 

S'o 

u 

.St5 


P 


_p 


Mean Temperature 
of Month. 

Maximum Temper- 
ature of Month. 

Minimum Temper- 
ature of Month. 


J3 

P 


•S. 

_p 
'« 


3 
« 

ll 

p 

w 


sl 

S f. 
'S 5 


U 


c 


.5 
"a 
Oi 


Lawrence 

Leavenworth.. 
Manhattan. ... 
Independence. 
Great Bend. .. 

Salina - 

Gaylord 

Osborne 


23° -49 

23 -63 

21 .25 
27 .80 

24 -55 

24 .00 

25 -05 

22 .87 


53° 
56 

58 
70 

64 
70 
64 


-16=3 
-14 
-14 
-8 
-14 
-18 
-20 
-II 


•37 
1. 16 

■75 
2.03 
1.07 
135 

■75 
1. 00 

.85 

•45 
155 
2.12 

■87 


34° -06 
32 -93 


74° 
69 


5° 


■41 

•54 


48° .22 
46 .42 

46 .64 

51 ■SO 

47 ■fii 

52 .00 


87° 

84 

85 

86 

90 

92 


11° 

9 
10 
16 
10 
12 


■37 

•32 

•85 
■05 
■30 


56^ .40 
55 ^37 
53 ■70 
58 .70 
57 ■OS 
59. 00 


84^ 

83 

78 

90 

86 

88 


20° 
!9 ■so 
18 
26 

2t 

'9 


4 
3 
3 
4 
4 
4 
3 
4 

6 

4 

2 


18 

57 
21 
76 

62 

67 
02 
87 
7S 
49 
98 
40 
80 


36 .30 
35 ^55 
35 •00 


74 
76 
8x 


II 
6 
7 


1.30 
•25 
.12 


29 .64 


70 


2 


.10 
•38 
.36 
•45 
.88 
.08 


46 .00 


89 


13 




55 •gfi 


85 


20 


Fort Wallace.. 

Creswell 

Cedar Vale.... 
Dodge City. .. 


20 .42 
24 .11 
29 .79 
23 .86 


68 
55 
65 
61 


-8 

-12 

-3 

-9 


30 ^95 
30 .12 

37 -94 
32 .54 


84 
78 
78 
74 


2 
6 

12 
6 


42 .58 
44 ■30 

47 ^72 


86 
90 


12 
II 


■15 

•17 


53 ^76 
53 -iS 
61 .63 

59 ^97 
6d .79 


86 
84 

^7 
8q 


25 
24 
26 
'9 


McPherson. . . 








1.50 
















1 


^ 


i 
















II 


i 




Stations. 


■0 
3 

3 


•0 

3 

"5) 

p 



3 


May, 1879. 


June, 1879. 


July, 1S79. 


u 
3 
rt 

p 

« 


Maximum Temper- 
ature of Month. 

Minimum Temper- 
ature of Month, 


p 


p 

'rt 
Pi 


3 
S 

hJ 

p'o 


OsP 

E S 
.S b 


Minimum Temper- 
ature of Month. 

Rainfall for Month. 


■■J 

p 


1" 


Minimum Temper- 
ature of Month. 


P 


IS 
•2 

a 


Lawrence .... 
Leavenworth.. 
Manhattan.. .. 
Independence. 
Great Bend . . . 

Salina 

Gaylord 


38° 58' 

39 21' 
39 '2' 

n ^', 

38 22' 

39 00' 
39 45' 


95° 16' 
94 54' 
96 40' 

98 38' 
98 00' 

q8 '.a' 


884 
896 
1,200 
800 
',845 
1,243 
I-8qq 


69° .50 

68 .96 

68 .57 

69 .30 
68 .S3 
71 .00 


93° 
92 
95 
91 
98 
103 


43° 

41 

44 

5' 

40 

39 


1.60 

3-04 

1.79 

.92 

.18 
1.58 


73° .22 

73 -35 
T?. .80 

76 .90 

77 ■00 
75 -oo 


97° 
93 
93 
102 

103 


45° 

46 

52 

50 

33 

43 


7-M 

9,00' 
8,48: 
3-54' 
2.6s| 
8.79! 
4- 171 


79°. 14 
79 ■Ss 

79 .20 
85 .90 

80 .00 
90 .00 


97° 
97 
98 
104 
98 
103 


62° 

61 

67 

70 

62 

62 


3 
4 
4 
3 
6 
6 
4 


66 
99 

26 
79 
72 
07 








1 





















868 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



Stations. 



Osborne 39° 30' 98° 45 

Kinsley |j7 58 99 46 

Fort \Vallace.. 39 00' 101 34 

Creswell 138 20'! 97 ji 

Cedar Vale. . .. 37 8'i 96 27' 

Dodge City... 37 45''ioo 00' 

Fort Hays .... 38 59' ^ 99 00' 

McPherson.. . 138 2o'l 97 40' 



2,000 
2,226 
3,3^8 
1,375 
1,000 
2,630 
2,107 
»,557 



May, 1879. 



e 



cuA I ci.-^ I 
- 1,^ O (,«J o 



JUNH, 1879. 



670.82 



•17 



96° 50' 



72 .99 

63 .09 
69 .89 100 






ll_ 


, 1 








aj= 


^A 


S = 


H 


HS 


s--^ 


st^ 


H Z 


ps 


















s 


s 



July, 1879. 



73° .601 94^ 



77 .48 108 

75 .40: too 

77 .93 102 

76 .oo| . . . . 

78 .34; 100 



48°! 3-83 
.... 3.65 



6-93 
6.3; 
4.4c 
2.60 
7.00 





i. 1 


I a.jd 


. !S " 




5 i^S 
















H V. 








y. zL 








S 


57 


100° 


92 ' 108 


&ji 100 


20 


102 1 



t-3 



63° 

59 
67 
72 



40 ... 
37 105 



Stations. 



Lawrence. . . . 
Leavenworth. 
Manhattan... 
Independence 
Great Bend. . 

SaUna 

Gaylord 

Osborne 

Kinsley 

Fort Wallace.. 

Cre^well 

Cedar Vale.... 
Dodge City.. . 

Fort Hays 

McPherson . . . 



August, 1879. 



c!iS 



E t 



71> -73 

77 -70 

77 -56 

77 -3° 

77 -5° 

79 .00 



77 -74 



75 -98 

75 -23 

80 .38 
75 -60 

81 * 



September, 1879. 






October, 1879. 






S iS 



56 .30 

70 .50 

65 .25 

71 .00 

23 

90! 66 .45 

37|i 

24J 64 .15 

69 .23 

71 .07 

66 .17 
62 .17 



.40 92" 
.90 j 90 



I E-s 



60°. 46 87°. 5 
62 .10 84. 5 

61 .13 86 .0 

62 .80 91 .0 
59 .20 88 .0 
65 .00 90 .0 






25^.5 

26 .0 

24 .0 

31 .0 

27 .0 

25 .0 



61 

56' 
58 
64 

59 
48 


■25 91 


.0 

.0 


16" 


.0 
.0 


.28 90 

.50 76 
•79 91 


.0 

■7 
.0 


31 
45 
10 


.0 
■5 
.0 



2.81 
4.25 

2.63 

2.49 

.10 

1.80 
•23 

■ IS 

.40 

2. '16 
2.87 



.60 



November, 1879. 



a 

c o 



E'o 



26 76^.5! 16'' 
60 73 .5 1 16 
50 70 .ol 13 
40,80 .0 
00 76 .0 
00 75 .0 



78 



77 -o 
67 .0 



17 



Stations. 



Lawrence. . . . 
Leavenworth. 

Manhattan 

Independence. 
Great Bend. . , 

Salina 

Gaylord 

Osborne 

Kinsley 

Fort Wallace., 

Creswell 

Cedar Vale 

Dodge City. .. 
Fort Hays. . . . 
McPherson..., 



December, 1879. 



E o 



.'-I o 



5 o : E o 

i s !.i ^ 

2 ^ 1 E " 



26° .23 65°.5J-9" 

26 .70 63 .0 — 8 

28 .75 '74 .0 

32 .90 64 .0 

32 .00,74 .0 

28 .00 79 .0 

158 .0 

23 .16.57 -o 



23 .39:72 .0 

23 .60I78 .0 

29 .38,66 .0 

25 .70 70 .0 



-10 

—4 



10 'LSS 



January, 18 






41" -23 

41 .40 

37 .16 
45 -So 
40 .25 



36 .12 
41 .60 
38 .20 



ES ES 

ss is 

'S 3 s S 



67 



20". 5 

20 .0 

15 .0 

21 .0 

16 .0 
15 .0 



2.00 
.56 

1.54 

•45 
.75 



•25 
Spr. 



1. 6s 



February, 18 






37" 90 

36 .62 
42 .30 

37 .50 
41 .00 



36 .46 



37 -5° 

37 -lo 

38 .30 
30 .48 



ax 
ES 

S E 



6 c 

4) o 



Spr. 



March, 1880 



ES 



E ii 
■- 3 

« « 






42° .381 79": 

42 .90! 76 

41 .04 I 80 

47 -oo] 78 

41 .501 84 

46 .00 86 

40 .32 83 



40 .10 

44 -97 
28 .90 



2.5- 

4.0 
-a.o 

5-0 
-i.o 
-3.0 

3-0 



-4.0 

7.0 

-8.0 



2.03 

2.22 

■SO 

1.46 

•54 
.90 

•75 



.lo 



.68 

1.42 

.04 



RAINFALL OF KANSAS. 

SUMMARY OF RAINFALL FOR YEAR ENDING OCTOBER, 1878. 

FIRST, OR EASTERN BELT. 



869 



Stations. 



! 

[Baxter Spr'gs. 

I Lawrence 

I Leavenworth. . 
.'Manhattan.. . . 
Iliidepeiidence. 





u 


^ 


"S 


T3 














c 


« 





J 


J 


37" V 


94"" 37 


3« 5« 


95 It. 


39 21 


94 54 


39 12 


96 40 


37 « 


95 37 





tC 


. 




















r.^ 
























r-. 
















" 






OD 

































JD 


jo 


>. 


■6 




00 


r^ 


c^ 


t^ 


•0 

3 

< 


> 


E 

u 

Q 


3 
C 
d 

>— > 


2 


J2 


0. 

< 




c 

3 


"3 
1— I 


820 


5.30 2.10 


3.Q7 


3.00 


4.60 


6.80 


5.92 


3.00 


884 


'•47 


2.21 13.05 


2.s6 


2.67 


s.4a 


S.66 


S.67 


4.30 


896 


2.44 


3-''8|2.34 


2.94 


2-.35 


2.86 


5.28 


5.27 


3."8 


1,200 


1.90 


1.65 12.35 


1.44 


1.77 


2.02 


4.04 


5.02 


12.71 


8 JO 


2.07 


J.IO 


2.69 


3.9a 


3.13 


3.50 


10.06 


8.13 


2.93 



Eb I 

3 I 

< I 



37-74 
38.54 
36.85 
39- 84 
43-79 



SECOND, OR MIDDLE BELT. 



Great Bend . . . 

Salina. 

Osborne 

McPherson. . . 
Creswcll 

Gaylord 

Kinsley. 

Fort Wallace. . 
Dodge City. . . 



38° 22' 


98° 38- 


1,845 


39 00 


98 00 


1,127 


39 30' 


98 45' 


2,000 


38 20' 


97 40' 


1,557 


38 20' 


97 " 


1,375 



11' 2.28 1.25 1.29' .88 1.37 

38 2.501 2.70 1.75' 1.70 1.55 
57 1.35 1. 01 .69; i.ooi .50 
50I 2.65! 2.60 2.15I 1.95; 2.30 
...... I 2.84I 2.04 5.08; 2.42 



4.65 
1.95 
1.96 
4-15 
532 



-22 I 3 
.69 

.19 ! 12 

■30 I 5 

-72 3 



•35 I I 
-75 2 
-OS 13 
-35 I 2 
-67 3 



451 1-26 
25 .19 
10 .21 

15, 4.70 
401 4.06 



30.19 

2993 
28.21 
41.80 
38.49 



THIRD, OR WESTERN BELT. 



39 45 


98 50 


1,800 


37 58 


99 46 


2,226 


39 00 


loi 34 


3.318 


37 45 


100 00 


2,600 



.. . 1 


•13 


.40 .52 


.70 


10.64 


4.79 


-93 2-70 


■.50 


■75 1-65 


.60 


,5.18 


5.37 


.06 2.15 


.oS 


.13 1.48 


.44 


i.bs 


6.37 


.56 4.36 


.21 


1. 13 I.OI 


1.06 


4.63 


2.19 



5-75 
3.26 
1.61 



3.41 1.46 
1.25 I. 10 


.60 

Spr 


1.00,2.53 

4.48 1 .76 


.29 
.09 



31.51 
25-78 

19.44 

22.09 



RECAPITULATION. 



First, or Eastern Belt . . 
Second, or Middle Belt. 
Third, or Western Belt. 



. 










J3 


E ti 


E t^ ! 






>00 








z 


Q i 


2.19 


3-09 1 


1. 00 


2-49 1 


.60 


2.7s ! 



■5 00- 



2.51 


3.04 ; 2.88 


3.60 \ 


6.49 


1.42 


I. 18 1 1.63 


1. 21 ■ 


4-44 


•53 


.67 1 1.08 


.68 1 


4.29 



5-83 1 

7- 58 1 
5-37! 



4-97 
5-97 
6.31 







r^ 










J3 


Vi 


E« 






6« 

3 


H." 


< 


t« 


2.64 


2.28 



"00 

o " 

o 



I. OS 

2.541 1-561 1.57 
2.74I 1.39I .24 



Mean for 12 months — First, or Eastern Belt 37- 58 inches. 

" " " " Second, or Middle Belt 27.89 " 

" " " " Third, or Western Belt 21.73 " 

SUMMARY OF RAINFALL FOR 1879. 

FIRST, OR EASTERN BELT. 



Stations. 



Lawrence 

Leavenworth . . 

Manhattan. .. 
, Independence . 
tj Cedar Vale..-. 
t 



•75 
2.03 
2.12 



85 



76 



7-14 

9.90 



3-54 
6.37 



7-14 
9.90 
8.48 
3-54 
6.37 



I -03 

.18 

1. 61 

4.12 

5.69 



2.81 
4-25 
2.63 
2.49 
2.87 



2^39 
2.34 
.62 
5-17 
2.00 



32-68 
41-55 
36.45 
33.08 
33-17 



SECOND, OR MIDDLE BELT. 



Great Bend I 1.07 

iSalina 1.35 

iGaylord .75 

Osborne i.oo 

Creswell I 1.55 



•05 


4-95 


•31 


2.65 


•.30 


4.62 


X.38 


8.79 




3-67 


I -.58 


417 




4.02 


2.65 


3.8s 


•15 


6.49 


.84 


6.93 



6-79 
6.72 

4-07 
3-37 
7.88 



r.65 
2.10 
•23 
r.90 
2.10 



-35 
1-95 
1-30 
2.30 

1-37 



•23 

• 15 

2.16 



1.90 
2.77 
4-99 



.65 


20. 


•35 


34- 


.00 


17- 


.00 


22. 


• 58 


36. 



870 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 
THIRD, OR WESTERN BELT. 



Stations. 



Kinsley ! .85 

Fort Wallace | .45 

Dodge City ■ .87 

Fort Hays I .... 

McPherson | 1.50 



2.00 

2.44 

.90 

■50 
1.70 



^.6s 


2-31 


3-37 




1.08 


7.01 


2.24 i 


4.40 


3.90 


3-75 1 . 


2.60 


7.04 


3.02 1 . 


7.00 


6.25 


4.20 


I. 



.60 



1503 
16.58 

iS-43 
16.26 
32.05 



Agncultural Productions. — Kansas is pre-eminently an agri- 
cultural State, and the efforts of her State Agricultural Board 
and of her railroad companies to develop her agricultural inter- 
ests have been crowned with the most wonderful success. Her 
race for the supremacy in agricultural products has been rapid 
beyond all precedent. Take wheat as an example: In 1872 she 
produced 2,155,000 bushels; in 1878, 32,315,358, leading all the 
States in winter wheat. In 1879 the season was unfavorable for 
winter wheat, but favorable for the spring wheat, and the wheat 
crop in Kansas fell off to 20,551,000, but the crop of 1880 more 
than makes up all deficiencies. 

The following official statement shows what were the agricul- 
tural crops of 1877, 1878, and 1879: 



Crops. 



Winter Wheat bu. 

Rye bu. 

Spring Wheat bu. 

Corn bu 

Barley bu, 

Oats bu 

Buckwheat bu, 

Irish Pot.itoes bu 

Sweet Potatoes bu. 

Sorghum gall 

Castor Beans bu 

Cotton lbs 

Flax bu 

Hemp lbs 

Tobacco lbs 

Broom Corn lbs 

Millet and Hungarian., .tons 

Timothy tons 

Clover tons 

Prairie Hay tons 

Timothy Pasture acres 

Clover Pasture acres 

Blue-grass Pasture . . .acres 
Prairie Pasture, under fence * 

Total 





1 












Average 






Number of 
Acres 


Amount of 
Product. 


Value of 
Product. 


Average 

Yield 
per Acre. 


Price per 
Bushel, 

Gall., Lb. 
or Ton. 


Average 

Value 
per Acre. 


857,125.00 


10,800,295.00 


% 9,662,508.20 


12.60+ 


S0.89+ 


*ii.27+ 


119,971 


00 


2,525,054 


00 


806,092.81 


21 


05- 


■32- 


6 


72- 


206,868 


00 


3.516,410 


00 


2,577,620.52 


17 


00- 


•73 + 


12 


46+ 


2,563,112 


00 


103,497,831 


00 


20,206,184.92 


40 


38- 


.20- 


7 


88 + 


79-704 


00 


1,875.323 


00 


582,977.32 


23 


53- 


iie-- 


7 


31 + 


310,226 


00 


12,768,488 


00 


2,050,001.77 


41 


16- 


6 


61- 


4,112 


37 


57.974 


41 


46,380.53 


12 


64- 


.80-- 


11 


28- 


45,018 


00 


3,119,084 


00 


2,056,078.80 


69 


29- 


.66- 


45 


67+ 


1,726 


23 


201,423 


50 


201,928.94 


lib 


68-t- 


i.oo-f- 


116 


91- 


20,783 


75 


2,390.131 


25 


1,195,065,63 


115 


00 


.50 


57 


50-- 


50.845 


25 


578.356 


00 


578,356.00 


11 


37+ 


1. 00 


11 


37-- 


597 


62 


ioi,595 


40 


10,159.54 


170 


00 


.10 


17 


00 


27.735 


M 


291,309 


57 


305,875.05 


10 


50-f- 


1.05 


11 


03+ 


1,801 


70 


1.657,564 


00 


99.453 84 


920 


00 


.06 


55 


20 


717 


35 


530,839 


00 


53,083.90 


740 


00 


.10 


74 


00 


21. =47 


14 


16,917,712 


00 


6^4,414.20 


800 


00 


.04- 


32 


00 


164,529 


GO 


427,602 


25 


1,765,583.59 


2 


60- 


4.10+ 


10 


734- 


25,212 


50 


40,318 


29 


225,262.89 


I 


60- 


5-59- 


8 


93 + 


9.796 


66 


18.337 


04 


107,362.19 


I 


87-- 
47-- 


5.85 + 


10 


,(>- 


503,612 


00 


741.763 


60 


2,432,660.57 


1 


3.28- 


4 


83 


4,202 


23 












1,445 


49 












21,209 


31 












553,717.00 












5,595,304 


99 




$45,597,051-21 





AGRICULTURAL CROPS OF KANSAS. 



871 



Showing the Number of Acres, Amount and Value of each Product of Principal Crops of the 

Farm, for 1878. . ' ' 



Crops. 



Acr 



Value of 
Product. 



I Average 

Average ' Price per 

Yield Bu., Lb. 

per Acre, or Ton. 



Average 

Value 
per Acre. 



Winter Wheat bu. 

Rye bu. 

Spring Wheat bu. 

Com bu. 

Barley bu. 

Oats bu. 

Buckwheat . bu. 

Irish Potatoes bu. 

Sweet Potatoes bu. 

Sorghum gall. 

Castor Beans bu. 

Cotton lbs. 

Flax bu. 

Hemp lbs. 

Tobacco lbs. 

Broom Com lbs. 

Millet and Hungarian., .tons. 

Timothy Meadow tons. 

Clover Meadow tons. 

Prairie Meadow tons. 

Timothy Pasture acres. 

Clover Pasture acres. 

Blue-grass Pasture acres. 

Prairie Pasture acres. 



I.297.555-0O 
127,842.00 

433.25700 

2,405,482.00 

56,255.00 

444,191.00 

4,582.66 

51,279.00 

2,266.93 

20,291.88 

30,928.75 

5'^ 9 -30 

37,001.70 

529- 79 

553-15 

20,220.17 

144,081.00 

40,121.12 

12,429.42 

667,503.00 

8,820.00 

3.770-25 

27,876.73 

701,421.00 



26,518, 

2,722, 

5-796. 

89.324. 

1,562, 

•7,411. 

85. 

4.256. 

269. 

2.333. 

358. 

86. 

424. 

487. 

409 

16,065 

432. 

64. 

24 



.955-00 
,co8.oo 
,403.00 
,971.00 
,793-oo 

,47300 
,928.20 
,336.00 

.083.57 
,566.20 
.894.75 
,581.00 
,770.88 
,406.80 
,331.00 
,566.00 
,243.00 
.553-76 
,229.52 
,963 00 



■^15,658,466.87 

816,602.40 

2,782,599.97 

17,018,968.79 

562,260.33 

2.9'!7,9oo.63 

68,742.56 

1,683,936.00 

224,846.61 

1,166,783.22 

448,618.38 

7.792-36 

424,770.88 

29,244.40 

40,933.10 

602,458.76 

1,782,555-30 

362,241.52 

137.154-45 

3.157.557-85 



Total I 6,538,727.85 



920, 

740 

794 

3 



29 + 
38 + 
13 + 
78 + 



07- 
69 + 



60+ 



53+ 
00 
61- 
95- 



;?49.9i4.434-38 



59 + 

30 

48+ 

17- 

36- 

16+ 

80 

39 + 

84- 

50 

25 

09 

00 

06 

10 

04- 

12 + 

61 + 

66+ 

19 + 



IJ12.06- 
6-39- 
6.71 + 
6.31 + 
9.98- 
6.28- 
14.46+ 
32.42— 
99.70+ 
57-50 
14.50 
'5- 30 
11.48- 
55-20 
74-00 
29.79 + 
12.36+ 
9-03 + 
I I .04- 
4-72 + 



The value of farm products for the year 1878 is as follows 

Field products ^49,914,434.38 

Increase in farm animals 6,401,871.30 

Products of live-stock 10,415,339.32 

Produce of gardens marketed 247,510.29 

Apiarian products 55,141.15 

Horticultural products 2,642,770.87 

Total valuation of farm products for 1878 $69,677,067.31 

Total valuation of all other property 231,164,684.95 



Grand State Total $300,841,752.26 

Number of Acres, Amount and Value of each Product of Principal Crops of the Farm, 

for 1879. 



Crops. 



Winter Wheat bu. 

Rye bu. 

Spring Wheat bu. 

Com bu. 

Barley bu. 

Oats bu. 

Buckwheat bu. 

Irish Potatoes bu. 

Sweet Potatoes ,.. .bu. 

Sorghum gall. 

Castor Beans bu. 

Cotton lbs. 

Flax bu. 

Hemp lbs. 

Tobacco lbs. 

Broom Corn lbs. 

Millet and Hungarian. . . .tons. 

Timothy Meadow tons. 

Clover Meadow tons. 

Prairie Meadow tons. 

Timothy Pasture acres. 

Clover Pasture acres. 

Blue-grass Pasture acres. 

Prairie Pasture acres. 

Total 











Average 








Value of 
Product. 


Average 


Price per 


Average 


Acres. 


Product. 


Yield 


Bu.. Lb., 


Value 






per Acre. 


or Ton. 


per Acre. 


1,520,659.00 


17,560,259.00 


$16,087,403,69 


11.55- 


$ 92- 


gio.63- 


43,675.00 


660,409.00 


264,163.60 


15-12 + 




40 


6.05- 


412,139.00 


2,990,677.00 


2,361,307.45 


7-25 + 




79- 


5-73- 


2,995,070.00 


108,704,927.00 


26,562,674.46 


36.29 + 




24+ 


8.71- 


45,851.00 


720,092.00 


360,046.00 


15.70+ 




50 


7-8s 


573,982.00 


13,326,637.00 


3.397,416.33 


23.22- 




25 + 


.S.81- 


2,817.00 


4'i,3o6.40 


37.175-84 


15.00 




90 


13.50 


62,6->i.oo 


3,324,129.00 


2,177.564-55 


53-10+ 




66- 


35.05- 


2,728.21 


• 197,407.29 


197,407.29 


72-36- 


I 


00 


72.36- 


23,664.86 


2,721,458.90 


1,224.656.57 


115.00 




45 


51-75 


68,179.07 


766,143.37 


766,1-43.37 


11.24- 


I 


00 


11.24- 


197.58 


33,588.60 


3,023.06 


170.00 




09 


15-30 


69,383.17 


622,256.02 


622,256.02 


8-97- 


I 


00 


8-97- 


606.39 


557.878-80 


■ 33.472.72 


920.00 




06 


55-20 


752.37 


556,753-80 


55.675.38 


740.00 




10 


74-00 


14.273-IS 


8,095,145.28 • 


•283,330.15 


567.16- 




03^4 


19-85 +' 


174,890.00 


494,962.00 


2.042,275.75 


2.83 + 


4 


13- 


11.69- 


57,481.13 


86,884.98 


483,812.15 


1-51- 


5 


57- 


8.41- 


14,769.83 


25,822.90 


152,503.92 


1-75- 


5 


91- 


10.34- 


672.994.00 


943,653.60 


3,017,472-43 


1.40- 


3 


,9 + 


4-47- 


14,212.38 












7,007-30 












36,166.82 












955,826.00 












7.760.026.26 


*6o. 120.780.7^ 



g-^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The following statistics show the number and increase of live- 
stock in the State from the close of 1875 to the close of 1879 : 

LIVE-STOCK. 





Horses. 


Mules and Asses. 


Milch Cows. 


S 

3 


_3 

> 


E 
3 
I? 


_3 
"n 
> 


u 

E 
3 
7^ 


u 

3 

> 


Total in 1875 


207,376 

274,450 


^,875,245-12 
16,467,000.00 


24,964 
40,564 


$1,622,660.00 
3.042,300.00 


225,028 

286,241 


$5,747,215.12 
7,442,266.00 




67,074 


;?6,59i,754-88 


1 5 ,6co 
54-7- 

40.564 
51.981 


$1 419,640.00 


61,213 


$1,695,050.88 


Per cent, of increase in 5 years 


32 -34 

274,450 
324,766 






27.20 + 

286,241 
322,020 




^16,467,000 
17,537,364 


$3,042,300 
4,158,480 


$7,442,266 
8,964,540 


Total in 1879 


50,316 


$1,070,364 


11.417 


$1,116,180 


35,779 


$1,522,274 








Othe 


r Cattle. 


Sheep. 


Swine. 


S 

3 


6 

_3 

> 


1 

6 

3 

2; 


u 

3 

> 


u 

u 

B 
3 


u 
> 


Total in 1875 


478,295 
586,002 


$9,039,775-50 
12,423,242.40 


106,224 
243,760 


$247,501-92 
731,280.00 


292,658 


$2,077,871.80 1 




1,195,044! 6,094,724.40 1 








107,707 


53,383,466.90 


137,536 


$483,778-08 


902,386 


$4,016,852.60 




22.52- 

586,002 
654,443 




129.48- 

243,760 
311,862 




308.34+ 

1,195,044 
1,264,494 






$12,423,242 
15,706,632 


$731,280 
1,091,517 


$6,094,724 
7,586,964 






68,441 


$3,283,390 


68,102 


$360,237 


69,450 


$1,492,240 









The following- statistics show the amount not only of agricul- 
tural products but of other products of the State, valuations of 
real and personal estate, etc., as well as school statistics for 1879 : 



SUMMARY FOR THE STATE. 
1878. 

Field products ;$49, 914,434 38 

Increase in total value of farm animals . . 6,401,871 30 

Products of live-stock 10,415,339 32 

Products of market gardens 247,510 29 

Apiarian products 55>i4i ^5 

Horticultural products 2,642,770 87 



1879. 
;6o, 129,780 73 
8,504,684 20 

11,507.715 46 
307,292 48 

94,789 30 
488,594 88 



Total ^69,677,067 31 $81,032,857 05 

Increase during the year ;?ii,355,789 74 

Total valuation of products of 1879, $81,032,857.05; assessed 
valuation of property, March i, 1879, $144,930,279.69; real valu- 



STATISTICS OF KANSAS. gy^ 

ation of assessed property, ^241,550,466.51 ; total valuation of 
all property, ^322,611,187.86. Value per capita of products of 
1879, $97.80 — ; real valuation per capita of assessed property 
of 1879, $286.21+; valuation per capita of products of 1879, 
together with the real valuation of assessed property, $384.01 +. 
Increase in cultivated area for year ending March i, 1879, 
1,270,492.82 ; number of farm dwellings erected during the year 
ending March i, 1879, 15,952; value of farm dwellings erected 
during year ending March i, 1879, $2,802,053. Tax on each 
$100 of assessed valuation, $3.56 + . Number of school districts, 
5,575 ; number of school-houses, 4,934; value of school buildings 
and grounds, $3,916,931 ; number of teachers employed during 
the year, 6,707; average wages paid, $27.09; total school ex- 
penses, $1,590,794.30. 

The tables given above are instructive in many particulars. 
They show the rapidity with which the arable lands of the State 
are brought under cultivation, an increase of acreage of about 
1,350,000 yearly, and a total of 7,757,130 acres sown with these 
prominent crops in 1879. At this rate of increase, and it is 
likely to be exceeded, the year a. d. 1900 will see all or nearly 
all the arable land of the State under culture. They show also 
that while, as a new State, Kansas must of necessity devote her- 
self to the cultivation of the cereals, corn and potatoes, as her 
principal crops, and those which would bring the readiest and 
surest return, she has also been very active in diversifying her 
producdons by the cultivation of other crops.' In 1879, more 
than one-seventh of her cultivated acreage was devoted to the 
culture of such crops as millet, pearl millet, Hungarian grass, 
rice corn, flax, broom corn, castor beans, sorghum, sweet pota- 
toes, and small ventures in cotton, hemp, tobacco, etc. 

Kansas has generally done better on winter wheat than spring 
wheat, and hence of her large wheat area about four-fifths is win- 
ter wheat, and the remainder spring wheat. The States farther 
north have found that spring wheat was a much surer crop, owing 
to their long and severe winters and their short but quick-grow- 
ing and intense summers. The warm season is so much longer, 
and the general cold of winter so much less severe in Kansas, 



374 ^^-^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

that winter wheat is a tolerably sure crop, and its average yield 
is more satisfactory than the spring wheat. 

The culture of the castor bean, of flax, of the rice corn, and of 
the broom corn is larger in proportion to the whole farming crop 
than in any other State. That of sorghum and of the pearl millet 
is increasing. All of these crops under proper conditions have 
proved profitable, and some of them in future will be much more 
so. This is especially true of the castor bean, rice corn, flax, and 
sorofhum. The new discoveries which enable the manufacturer 
at very moderate cost to produce a perfectly crystallized sugar 
from sorghum, when cut at the time the seeds are hardening, will 
cause a ereat increase in the cultivation of some of its numerous 
varieties. The demand for the flax fibre for paper stock when 
the seed has ripened will increase the production of flax as yield- 
ing a double crop of seed and lint, and the recently demonstrated 
fact that it is the most profitable crop to be used on land of new 
breaking will also increase its production. 

We should not lose sight in this connection of the important 
interest which Kansas has in the rearing of live-stock. In 1879, 
she had 324,766 horses and 51,981 mules reported by the asses- 
sors, a very fair amount for a new State ; the number of milch 
cows was 332,020, and of other cattle 654,443, making together 
986,463 neat cattle, and allowing for omissions in the assessors' 
reports the actual number must have exceeded 1,000,000. The 
dairy products of the State for the year ending March i, 1879, 
were 1,059,640 pounds of cheese, and 14,506,494 pounds of 
butter, of the total value of $3,759,078.50. To this should be 
added a large sum for milk sold. The number of sheep was 
31 1,862, not very large, but a ten-fold increase from 1870. In 
the production of swine, Kansas stands eleventh in the United 
States, and fourth in "Our Western Empire," only Iowa, Missouri, 
and Texas having a larger number. In the quality of the pork 
only Iowa surpasses her. In addition to her 1,264,494 swine at 
the end of 1879, which were valued at $7,586,964, there were in 
1879 animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter (of which the 
swine formed much the largest portion) to the value of $8,665,- 
543. Western Kansas furnishes such abundant pasturage for 



ORCHARD AND VINEYARD PRODUCTS. 87? 

cattle and sheep, and such vast crops of corn, rice corn, etc., that 
the raising, and especially the fattening of cattle and sheep for 
market, ought to be and will be one of its largest industries. 

The orchard and vineyard products of Kansas are remarkable 
for a State so recently settled. In March, 1879, there were 
reported, 1,867,192 apple trees in bearing, and 3,979,062 which 
had not yet borne their first crop ; 58,482 pear trees in bearing, 
and 154,265 not yet in bearing; 4,784,076 peach trees in bearing, 
and 4,049,801 not yet in bearing; 169,940 plum trees in bearing, 
and 264,968 not yet in bearing; 432,726 cherry trees in bearing, 
and 678,426 not yet in bearing. The climate is favorable to 
fruit-growing, and great care is taken to obtain choice varieties. 
Not so much attention has been paid to viniculture, but there 
were 3,419 acres of vineyards in the State in 1878, and 84,079 
gallons of wine were made that year. 

Apiaculture, or the raising of bees, has been from the first a 
favorite pursuit in Kansas. In 1879 there were 31,190 stands 
of bees reported in the State, which had produced 370,398 
pounds of honey, and 10,949 pounds of wax. 

Prices of Necessary Merchandise. — The question is often asked 
by intending emigrants : Are not the prices of everything we 
have to buy in these new States and Territories enormously 
high ? We can buy land cheaply enough, and the prices of 
' horses, catde and sheep are reasonable, but is not this cheapness 
more than made up by the exorbitant price put upon everything 
we have to eat, drink, or wear, upon our furniture, agricultural 
or mining tools, lumber, etc., and is not the price of board and 
lodging very high? 

We answer. No. The average prices of most articles are not 
higher and some of them not quite so high as those at the East. 
The following list of prices prepared by the late Hon. Alfred 
Gray, late Secretary of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture, 
with great care, shows the average prices in Kansas, in the 
autumn of 1879. They have not materially changed since. 
The prices of board are given as at Topeka, Lawrence and other 
cities of the State. In the country villages and on farms, they 
are materially lower. 



876 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



PRICES OF MERCHANDISE, ETC 



Prints. 

Merrimac, per yard 6c. to 8c 

Cocheco 7c. to 9c, 

Ordinary 5*^ 



DRY GOODS. 

\ Atlantic, P ^C. 

Dwiyht Star 9^c. 

Booth Mills 8>^c. 



Muslin — Bleached. 

Lonsdale, per yard loc. 

Fruit of the Loom loc. 

Great Falls, Q loc. 

Wamsutta I2}^c 

Brown. 

Indian Head, per yard 9^c 

Atlantic, A 9}^.^ 



yeans, etc. 
Salem, all wool filled, per yard. 45c. 

Tricot 25c. 

Farmers' 30c. 

Farmers' and mechanics' cassia 

mere 25c. 

Cheviot shirtings loc. to I2^c. 

Ticking, best feather 20c. to 25c. 

Ticking, best straw loc. to I2^c. 



Sugar. [For one dollar.) 
10^ pounds A. 
loy^ pounds Granulated. 
11^2 pounds Coffee, "C." 
15 pounds Brown. 

Coffee. [For one dollar.) 

4 pounds Java. 

5 pounds best Rio. 
8 pounds good Rio. 

Tea. [Per pound.) 

Japan ^o 25 

Gunpowder 60 

Imperial 5*^ 

Oolong, choice 

Miscellaneous. 

Rice, per pound 

Codfish 

Mackerel, per kitt 

Bacon — Shoulders, per pound 



GROCERIES. 

Bacon — Hams, canvassed.. . . 

Hams, plain 

Sides. 

Apples, per bushel 

Potatoes 

Sweet potatoes 

Butter crackers, per pound. . . 
Coal oil, per gallon 

Flour and Feed, 



to %o 80 

to I 00 

to 80 

60 



$0 08 

8 

70 

6 



I 00 to I 20 
70 to 80 

70 

6X 
25 



XXX, per 100 pounds $2 75 

XXXX 3 25 

Patent 3 75 



80 

60 

70 

25 

30 

3 00 

Hay, per ton, baled 8 00 

FURNITURE. 



Corn meal 

Bran 

Shorts 

Corn, per bushel.. . , 

Oats 

Hay, per ton, loose. 



Chairs. 
Windsor, set of 6 ^3 50 

Cane seal 6 00 

Splint bottom 

Easy, each 7 50 

Tables. 

Kitchen 

Breakfast 3 00 

Extension, oak, ash and wal-» 
nut, per foot 

Bedsteads, etc. 

Cottage 

Walnut 5 00 and 

Bureaus 12 00 and 



to ^6 


[ 
50 


to 18 


00 


4 


5° 


to 20 


00 


«2 


50 


to 4 


50 


I 


IS 


;?3 


00 


upwards t 


upwards 



Rocking Chairs, etc. 



Common wood 

Cane seat 

Washstands 

Commode and drawer stands. 
Kitchen safes 



5i 00 to $\ 50 
2 50 to 6 00 
2 00 to 
4 50 to 
4 00 to 



2 50 

6 50 

7 50 



Lounges, etc. 

Carpet $8 00 to $30 00 

Wood, extension 2 25 to 4 50 

Sofas 1500 

Bedroom suits 35 00 to 150 00 

Parlor suits 40 00 to 1 00 00 



PRICES OF MERCHANDISE IN KANSAS. 



^77 



CARPETS. 



Hemp, per yard ;^o 20 

Rag 40 

Ingrain, cotton chain 25 to 50 

Two-ply, all wool 55 'o 90 

Three-ply, all wool 90 to l 10 1 Oil-cloth, per square yard. 

MISCELLANEOUS, 



Tapestry $0 90 to 

Body Brussels 

China straw matting 

Rattan matting 



50 to 
18 to 
35 to 
35 to 



SI 25 
2 00 

35 
75 
75 



Stoves. 

Cooking, complete ;? 1 7 OO to ^50 00 

Heating 5 00 and upwards 

Harness, etc. 

Farm, double ;$22 00 to ^26 00 

Carriage, double 25 00 to 75 00 

Buggy, single 12 00 to 50 00 

Saddles, men's 2 50 to 25 00 



Saddles, women's $5 00 to J 

Collars 60 to 

Halters 50 to 

Horse blankets i 10 to 

Shoeing Horses. 



Putting on set of all-new shoes. 
Resetting old shoes 



25 00 
4 00 
2 00 

10 00 



$1 50 
80 



BUILDING MATERIAL. 



Common boards, per M. . 

Studding and joist 

Fencing , 

Flooring 

Siding 

D stock 

Shingles 

Lath 

Finishing lumber , 

Doors 

Sash, glazed, per window. 



;J22 50 

22 00 

22 50 

25 00 to 35 00 

18 00 to 25 00 

25 00 

3 00 to 4 00 

4 00 

30 00 to 60 00 

I 25 to 3 00 

90 to 2 50 



Blinds, per lineal foot. 



^o 35 



Cedar posts 17 to 

Lime, per bushel 

Plastering hair, per bushel. . 

Brick, per M 7 OO to 

Plaster Paris, per barrel. . . . 

Nails, per pound, by the keg. 

Stone, per cord, delivered. .. 3 5010 

Stone,laidin the wall, perfoot. 8 

Building hardware is sold at Eastern prices 
with freight added. 



20 

25 

20 

8 00 

3 50 

4 00 



AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. 



Plows, etc. 

Wood beam, stirring, from 

10 to 16 inches $10 00 to %\() 00 

Steel beam, stirring 12 00 to 20 00 

Iron beam, stirring II 00 to 18 00 

Prairie breakers 18 00 to 25 00 

Sulky, 12 to 16 inches 38 00 to 45 cx3 

Riding sulkies, for plow at- 
tachments 20 00 to 35 00 

Corn planters 45 00 



Cultivators, walking or 

riding ^19 OO to ;^27 00 

Harrows, Scotch 6 00 to 8 50 

Harrows, vibrating 9 5010 10 50 

Hay rakes, sulky 22 00 to 24 00 

Wagons, 

Farm two-horse ;^6o 00 to 70 00 

Spring 90 00 to 1 25 00 

Buggies. 

Covered $<)0 00 to ^275 00 

Open 60 00 to 1 50 00 



WOODEN AND WILLOW WARE. 



Two-hoop buckets 1 7c. 

Three-hoop buckets 20c. 

No. I washtubs 50c. 

No. 2 washtubs 65c. 

No. 3 washtubs 75c. 

Small willow clothes basket 65c. 



Medium willow clothes basket. . . 

Large willow clothes basket 

Washboards 15c. 

Half-bushel market baskets 

Half-bushel feed baskets 

Bushel baskets, stave 



75';- 
90c. 
to 25c. 
10c. 
30c. 
40c. 



g-g OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

FRESH MEATS. 

Beef. \ Mutton, etc. 

Boiling pieces, per pound 5c. to 6c. | Chops per pound loc. to I2>^c. 

Ru.istincr nieces loc. to I2>^c. | Roast loc. to \Z%,c. 



P 

Steak, round loc. 

Loin I2>^c. 

Porterhouse I2>^c. 



Leg I2)^c. 

Pork 8c. to IOC. 

Corned beef Sc. 

Pickled pork loc. 



WAGES. 



Carpenters, per day ^i 50 to $2 50 

Stone masons 2 00 to 225 

Bricklayers 3 O" 

Blacksmiths I 5° to 2 25 

Machinists I 50 to ' 2 25 

Moulders, iron 2 00 



Tinners ^I 50 to ^3 00 

Saddle and harness makers, 

per week 9 00 to 14 00 

Printers, per M 2510 30 

Printers, per week i2 00tol5oo 

Laborers, per day I 00 to I 50 



Boarding. — Board may be obtained at private houses for from 
^4 to $5 per week; at boarding houses, for $4.50 to $6 ; and at 
first-class hotels, at from $1.50 to $3 per day. 

Railroads and River Navigation. — The amount of river navi- 
gation in the State is not large. The Missouri is navigable for 
the entire distance (some seventy miles), in which it forms the 
northeastern boundary of the State, but none of its tributaries 
in Kansas possess any considerable value in that respect. The 
Kaw or Kansas, the largest of these, has been ascended in flood 
time by steamboats as far as the junction of the Smoky Hill 
and Republican rivers, but ordinarily no boats would be able to 
navigate it. The Arkansas is not navigable in Kansas, except 
in flood time. 

But this lack of navigable rivers is more than made good by 
the abundance of its railway facilities. Sixty-five of the 103 
counties of the State (organized and unorganized) are traversed 
by railroads, and many of the others are accessible to them, by 
their passage near their borders. Directly or indirectly, all the 
railroads which spread out over the State like a spider's web 
start from Kansas City, Missouri, so that the emigrant is sure 
of not going wrong if he buys his ticket at the East for that 
great railroad centre. 

We might go farther, and say that with the exception of a sin- 



Ji AIL WAYS OF KANSAS. g^g 

gle great trunk road (and how long that may be an exception it 
is hard to say), all the railroads which traverse Kansas in any 
direction are under the control of the Wabash Railway, and 
most of them form parts of the great Union Pacific system. This 
is especially the case with all the railways running west or north- 
west from Kansas City, Atchison, and St. Joseph, Missouri, but 
it is true, so far as the Wabash is concerned, of those in the 
eastern part of the State which extend southward and southwest- 
ward to the Indian Territory and Texas. The Atchison, Topeka 
and Santa Fe Railway, though having its eastern termini at 
Kansas City and Atchison, has thus far maintained its indepen- 
dence of these grand combinations and pursued its own plans 
to their consummation. So far as Kansas is concerned it will 
probably continue to do so ; but what may be the outcome of 
its recent arrangements for reaching the Pacific and Gulf coasts 
does not concern us in this connection. Kansas had at the be- 
ginning of 1880, about 3,121 miles of railroad in operation in 65 
of its 103 counties, and has materially increased the amount 
during the present year. It ranks third among the States and 
Territories of our western empire, only Iowa and Missouri sur- 
passing it, though Minnesota is not far behind in the race. 
Only eight of the States of the Union have exceeded this State 
in the extent of their railroad development. 

The following list we believe comprises all the Kansas rail- 
ways ; their length cannot be given, as it is so constantly changing. 

KANSAS RAILROADS. 

St. yoseph & Denver Railroad (formerly St. Joseph & Den- 
ver City Railroad). — Eastern terminus, St. Joseph, Mo.; west- 
ern terminus, Hastings, Neb. 

Atchison & Nebraska Railroad. — Southern terminus, Atchi- 
son, Kas. ; present northern terminus, Seward, Neb. 

Central Branch Union Pacific Railroad. — Eastern terminus, 
Atchison, Kas.; western terminus, Kirwin, Kas.; with branches 
from Greenleaf northwest to Washington ; from Concordia north 
to Scandia; and from Downs southwest to Osborne. 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad. — Eastern termini, 



ggQ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Atchison, Kas., Kansas City, Mo., and Pleasant Hill, Mo.; west- 
ern termini, Pueblo, Col, and Santa Fe, N. M.; with branches 
from Emporia south to Eureka; from Florence south to Eldo- 
rado; from Florence northwest to McPherson ; and from Newton 
south to Winfield and Wellington. 

Missouri Pacific Railway. — Eastern terminus, St. Louis, Mo.; 
northern terminus, Atchison, Kas., via Kansas City. 

Kaiisas Central Railroad. — Eastern terminus, Leavenworth, 
Kas.; western terminus, Onaga, Kas. 

Kansas Pacific Raikvay. — Eastern termini, Leavenworth,. Kas., 
and Kansas City, Mo.; western terminus, Denver, Col.; with 
branches from Junction City northwest to Concordia; from Sol- 
omon City northwest to Minneapolis; and from SaHna south to 
Lindsburg. 

Missouri, Kansas & Texas Railway. — Eastern terminus, 
Hannibal, Mo. ; southern terminus, Denison, Texas; with branch 
from Parsons, Kas., northwest to Junction City, Kas. 

Osage Division ofi JMissouri, Kansas & Texas Railzuay. — East- 
ern terminus, Holden, Mo.; western terminus, Paola, Kas.; con- 
necting at Holden with Missouri Pacific Railway, and at Paola 
with Kansas City, Fort Scott & Gulf Railroad. 

St. Louis & San Francisco Raili'oad. — Eastern terminus, St. 
Louis, Mo.; present western terminus, Cherryvale, Kas.; with 
branch from Carl Junction, Mo., northwest, to Girard, Kas. 

Memphis, Kansas & Colorado Railway. — Eastern terminus, 
Messer, Kas.; western terminus. Parsons, Kas.; connecting at 
Messer with St. Louis & San Francisco Railroad, and at Parsons 
with Missouri, Kansas & Texas Railway. 

Kansas City, La^'vence & Southern Railroad. — Northern ter- 
mini, Lawrence, Kas., and Kansas City, Mo.; southern terminus, 
Coffeyville, Kas.; with branch from Cherryvale southwest to 
Independence. 

Kajtsas City, Burlington & Santa Fe Railroad. — Northeastern 
terminus, Ottawa, Kas.; southwestern terminus, Burlington, 
Kas.; connecting at Ottawa with K. C. L. & S. R. R., and at 
Burlington with M. K. & T. Rly. 

Kansas City, Fort Scott <2f Gulf Railroad. — Northern termi- 
nus, Kansas City, Mo.; southern terminus, Joplin, Mo. 



LANDS FOR IMMIGRANTS. 38 j 

Manufactu7^es. — There are no statistics of manufactures in the 
State since 1870 which even approximate accuracy. In 1870, 
with a population of 373,299, the census report, always imper- 
fect on manufactures, gave the following statistics: 1,477 manu- 
facturing establishments; ^29,456,939 capital employed; ^54,- 
800,087 of annual product. In the ten years since that time, 
the population has increased three-fold, the assessed valuation 
certainly three and a half times, and the true valuation from 
$188,892,014 to $447,611,187.54. The annual product of man- 
ufactures in the State cannot fall short of $200,000,000, and may 
exceed that. Though there are no cities of the first or second 
class in the State, there are many active and growing towns and 
cities which are actively engaged in manufactures of all kinds. 

Lands for Immigrants. — With the immense influx of immigra- 
tion in the past four years the greater part of the government 
lands east of the 98th meridian have been taken up, the excep- 
tions being for the most part, those lands which were at too 
great a distance from railroads or markets, or those which were 
less fertile, or swampy in their character. West of this meridian, 
the government lands are yet to be bought of good quality, 
and at the usual rates, $1.25 per acre outside of railroad limits, 
or $2.50 inside. These lands can also be secured under the 
Homestead or Timber-Culture Acts or pre-empted; and some of 
those west of the looth meridian under the Desert Land Act. If 
the lands are to be immediately cultivated we would suo-o'est to 
the immigrant that he should not go beyond the frontier of set- 
tlement; because the rainfall, which, though increasing, is yet 
scanty, will rHDt have as beneficial an efifect upon the newly bro- 
ken lands which are isolated, as on those where the new breaking 
is continuous; and if, as may be the case, irrigation is required, 
it is better and less expensive that it should be undertaken by 
many farmers than by one. If the lands are intended for grazing, 
it makes very little difference where the selection is made, so 
that there are streams for wateriiig the stock, and the setder 
plants his trees so as to afford them shelter from the winds and 
cold. Bunch grass will afford good pasturage, and as the land 
is broken, blue joint and other tame grasses will spring up. 
56 



882 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



There are school, university and so called swamp lands be- 
longing to the State, to be had on favorable terms, in almost all 
of the counties. The railway companies all have lands to sell, 
along their lines, throughout the State, at prices varying from 
«^3 or $4 to *^i2 per acre, according to location, and on very 
favorable terms of credit. We have spoken of these at length 
elsewhere. 

If the immigrant has some capital he can often buy partially 
improved farms on better terms than to break up new land. 
The soil is good enough to insure good crops every year; but 
he should be sure of his tide. Very many resdess spirits, bur- 
dened with debt, are anxious to dispose of their farms at even 
less than the cost of the improvements in order to begin again un- 
der more favorable circumstances, and there are many cases in 
which a shrewd settler with a litde capital can come into posses- 
sion of an excellent farm with the hard labor of the early work 
on it done to his hand by the man of whom he buys it. 

Populatio7i. — The following table shows the population of the 
State at different dates since i860, and other particulars: 



Year. | Population. 



i860 
1865 
1870 
1874 
1875 
1878 
i87y 
1 880 



107,206 
135,8^7 
373,299 
530,367 
575.156 
7^8,497 
849,978 
995,966 



I Valuation for 1 of School Age. 

Males. i Females. i P"'-P°^"°f ^ ^^^- , Between 5 and 

, "°"- , 1 21 years. 

I 1 60 per cent. 1 ' - 



59,178 



536,725 



48,028 



202,224 I 162,175 
246,939 228,875 



$3', 327,895 
36,126,000 
92,125.861 
128,906,520 
121,544,000 
138,698,811 
144,930,280 



Enrolled in 
School. 



37,423 
45,441 
109,742 
199,010 
199,986 
266,575 
283,326 



2,310 
26,409 
63,218 
135,598 
142,636 
177,806 



The population, which has so rapidly increased within the last 
decade, counts 109,705 of foreign birth and twice that number of 
foreign parentage. In the beginning, there were two distinct im- 
migrations, one from New England, New York and the Northern 
States, and the other from the South, struggling fiercely and bit- 
terly for the supremacy. The settlers from the North triumphed, 
and made it a free State, Of the influx since 1870 probably a fifth 
has been of foreign birth; Mennonites and their co-religionists 
from Russia, Germans, Scandinavians, French, Italians, English, 
Scotch, Welsh and Irish; and with these have come also large 



POPULATION OF THE STATE BY COUNTIES. 883 

numbers from all the Atlantic States, Canadians, Mexicans, and 
of late negroes, making their exodus from the Southern States 
to Kansas, as pre-eminently the land of freedom. 

The Indian population, which in 1870 amounted to over 10,- 
000, occupying several large reservations, has, by the action of 
the United States government in obtaining their lands by treaties 
and annuities and removing them to the Indian Territory, been 
greatly reduced. There are now only 690 tribal Indians in Kan- 
sas, all of the Pottawatomie and Kickapoo tribes. The Indian 
reservations still include 102,026 acres, but the title to a part of 
this will soon be extinguished. 

Counties. — There are 104 counties in the State, 78 of which 
were orofanized and 26 unorganized, in March, 1880. Their 
names, area and population in 1879 were as follows: 



Counties. 






1. Leavenworth . 

2. Shawnee 

3. Atchison 

4. Douglas 

5. Cherokee 

6. Bourbon 

7. Labette 

8. Cowley 

9. Sedgwick 

10. Mar'ihall 

11. Butler 

12. Johnson 

13. Montgomery.. 

14. Doniphan . . . . 

15. Osage 

16. Miami 

17. Sumner 

18. Lyon 

19. Wyandotte ■ . . 

JO. Crawford 

81. Linn 

22. Jewell 

23. Franklin 

24. Mitchell 

25. Jufltrson 

26. Pottawatomie, 

27. Neosho 

28. McPherson .. 

29. Dickinson . .. 

30. Cloud 

31. Saline 

32. B.irton 

33. Republic 

34. Reno 

35. Wilson 

36. Washington.. 

37. Smith 

38. Brown 

39- Clay 



455 
558 j 
409 I 
469 I 
589 
637 
649 
1,122 
1,008 
900 
1,428 
480 
636 

379 
720 
588 
1,188 
858 

153 

592 

637 
900 
576 
720 
665 
848 
576 
900 

851 
720 
720 
900 
720 
1,260 

576 
900 
900 
576 
660 



30.283 
22,632 
21,700 
20,53° 
18,535 
18,310 
18,171 
18,157 
17.613 
17,129 
17,006 
16,012 
15,979 
15,459 
15,369 
15,161 
15,090 
15,073 
15,046 
14,622 
14,586 
14,161 
14.073 
14,034 
13.872 
13,791 
13,594 
13,196 
13,005 
12,656 
12,424 
12.333 
12.193 
12,042 
1 1 ,901 
11,900 
1 1 ,498 
10,790 
10,658 



Counties. 



rt 3 



Chautauqua . . j 651 

Harvey 1 540 

Nemaha 720 

Marion 954 



Allen 

Coffey 

Osborne 

Elk 

Ottawa 

Jackson 

Greenwood . 

Phillips 

Rice 

Lincoln 

Riley. 

Morris 

Pawnee 

Ellsworth. ... 
Anderson. ... 

Russell 

Waubaunsee. 

Davis 

Woodson .... 

Rush 

Ellis 

Rooks 

Norton 

Chase 

Ford 

Edwards .... 

Kingman 

Stafford 

Trego 

Harper 

Pratt 

Barbour 

Hodgeman . . 

Decatur 

Graham 



504 
648 
900 
6si 



1,155 
900 
720 
720 
617 
700 
756 
720 
576 
900 
&04 
407 
504 
720 
900 
900 
goo 
768 

1,080 
972 
648 
720 
900 

1,026 
792 

1,134 
£64 
goo 
900 



10,537 
10,440 

10,267 
10,154 
10,116 
10,077 
9,445 
8,787 

8,757 
8,732 
8,202 
7.956 
7,501 
7,448 
7,419 
7.197 
7023 

6,741 
6,616 
6,521 
6,245 
6,087 
6,058 
5,282 
5,240 
5.104 
4,797 
4.743 
2,832 
2,801 
2,599 
2.364 
2,310 
2.158 
2,084 
2,016 
1,738 
750 
1,500 



Counties. 



t o* 



Arapahoe. . . 

Buffalo 

Cheyenne 

Clark 

Comanche . . 

Foote 

Grant 

Greeley 

Gove 

Hamilton. .. 

Kansas 

Kearney 

Lane 

Meade 

Ness 

Rawlins .. .. 

Scott 

Sequoyah. . . 
Seward . . . . 
Sheridan.. . . 
Sherman.. . . 

Stanton 

Stevens 

Thomas . . . . 

Wallace 

Wichita 



Population of 
State in 1879. 



576 

576 

1,020 

1,170 

1. 155 

720 

576 

8c6 

1,080 

986 

810 

864 

576 

924 

1,080 

1,080 

720 



900 
1,080 

684 

648 
1,080 
2,010 

744 




884 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



Cities and Towns. — As already stated, none of the cities of 
Kansas have yet attained to the second rank, but many of them 
are growing rapidly; not so fast indeed as the mushroom cities 
of the mining regions, which to-day may have a population of 
5,000 and next week not 200. In the West every settle- 
ment is a city, whether it has 100 or 100,000 inhabitants, and 
most of them go through the farce of having a municipal 
organization. The following are all the cities which, in 1879, 
had over 1,000 inhabitants: 



Leavenworth, Leavenworth county.. .. 16,550 

Topeka, Shawnee county '5>45* 

Atchison, Atchison county 15,106 

Lawrence, Douglas county 8,478 

Wichita, Sedgwick county 5>235 

Fort Scott, Bourbon county 5,010 

Wyandotte, Wyandotte county 4,612 

Emporia, Lyon county 4,061 

Ottawa, Franklin county 3>507 

Salina, Saline county 3.383 

Parsons, Labette county 3>I30 

Independence, Montgomery county.. . 2,829 

Newton, Harvey county 2,539 

Junction City, Davis county 2,345 

Olathe, Johnson county 2,260 

Beloit, Mitchell county 2,194 

Winfield, Cowley county 2,103 

Osage City, Osage county 2,003 

Paola, Miami county 1,973 

Burlington, Coffee county Ii740 



Hutchinson, Reno county l»709 

Clay Center, Clay county 1,600 

Manhattan, Riley county ',593 

Empire City, Cherokee county I>59l 

Mound City, Linn county 1,497 

Humboldt, Allen county 1,456 

Concordia, Cloud county I.44I 

Great Bend, Barton county I>430 

Marysville, Marshall county 1,420 

Garnett, Anderson county 1,252 

Osage Mission, Neosho county 1,216 

Girard, Crawford county 1,184 

Hiawatha, Brown county 1,078 

Wamego, Pottawatomie county 1,071 

Baxter Springs, Cherokee county 1,069 

Minneapolis, Ottawa county I,045 

Holton, Jackson county 1,044 

Seneca, Nemaha county 1 ,036 

Lamed, Pawnee county 1,031 



Education. — Kansas occupies among the newer States the 
very first rank in her facilides for education. Her school fund 
has been wisely husbanded, and she has yet 2,200,000 acres of 
school lands unsold, which, by judicious management, may be 
made to realize ^5 per acre. If this is accomplished the fund 
will eventually reach more than ^13,000,000, the interest of which 
will be annually distributed to the schools. But this income, 
amounting in 1878 to ^314,380, is only a small item in the amount 
annually raised for the support of public schools. In 1878 the 
amount raised and expended for common schools in the State 
was $1,261,459.14, of which $980,435.07 was paid as wages to 
the teachers, the male teachers receiving $32.99 per month, 



EDUCATION IN KANSAS. 885 

and the female teachers ^26.04. There were 6,359 of these 
teachers in 1878, and the number had increased to 6,707 in 1879. 
The whole number of scholars enrolled was 188,884, and the 
average attendance about 113,000. In the latter year there 
were 5,575 school districts, and 4,934 school-houses, and the 
value of school-buildings and grounds was $3,916,931. Besides 
these schools and the graded and high schools of the cities and 
larger towns, there are four normal schools, with about 800 
teacher pupils; a State Agricultural College, near Manhattan, 
well managed and largely attended ; the University of Kansas, 
at Lawrence, one of the most efficient of the Western State uni- 
versities, and eight other colleges, sustained by different religious 
denominations (two of them Roman Catholic), with about 50 
professors and nearly 1,000 students. There are also many 
collegiate schools and seminaries, generally denominational, 
which are for the most part well sustained. The immigrant to 
Kansas may feel fully assured that his children, if he has any, 
will not suffer for the want of advantaofes of education. 

Churches arid Religious Denominations. — In 1878, with a pop- 
ulation of 708,497, the aggregate membership of the nine 
leading denominations was 135,713, nearly one-fifth of the 
entire population. Their church edifices and other church 
property was valued at $2,037,508. Of these the Catholics had 
the largest membership (as they include as members all their 
adherent population), reporting 63,510 adherents to 223 organ- 
izations. The Methodist Episcopal Church came next, though 
with many more church organizations, having 1,018 churches and 
2,},^']^'] members. The Baptists were next, with 334 churches 
and 16,083 members. These were followed by the Presbyterians, 
with 229 churches, 8,961 members; the Congregationalists, with 
157 churches, and 5,620 members; the Lutherans, with 58 churches 
and 4,560 members; the United Presbyterians, with 43 churches 
and 1,469 members; the Protestant Episcopal Church, with t^6 
parishes and 1,389 members; and the Universalists, with 16 
congregations and 354 members. There are also Mennonite 
churches, churches of the Disciples or Campbellites, and a con- 
siderable number of other minor denominations. In the order 



385 067? WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of the valuation of their church property, the different denomina- 
tions stand as follows : the Methodists first, then consecutively 
the Presbyterians, the Catholics, the Congregationallsts, the 
Baptists, the Episcopalians, Lutherans, United Presbyterians, 
and Universalists. 

Such, so far as we have been able to present them, are the 
advantages which Kansas offers to the immigrant; — a fertile soil, 
an agreeable though rather warm climate in its summer half, 
with a very wide range of temperature between winter and 
summer; land easily tilled, and a ready and sure market for all 
that is produced; a wider range of production than most of the 
States; an intelligent, enterprising and liberty-loving population; 
good schools and churches, and an abundance of both. The 
people who have migrated to this State are not given to long- 
ings to go back either to the Eastern States or Europe. 

We cannot close this sketch of Kansas without paying a 
tribute of respect and honor to one man who has passed away 
while this work was in progress, but who had done more to 
make Kansas what it is to-day than any hundred men in it. 
The Hon. Alfred Gray, for fourteen years either Director or 
Secretary of the State Agricultural Society or the State Board 
of Agriculture, was born at Evans, Erie county. New York, 
December 5, 1830, of English parentage. His early education 
was obtained in his native village. Filial duty led him to en- 
deavor at the early age of fourteen to support his widowed 
mother by his own labor. At the age of nineteen, after the death 
of his mother, he commenced a course of study which culminated 
six years later in his graduation from the Albany law school and 
his successful practice of law for two years. 

In 1857 he removed to Ouindaro, Kansas, and soon abandoned 
the law for farming, a pursuit for which he had a passion. His 
farm, gardens and herd were the finest in the State. He was 
called to fill many offices of honor and trust in the State, and 
was a member of its Legislature. From 1862 to 1864 he served 
as Regimental, Brigade and Division Quartermaster in the 
Union army, and gave proofs of extraordinary ability in the dis- 
chargre of his duties. In 1866 he was made a director in the 



SKETCH OF HON. ALFRED GRAY. 88? 

State Agricultural Society, and continued in that position pro- 
moting its interests till it was merged in the State Board of 
Agriculture, when he became its Secretary, and selling his farm 
moved to Topeka. Here, though in failing health, he was inces- 
sant and unremitting in his labors. He was the organizer and 
soul of that unsurpassed exhibit of Kansas at the Centennial. 
He had a genius for statistics, and everything bearing upon agri- 
culture was the object of his careful solicitude; no State Agricul- 
tural reports in the country bear any comparison to his in fulness 
or in perfection of detail. While wasting away with pulmonary 
consumption, he remained in the harness to the last, A letter 
to the writer, dated but three days before his death, makes no 
allusion to his personal condition, but is filled with important in- 
formation relative to the condition of his beloved Kansas. He 
died January 23, 1880. Happy may Kansas well be if she can 
replace him with a man of like ability and industry. 



CHAPTER X. 

LOUISIANA. 

Louisiana not wholly within "Our Western Empire" — Its Location — Its 
Extent and Area — Its Surface and Topography — Rivers. Lakes and 
Bayous — Geology and Mineralogy — Iron, Salt, Sulphur — Other Min- 
erals — Soil and Vegetation — Forest Trees — Zoology — The Jaguar or 
American Leopard or Tiger, Alligators and Crocodiles — Climate — 
Malarial Fevers in the Delta — The Uplands Healthy but Hot — Me- 
teorology of New Orleans and Shreveport — Agricultural Productions 
— Cotton, Sugar, Rice, and Corn — The Soil Fertile, but the Farming 
Poor — Live-Stock — Manufacturing and Mining Industries — Commerce 
— The great Facilities enjoyed by the State for Foreign and Coast-wise 
Commerce — Railroads — Finances — Population — History as bearing on 
Population — Mixed Races largely prevalent — The State not largely 
increased by recent Immigration — Parishes or Counties — Principal 
Towns — Education — Churches — Not specially attractive to Immi- 
grants AT Present. 

Only about two-thirds of Louisiana lie within the bounds of 
"Our Western Empire." Its commercial and political capital, 



888 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

New Orleans, the chief city of the Southwest, is on the east bank 
of the Mississippi river, as are several other considerable towns. 
Its boundaries are: On the north, Arkansas and Mississippi; on 
the east, Mississippi, and for the greater part of the distance the 
Mississippi river and Sound; south and southeast, the Gulf of 
Mexico; and on the west, Texas, the Sabine river being the 
boundary for about three-fourths of the distance. It is situated 
between the meridians of 89° and 94° W. from Greenwich, and 
between the parallels of 28° 56' and 2y'h^ N. latitude. Its extreme 
length from east to west is 298 miles, and its extreme breadth 
from north to south 280 miles. Its area is 41,346 square miles, 
or 26,461,440 acres. 

Surface and Topography, Rivers, Lakes, Bayoiis, Sounds and 
Gulfs. — The highest land in the State, the hills in its northern 
and northwest portions, does not exceed 240 feet in height. 
From these uplands there is a gentle slope both towards the 
Mississippi river and the Gulf The delta of the Mississippi, espe- 
cially below New Orleans, is below the level of the Mississippi 
at the spring floods ; and at least 8,450 miles, or one-fifth of the 
area of the State, is only protected from annual submergence by 
the levees. With the exception of a tract in Southeast Cali- 
fornia, once a part of the bed of the ocean, the greater part of 
the State of Louisiana is the lowest land in "Our Western Em- 
pire." The rivers are the Mississippi, which has a course of 
about 590 miles within the State, and is now, through the labors 
of Captain Eads, navigable not only for the largest steamers but 
for all ocean steamships of the first-class, from its mouth to and 
beyond the northern boundary of the State; the Red river, one 
of its largest tributaries, which enters the State near its north- 
west corner and crosses it diagonally to the 31st parallel, where 
it joins the Mississippi; the Washita, the largest affluent of the 
Red river, which comes into the State from Arkansas, and with 
its two large branches, the Tensas and Boeuf, drains the northern 
parishes of the State; the Dugdemona, the Saline Bayou, and 
the Bistineau river and lake, all tributaries of the Red river. 
The Sabine river, as we have already noticed, forms a part of the 
western boundary of the State, but receives no considerable af- 



JilVERS AXD BAYOUS OF LOUISIANA. 889 

fluents on the east bank. The Calcasieu and Mermenteau are 
considerable rivers, both having several tributary bayous or slug- 
gish streams. East of the Mississippi are the Pearl river, with its 
tributary, Bogue Chitto, the Tangipahoa, Tickfaw and Amite. 
There are, besides these, several large estuaries or bayous, which 
are really secondary mouths or outlets of the Mississippi, which 
in flood-time convey a large portion of its waters to the Gulf, 
and at other times drain the greater part of Southern Louisiana. 
Among these are: Atchafalaya Bayou with its series of lakes and 
inlets; Vermillion Bayou, Bayou Teche which connects with it, 
Bayou de Large, Bayou la Fourche, and the lakes, bays and es- 
tuaries which discharge their waters into Barataria bay. In the 
ordinary sense of the term there are no lakes in Louisiana, 
all that are so called being either estuaries, bayous or expansions 
of rivers. Thus Lake Pontchartrain is a land-locked estuary 
whose waters are salt and rise and fall with the tide; Lake 
Maurepas is closely connected with Lake Pontchartrain, and 
partakes of its character; Lake Borgne is only a sound or bay; 
Sabine lake, Calcasieu lake. Lake Mermenteau, Grand lake, 
Marsh lake. Lake Charles, Grand Cheniere, Caillon, Lake 
Washa, and the rest are all estuaries connected with rivers or 
bayous. In the northern part of the State there are ten or 
fifteen so called lakes which are mere expansions of the Red river, 
or some of its tributaries. There are numerous bays and sounds 
along the coast, indenting the alluvial delta of the Mississippi in 
all its borders. 

Geology and Mineralogy. — Three-fifths of the State, including 
the Mississippi basin and delta, the Red river region and basin, 
and the Bluff or Loess region, which comprises nearly all of Cal- 
casieu, St. Landry and Lafayette parishes, and a long but narrow 
strip east of the Mississippi river, belong to the alluvial and 
diluvial formations. The Mississippi delta proper covers over 
1 2,000 square miles, and its deposits are from thirty to forty feet 
in depth and of wonderful fertility. The remaining two-fifths 
of the State is, for the most part, tertiary, the formations in the 
northwest and west-northwest parts of the State being subdivi- 
sions of the eocene. There are occasional small outcrops of 



8qo our western empire. 

cretaceous strata in the northwest, west and central parts of the 
State, and in these are found Hmestone, gypsum, and sah-bearing 
strata. Below the alluvium and tertiary in the southern part 
of the State, there are deposits of sulphur, and at one point 
between the Sabine and Calcasieu rivers, the boring of an ar- 
tesian well demonstrates that, beginning 428 feet below the 
surface, there is a deposit of sulphur 112 feet thick, which will 
yield from sixty to ninety-six per cent, of pure sulphur. Of other 
minerals and metals Louisiana has not a great variety. Brown 
coal (lignite) is found in the tertiary in considerable quantities 
and of moderately good quality. Iron (bog ore, probably) and 
salt are plentiful in this region, and on Petit Anse island salt has 
been mined to a depth of sixty feet below the level of the Gulf, 
fifty-eight feet of it through solid rock-salt of the purest quality. 
This was in great demand during the late civil war. In the 
cretaceous rocks, ochre, marl, gypsum, lead, sulphate of soda, 
sulphate of iron, and a very pure carbonate of lime are found. 
Petroleum has also been discovered, but not in sufficient quantity 
to pay for working. Copper and quartz crystals, agates, jasper, 
cornelian, sardonyx, onyx, feldspar, of fine quality, meteoric 
stones and numerous fossils have been found in the tertiary. 

Soil and Vegetation. — The alluvial and diluvial soils are of 
extraordinary and unsurpassed fertility. The delta lands are 
admirably adapted for the culture of sugar-cane, cotton, rice, 
wheat, barley, sweet potatoes, figs and oranges. The orange 
is quite as successful, and of flavor fully equal, to those grown in 
Florida. The Sea island or long staple cotton is grown on the 
islands of the delta, but on the main land the upland or short- 
stapled cotton is most generally cultivated. The tertiary region 
has not so rich a soil, but with proper culture yields good crops. 
Indian corn yields better there than on the alluvial soils, and 
cotton is successfully cultivated. A portion of the tertiary region 
is covered with pine forests, which are heavy but not dense, and 
these lands, though healthful, are not productive. About one- 
fifth of the area of the State is too swampy and marshy for cul- 
tivation, and much of it is covered with lofty cypress trees, from 
which the Spanish moss hangs in graceful festoons. The other 



TREES AND VEGETATION. 



891 



forest trees of the alluvial region are the sweet-gum, ash, black 
walnut, hickory, magnolia, live-oak, Spanish, water, black, chest- 
nut, white and post oaks, tulip-tree {liriodc7idj'oii),\\x\^^'i\, Florida 
anise, lance-leaved buck-thorn, four or five species of acacia, 
wild cherry, pomegranate, holly, arbor-vitse, tillandsia, lime, pecan, 
sycamore, white and red cedar, and yellow pine; in the tertiary 
lands, sassafras, mulberry, poplar, hackberry, red elm, maple, 
honey-locust, black locust, dogwood, tupelo, box elder, prickly 
ash, persimmon, etc. Along the river banks, the inevitable Cot- 
tonwood, willow-basket elm, palmetto, wild cane, pawpaw, wild 
orange, etc., are found. Of fruit-trees, the peach, quince, plum, fig, 
orange, pawpaw, olive and pomegranate are cultivated with great 
success; the apple and pear do not thrive so well. Local to- 
pographers classify the lands of the State as "good uplands;" 
"pine hill lands," usually not very fertile; "alluvial tracts;'' 
"Bluff or Loess regions;" "marsh lands;" "the prairie regions;" 
and "the pine flats." The grazing in the uplands generally is 
excellent; in the Attakapas country, along the Atchafalaya and 
Bayou Teche, the pasturage is unsurpassed in quality. 

Louisiana is a land of fragrant flowers, and the sweet perfume 
of its orange blossoms, magnolias, jessamines, oleanders, virgin's 
bower, its innumerable varieties of roses and its thousands of 
other sv/eet-scented semitropical and tropical flowers, which grow 
wild upon its rich alluvial lands, feast the senses with perpetual 
delight. 

Zoology. — The wild animals of Louisiana are for the most part 
the same as those of Texas, though there is a greater preponder- 
ance of reptiles. The jaguar or American tiger, the most for- 
midable of the North American Felidcs, is found in the cypress 
swamps in this State, and in Texas and Arizona. The cougar, 
puma, panther or American lion, is also an inhabitant of the 
swamps, and this wild-cat and perhaps some of the other Felidcs 
are also found. The black and brown bear are more common 
in the uplands; while the raccoon, skunk, opossum, otter and 
most of the rodents are abundant. 

Alligators of great size and ferocity abound in all the bayous, 
and are destructive of cattle and sometimes of human beines. 

o 



8^2 OU^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

It is believed that the crocodile exists in the cypress swamps 
here as well as in Florida. There are several species of marine 
turtles and land-tortoises and terrapins. The lizard tribe is 
largely represented; the gecko, chameleon, lizards of all kinds 
and sizes, as well as a great variety of batrachians, the horned 
and common frog, many species of toads; and of ophidians, rat- 
tlesnakes, vipers, moccasins, horned snakes, and a great 
variety of harmless serpents are common. There are many 
birds of prey: among them are the bald and gray eagle, the 
king-vulture, the turkey-buzzard and other vultures, kites, owls, 
hawks, gulls, and, very numerous in the bayous and in the gulfs, 
bays and sounds west of the Mississippi, the pelican, which has 
been recognized as the patron bird of the State, which very gen- 
erally bears the name of "the Pelican State." Cranes, herons, 
ibises, flamingoes and other waders are found only in this State 
and Texas of "Our Western Empire; " and wild geese, many 
species of wild ducks, brant, teal, and some swans are inhabitants 
of its lakes, bayous and bays in their .season. The game birds, 
wild turkeys, pigeons, partridges and several species of grouse 
are plentiful in the uplands. Birds of gay plumage, including 
the macaw and paroquet, and many others, and a great variety 
of song-birds, among which are the mocking-bird, the cedar bird, 
several of the finches and tanagers, a great variety of humming- 
birds, and orioles are abundant in the forests. 

Climate. — The climate of New Orleans and of the lower por- 
tion of the delta is somewhat malarious, and bilious and conges- 
tive fevers, remittent and intermittent, are prevalent. The 
yellow fever is seldom entirely absent from this region in sum- 
mer, but becomes epidemic only about once in four or five years. 
Strict sanitary supervision is maintained, but the drainage is 
difficult. By careful attention to cleanliness the city is healthier 
than formerly. The yellow fever made fearful ravages in 1878, 
and reappeared in a milder form, in 1879: 1880 has been generally 
healthy. The cholera has at times made fearful ravages here. 
The water is so near the surface in New Orleans and most of 
the adjacent region, that all burials are made in cells of vaults, 
built above the surface. The climate of the upland region is 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. 303 

healthy though warm, and that of the delta is so in winter. The 
table on next page, giving the meteorology of New Orleans, which 
represents fairly the region of the delta and of Shreveport, in the 
northwest of the State, which shows that of the upland country, 
will exhibit more satisfactorily the climate of the two sections 
than any general description. Not only from its climate, but 
from the habits and customs of its people, its productions, niar- 
kets, etc., Louisiana will be a more agreeable region for immi- 
grants from Southern and Southwestern Europe and from the 
Southern Atlandc and Gulf States, than for those from more north- 
ern climates. The French, Spanish, and Italians, and the Swiss 
and South Germans will do better here than the North Germans, 
Scandinavians or inhabitants of Great Britain. 

Ag^dcultural Productions. — The staple productions of Louis- 
iana are cotton, sugar, corn, together with a moderate quantity 
of rice and the cereals. The cotton production of 1878 was 
214,483,050 pounds, from 1,348,950 acres, a yield of only an 
average of 159 pounds to the acre, or about one-third of a bale, 
a very small return for land so rich as that of Louisiana. The 
yield of 1S79 was not quite so large, though a trifle more per 
acre, being 175 pounds. At the price per pound in 1878 this 
yielded but $13.97 P^^ acre, including all the cost of cultivation, 
picking and ginning, and of course was unprofitable; the price 
in 1879, ten cents, gave ;^20.20 per acre, but even this is not 
profitable. There is no land in Louisiana devoted to cotton 
which ought not to yield at least a bale (480 pounds) to the acre, 
and of the delta lands there are none which should yield less than 
two bales to the acre. The farming of Louisiana is, however, 
for the most part very slovenly and careless. The sugar crop 
in favorable years, of which 1878 was a good example, does bet- 
ter, yielding 250,000,000 pounds, an average of 1,700 pounds to 
the acre (a fair crop is stated to be from 2,500 to 5,000 pounds), 
which at the current price of that year was worth $93.50. The 
drawbacks on the cultivation of sugar-cane are that, it is an ex- 
otic and never comes to perfection here; that the only way of 
propagation is by layers, which after a few years run out and 
require new stock; that it is only about one crop in three that 



894 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



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AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. gg^ 

is successful; that the great fluctuation in price makes the profit 
uncertain; and that the first plant or outlay for a sugar planta- 
tion with sugar-house complete is enormous, and only possible 
where there is large capital at command. The crop of corn, 
though considerable in amount and covering a large acreage, gives 
equally conclusive evidence of indifferent and slovenly farming; 
the yield ranges from fifteen to twenty bushels per acre, where 
thirty-five to forty bushels ought to be the minimum. The total 
yield of 1878 was 16,875,200 bushels, which at sixty cents, the 
current price of that year, brought 5^10,125,120. The crop of 
1879 was of smaller amount, and yielded only fifteen bushels to 
the acre, but the higher price, seventy-six cents, made the 
money value somewhat greater. 

Oats, which might be a profitable crop, give an average yield, 
one year with another, of but fourteen bushels to the acre. Rice 
is cultivated more than formerly, and the Louisiana rice crop 
forms a very considerable portion of the whole rice product of 
the United States, ranging from twelve to fifteen million pounds. 
There is some wheat and barley grown ; a small amount of very 
excellent tobacco, and hay and forage grasses in increasing 
quantities. Fruits and market-garden vegetables are cultivated 
to a considerable extent, mainly by Creoles; but the cultivation 
of fruits might be almost indefinitely enlarged. 

The amount of live-stock in Louisiana in 1879 was: 79,300 
horses, worth about $4,000,000; 80,600 mules, worth about «^5,- 
080,000; the number of horses and mules is slowly increasing. 
There were 110,900 milch cows, a moderate increase from 1875, 
previous to which time there had been a decided decrease. 
These were worth $1,864,800. Of oxen and other catde, there 
had been a marked decrease, 118,700 against 168,650 in 1875, 
and their value did not exceed one million dollars. The num- 
ber of sheep was only 127,500, and their value about $250,000. 
There were 360,500 swine, worth about $1,250,000. Both sheep 
and swine had largely increased in numbers since 1875. The 
total value of live-stock was about $13,363,000, and of agricul- 
tural products somewhat more than $50,000,000. 

ManufactuHn.g a?id Mining Industries. — Louisiana is not a 



396 0^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

manufacturing State. She produces raw sugar on her sugar 
plantations, gins her cotton, produces a small amount of refined 
sugar, about three-fourths of a million dollars worth of flour and 
meal, a million and a half dollars worth of lumber and timber, 
cotton-seed oil, machinery, clothing, tobacco and cigars, and malt 
liquors. Her entire manufactured products do not much exceed 
thirty million dollars. The mining industry of the State consists 
of some coal mines (lignite), not very efficiently worked, a small 
quantity of iron mined, the salt mine at Petit Anse island, and a 
sulphur mine at Calcasieu springs. 

Commerce. — Louisiana has a very large commerce, both for- 
eign and domestic. In the amount of her exports she is second 
only to New York; in imports she falls behind New York, Mas- 
sachusetts, Maryland, Pennsylvania and California. In the year 
ending June 30, 1880, her domestic exports were $90,238,503; 
her foreign exports $203,516; and her imports, $10,611,353. 
Considerable amounts are imported and trans-shipped without 
appraisement to interior ports on the Mississippi river and in the 
Mississippi valley, the aggregate being several millions — while 
the cotton, rice and sugar exported from Louisiana are not all 
produced in the State, the cotton especially being largely the 
product of Arkansas and Mississippi, while some comes also from 
Tennessee, Alabama and Texas. The amount of exports has been 
fluctuating for several years past, having reached its highest 
point in 1870, when it was $107,658,042; and its next highest in 
1873, when itwas $104,329,965. The export of 1879 was the small- 
est since 1868. Its imports have fallen off in still greater propor- 
tion since 1873, when they were $19,933,344, the largest amount 
since i860. The exports of foreign merchandise show a still 
greater proportion of diminution, falling from $1,301,700 in 1872 
to $187,187 in 1879. 

It is difficult to say whether the coast-wise and interior trade 
of Louisiana has fallen off in any similar proportion. In 1874 
it was estimated at $250,000,000. It has hardly amounted to 
that sum in the more recent years. 

Railroads. — Besides its immense traffic on the Mississippi and 
Red rivers by steamer. New Orleans, the commercial capital of 



LOUISIANA FINANCES. 



897 



Louisiana, is connected to the northwestern and northern States 
by one line of railroad, with numerous connections, and with the 
Adantic and northeastern States by another. These are both 
east of the Mississippi. West of that river there are three com- 
paratively short routes: one from New Orleans to Brashear, 
which connects there with Morgan's steamship line to Galveston, 
a line from Vicksburg. Mississippi, to Monroe, which may at 
some time possibly be extended to Shreveport, and one from 
Shreveport west, forming a part of the Texas Pacific line. The 
entire railroad lines operated in the State have a length of only 
495 miles. 

Finances. — The State is heavily in debt, but has repudiated a 
considerable part of her debt and scaled the remainder, reducing 
the interest. The financial management has been deplorable 
for some years. The amount of debt acknowledged and not 
repudiated was, January i, 1879, ^12,136,166.24. ^3,971,000 
were repudiated ; and the bonds which were acknowledged were 
reduced forty per cent, in order to bring them to $12,136,166. 
A part at least of the interest on these is in default. 

Population. — The following table gives the population at dif- 
ferent dates: 





Total 


Years. 


Popula- 




tion. 


1810 


j 
76,556 


1820 


152,923 


1830 


215,529 i 


1840 


352,411 i 


1850 


517,762 1 


i860 


708,002 


1870 


726,915 


iSSo 


940,263 



Whites. 



Free Col- I 

ORED. I 



Slaves. 



34,3" 

89,231 i 
158,457 I 
255.491 ' 
357,456 I 

362,065 ! 
455.063 I 



7.585 
10,476 
16,710 
25.502 
17,462 
18,647 
364,210 
483,898 



34,660 
69,064 
109,588 
168,452 
244,809 
331.726 

None. 



Natives. 


Op Foreign 
Birth. 


Of School 
Age. 


Of Voting 

Age. 

Males. 






*3i.903 








*5i,904 




448,848 


68,233 


^84,283 


*86.5qo 


627,021 


80,975 


*I22,I4I 


*98,i43 


665,088 


61,827 


226,114 


174,187 


886,119 

1 


54,144 







The great increase from 1870 to 1880 has given rise to the 
suspicion of error in the enumeration, and it will be investigated 
before its final acceptance. 

Of this population a very large proportion are natives, not 
only of the United States, but of the State. This is due to the 



57 



• Whites only. 



8q8 our western empire. 

circumstances under which the State was settled. Discovered 
by the French in 1541, the first permanent settlement in the 
Colony or Province of Louisiana was made in 1699 t>y the same 
nation. It remained a French province and largely peopled by 
the French till 1762, when it was secretly ceded by France to 
Spain, and remained till 1800 under the control of that power, 
a considerable influx of Spanish settlers migrating to its rich 
lands. In 1800 it was retroceded to France, and in 1803 was 
purchased from France by the United States for $15,000,000, of 
which $3,750,000 was allowed to be set off by the assumption 
of the claims of citizens of the United States against France 
growing out of French spoliations upon American commerce. 
This, though assumed by the government, has never been paid 
to the sufferers or their heirs. The Province of Louisiana as 
thus purchased, comprised nearly the whole of the present States 
of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Dakota Ter- 
ritory, Nebraska, most of Kansas, and the Indian Territory, part 
of Colorado, most of Wyoming, and the whole of Montana, 
Idaho, Oregon, and Washington Territory. Most of that part 
of Louisiana lying east of the Mississippi was purchased from 
Spain in 18 10, and annexed the same year to the Territory of 
Orleans, as Louisiana itself was called. It became a State in 
April, 181 2, with its present name and boundaries. The popu- 
lation of Louisiana is very largely composed of descendants of 
French emigrants, with a considerable percentage of mixed 
blood ; these people are usually termed Creoles, whether of 
pure or mixed blood. There are also a moderate number of 
old French and Spanish families of pure blood, and somewhat 
exclusive manners. The remainder of the population are of 
American stock, with some admixture of Irish, English, Germans, 
and Italians, The Negroes and mixed races form a large con- 
stituent (about one-half) of the population. There have never 
been any great accessions from immigration, and except in the 
large towns there are not likely to be. The Creole population 
are intensely wedded to old ideas, and while friendly and good 
humored, do not encourage immigration. The prevalence of 
malarial fevers and occasional epidemics of yellow fever deter 



EDOCATION AND CHURCHES. 899 

many from settling in the State, and neither its financial nor 
its political condition since the war has had a tendency to 
attract immigrants. With a good and honest State govern- 
ment, a prompt and efficient collection and disbursement of 
its revenues, the protection of the lowlands from overflow, by 
good and sufficient levees, a stringent, vigilant, and effective 
Health-Board, and the banishment of its corrupt and self-seeking 
polidcians, of all parties, to some point so remote that they could 
not return in a hundred years, Louisiana might become a health- 
ful, prosperous, and wealthy State, with a noble record for hon- 
esty and integrity. 

The State has 57 parishes, answering to the counties in other 
States. Its principal towns and cities are New Orleans, with a 
population, in 18S0, of 216,140 and many attractive buildings 
and streets, the principal commercial port of the Southwest ; 
Baton Rouge, with 7,000 or 8,000 inhabitants ; Shreveport, with 
a little more than 11,000; Thibodeaux, Monroe, Donaldson, and 
Opelousas, about 2,500 each ; New Iberia, Natchitoches, and Pla- 
quemines, nearly 2,000 each. 

Education. — There is a moderately efficient public school sys- 
tem in the State oriorinatinof since the war; but the amount of 
illiteracy is frightful. The schools of New Orleans have gener- 
ally maintained a fair standing. Considerable efforts are now 
making to educate the Freedmen. There are thirty-five or 
forty collegiate schools for both sexes, and besides, a State 
University at Baton Rouge, which is not very efficient ; there 
are six other so-called colleges or universities, three of them for 
the education of Freedmen for preachers and teachers, and two 
others Roman Catholic, one a Female College. Out of 900 
students in these institutions, 558 are in the preparatory schools. 
There Is one Theological, one Law, one Medical, one Dental, and 
one Scientific school in the State. 

Churches. — There were, in 1875, ^^1 churches or congrega- 
tions, with 744 church edifices. Of these 124 were Roman 
Catholic, with an adherent population loosely estimated at 
200,000. After these the Baptists had 371 churches with 309 
church edifices and 20,734 members ; the Methodists 255 churches, 



900 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



22 1 edifices, and 23,271 members, including probationers. The 
other leading denominations were Presbyterians, Episcopalians, 
Jews. Congregationalists, and Lutherans. All the Protestant de- 
nominations reported a membership of about 58,000, and an ad- 
herent population of about 263,000. 

Under existing circumstances Louisiana is not likely to attract 
a very large number of immigrants either from Europe or the 
> Atlantic States. 



CHAPTER XL 

MINNESOTA. 



Minnesota the Centre of North America — Its Situation, Boundaries, Di- 
mensions, AND Area — Surface of the Country — The Three Slopes — 
Rivers, Lakes, etc. — The Lake State — Seven Thousand Lakes — Geol- 
ogy AND Mineralogy — Some Gold and Silver, more Iron and Copper — 
Minnesota an Agricultural State — Soil and Vegetation. — Rich Soil — 
Forests — The Big Woods — The Prairie Lands — Tree-planting in Min- 
nesota — Fruits — Zoology — Climate — Its Salubrity — Advance of the; 
Annual Temperature as the Country is Settled — Peculiarities of the 
Climate — Meteorology — Navigable Rivers and Railways — More than 
3000 Miles of Railroad in the State — Projected Railways — Land 
Grants — Agricultural Products — The Crops of 1878, 1879, and 1880 — 
Special Crops — Gen. Le Due's Efforts to Introduce the Amber Cane — 
Statistics of Crops — Grazing Lands — Live-Stock — Statistics of Live- 
stock — Dairy Farming — Statistics of Butter and Cheese — Manufactures 
— Lumber and Flour, the Leading Articles — Immense Quantities of 
BOTH Produced — Other Manufactures — Valuation and Wealth — Popu- 
lation — Statistics of Increase in Thirty Years — Nationalities — The 
Indian Population — Education — School Fund — Public Schools — Uni- 
versities, Normal Schools, etc. — Counties and Cities — Valuation — 
Population of Cities and Towns at different Periods — Religious De- 
nominations — History — Conclusion. 

If, as is often said, Kansas is the central State of the United 
States, and Colorado the central region of " Our Western Em- 
pire," Minnesota may fairly claim the higher honor of being the 
central State of the North American Continent. Its boundary 
at the north is British America, Manitoba abutting upon it at the 
northwest ; at the northeast, for about 1 20 miles, Lake Su- 



SURFACE OF THE COUNTRY. qqj 

perior forms its boundary ; on the east it joins Wisconsin, being 
separated only by the St. Croix and Mississippi rivers ; on the 
south it is bounded by Iowa, and on the west by Dakota Ter- 
ritory, with which it shares the rich and fertile valley of the Red 
river of the North. It is just about equidistant from the capes 
of the peninsulas which send off their annual icebergs into the 
Arctic Ocean, and the narrowing neck of land which, by its vol- 
canoes, lights alike the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, 
from Newfoundland on the east and Vancouver Island on the 
west. It lies between the parallels of 43° 30' and 49° N. latitude, 
and between the meridians of 89° 29' and 97° 5' W. lono-itude 
from Greenwich. The extreme length of the State from north 
to south is 380 miles, while its breadth varies from -XtZl rriiles 
about the 48th parallel, to 262 miles on the south line, and 183 at 
about 45° 30.' Its area is estimated at the United States Land 
Office at 83,531 square miles, or 53,459,840 acres. From this 
area must be deducted 2,900,000 acres of water surface, lakes, 
etc. (not including that part of Lake Superior which lies within 
its limits), leaving 50,759,840 acres of land, including the Indian 
reservations. This is nearly equal to the combined areas of Ohio 
and Pennsylvania, and a little more than that of Kentucky and 
Tennessee. 

Surface of the Cotmtry. — From its location it was inevitable 
that Minnesota should be the water-shed or divide for all the 
great streams which traverse the continent east of the Rocky 
Mountains. It has not, it is true, anywhere within its area, any 
range of mountains or very high hills, but its general elevation 
in the northern part of the State, except in the river valleys, is 
from 1,500 to 1,550 feet above the sea. Across this table-land, 
in or near the parallel of 47° 40', is a low, curved line of drift 
hills, not much, if at all, above 100 feet in height, and extending 
westward to the bluffs of the Red River valley, when it turns 
southward, and separates the waters of the affluents of the Mis- 
sissippi from those of the Red river of the North. In these low 
hills three great river and lake systems have their sources, viz. : 
the Mississippi river proper and its northern tributaries ; the St. 
Louis river and its numerous branches^ which too;^ether form the 



QQ2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

head and fountain of those waters which, through the threat 
lakes, find their way to the St. Lawrence, and through its broad 
expanse to the northern Atlantic Ocean ; and the affluents of the 
Red river as well as those of Rainy Lake and Lake of the Woods, 
all of which finally discharge their waters into Hudson's Bay 
and into the ArcUc Ocean. There is but one other point in 
the whole of our Western Empire, or for that matter, in the 
United States, where rivers flowing to such distant and diverse 
points have their sources so near together, and that is the point 
near the Yellowstone Park, where the sources of the Missouri, 
the Columbia, and the Colorado of the West are found within a 
mile or two of each other. 

There are then three distinct slopes, differing in soil, vegetadon, 
and o-eoloeical character, in the State. The northern slope, includ- 
ing not only the Red river valley, but the valleys and streams drain- 
in'j- into the Rainy Lake chain, and into the Lake of the Woods ; 
the eastern slope, occupying the valley of the St. Louis river, 
and declining gently toward Lake Superior; and the southern 
slope, drained by the Mississippi and its affluents, comprising 
about two-thirds of the State, and extending into, and f9rming 
part of, the great Mississippi valley. The descent from the sum- 
mit of the divide, which has an elevation in lat. 47° 45' to 48° of 
about 1,680 feet, to the southern line of the State, lat. 43° 30', is 
not far from 930 feet ; but except in the successive terraces at 
and near the Falls of St. Anthony, the declination is very gradual, 
not exceeding two and a half or three feet to the mile. Three- 
fourths of the State maybe described as generally rolling prairie, 
interspersed with frequent groves, oak openings, and belts of 
hard-wood timber, dotted with numberless small lakes, and 
drained by numerous clear and limpid streams. The remain- 
incr fourth includes the hills which form the divide, the extensive 
mineral tract reaching to Lake Superior, and the heavy timbered 
reo-ion (" The Big Woods ") lying around the sources of the 
Mississippi and the Red river of the North. 

Rivers, Lakes, etc. — The greater part of the State, all of it, in- 
deed, except two or three of the northern, and as yet unorganized 
counties, which are watered by streams falling into the Rainy 



RIVERS AND LAKES. 003 

Lake chain — is drained by the affluents of the St. Louis, the 
Mississippi, and the Red river of the North. The St. Louis has 
fourteen or fifteen tributaries, several of them streams of con- 
siderable size ; the Mississippi has about fifty — two of them, the 
St. Croix and the Minnesota, being themselves large rivers ; 
only the affluents of the Red river on the eastern bank belong 
to Minnesota, but there are fourteen or more of these, of which 
the Red Grass, Red Lake, Sand Hill, Wild Rice, and Buffalo 
rivers are considerable streams. 

The Rainy Lake river forms a part of the northern boundary, 
and its affluents, the Big and Little Fork, and the Vermilion 
river, which flows into the same chain of lakes, are streams of 
moderate size. There are fifty or more creeks flowing into Lake 
Superior, which aid in watering and fertilizing this northeastern 
slope. 

Minnesota is emphatically the Lake State. In the surveyed 
area of the State there are upwards of 7,000 lakes ; their average 
extent is about 300 acres, but a number of them exceed 10,000 
acres, and others are still larger; Lake Minnetonka covers 16,000 
acres ; Lake Winnebagoshish, 56,000 acres ; Leech Lake, 1 14,000 
acres; Mille Lacs, 130,000; Red Lake, at least 350,000, and 
Lake of the Woods and the Rainy Lake Chain, which form part 
of the northern boundary, are still larger. Not content with 
these, Minnesota claims a considerable slice of Lake Superior as 
her property. Many of the smaller lakes are very deep, and all 
are well stocked with fish. Ordinarily their shores are dry and 
firm down to the water's edge, except at their outlets, and the 
waters are clear, cool and pure. The bottoms are generally 
sandy or pebbly. The water of Minnesota, whether obtained 
from lake, spring or well, is of excellent quality. The beautiful 
scenery around many of these lakes, and the cascades, rapids and 
falls at the outlet of others, have made them very pleasant re- 
sorts. Among these Minnetonka and White Bear Lakes, and 
the Falls of Minneopa and Minnehaha have perhaps the widest 
reputation. 

Geology and Mineralogy. — The greater part of the State is 
covered with a rich and fertile alluvium, or, as in the highlands, 



gQ^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

by an older and less fertile drift, which, however, sustains a noble 
forest growth. Beneath this drift there is, along the northern 
shore of Lake Superior, and extending southward on both sides 
of the St. Croix to its junction with the Mississippi, and below 
that point along the eastern and western banks of that river 
below the southern line of the State, a broad belt of metamorphic 
slates and sandstones intermingled with volcanic rocks, traps and 
porphyries ; these are of the Silurian epoch, and many dikes of 
greenstone and basalt are interjected in the strata. Occasionally 
deposits of marl-drift and red clay are found above these rocks. 
This is the principal mineral region of the State. Near the 
southern boundary of the State, or, rather, in the southeast 
quarter, between the 92d and 94th meridians, is a small tract of 
Devonian rocks ; west and northwest of the Silurian slates and 
sandstones, the underlying rocks are eozoic, hornblende and argil- 
laceous slates, and granite, gneiss and metamorphic rocks. In the 
western and northwestern part of the State, between the 94th 
and 96th meridians, but not extending below the 46th parallel, 
and underlying the low hills which form the divide between the 
affluents of the Mississippi and those of the Red river of the 
North, is another belt of Silurian rocks, upper Silurian, in the 
northern portion, and lower Silurian, nearer the Mississippi, 
These are mostly limestone, and like those of the same epoch 
farther east are almost entirely devoid of fossils. West of these, 
and forming the underlying strata of the Red River valley, we 
find a broad belt of cretaceous rocks, mostly of the Niagara, Ga- 
lena and Trenton limestones, with smaller outcrops of St. Peter 
and perhaps Potsdam sandstones. Lasdy, in the southwest 
corner of the State, in and near the valley of the Big Sioux, the 
eozoic rocks again approach the surface, and some of them are 
mineral-bearing rocks. The Lake Superior region yields, in large 
quantity, iron of the same character and purity as that found in 
the upper peninsula of Michigan, and copper ores identical with 
those of Ontonagon ; but neither have been as yet extensively 
worked. Gold and silver exist in moderately paying quantities 
near Vermilion lake, in the northern part of St. Louis county; 
but the region is yet so wild and inaccessible that the mines are 



SOIL AND VEGETATION. qq^ 

not now worked. Salt springs occur at various points in the 
State, and salt of excellent quality is manufactured in the Red 
River valley, and at Belle Plaine, on the Minnesota river. 
Among the other minerals of the State are : slates (both building 
and writing), lime, white sand for glass-making, building stone, 
peat, marl, tripoli, etc. The red pipe stone, of which the Indian^ 
made their pipes, is found in large quantities in the southwest, 
and is quarried and used for many purposes. 

Soil and Vegetation. — The three slopes named under the 
heading of Stwface of the CoiC7itry have each a different soil and 
vegetable growths. The northern, along the Red River valley, 
and the basins of the lakes and rivers which form the northern 
boundary of the State, is a rich alluvial deposit admirably adapted 
to the/growth of cereals and to grazing. The Red River valley, 
from sixty to seventy miles in width, though but half of it is in 
Minnesota, is unsurpassed in fertility, and may well become the 
granary of the world in the production of wheat. While it is 
cultivated more carelessly than it should be, and averages only 
about twenty-two or twenty-three bushels of wheat to the acre, 
it is capable of doing much better than that, and instances are 
not wanting on land, within twenty months from its first breaking, 
in which fifty, sixty, eighty, and even one hundred and two bushels 
of wheat to the acre have been raised, and that not on a single 
acre only, by any trickery, but on broad fields of sixty or eighty 
acres. This region has forests of oak, beech, elm and maple, 
though the greater part is a gendy undulating prairie. The 
eastern slope has much broken land, and is a better mineral than 
agricultural region ; though the soil yields fair crops, especially 
of roots, much of this slope, as well as the highlands or divides, 
is covered with a heavy growth of pine, spruce, and other conif- 
erous trees, of great value as lumber, though the soil beneath 
them, when cleared, is comparatively barren. This region occu- 
pies about twenty-one thousand square miles. The southern 
slope, which comprises all of the State below the highlands, is 
composed of alternate rolling prairie and woodland, and has a 
very rich and ferdle soil. About one-third of the surface of 
Minnesota is woodland, and her citizens have wisely taken meas- 



-Q06 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

ures to renew the forest growth, and not suffer the land to become 
dry and sterile for the want of forests. They have planted 
already nearly thirty millions of trees, to replace those which 
have been cut off. By this wise precaution they have secured 
to their State its forest supplies, without material diminution. In 
the southern slope there are detached groves and copses of great 
beauty sprinkled everywhere among the prairies and around 
the numerous lakes, while growths of dwarfed oaks skirt the 
prairies and are known as oak openings. There is also a tract 
on both sides of the Minnesota river, over one hundred miles in 
length, and of an average width exceeding forty miles, comprising 
an area of five thousand square miles, known as the "Big Woods," 
which is covered with a dense and magnificent orowth of hard- 
wood timber. This is said to be the largest forest of defiduous 
timber between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. In this, as 
well as in the smaller groves, are found almost every species of 
deciduous trees native to the States and Territories north and 
east of the Rocky Mountains. 

The indigenous flora of the State is a combination of the Can- 
adian, or sub-alpine, which is found along our northern frontier, 
with the Appalachian or Mississippian of the upper portion of 
the Great Valley. Owing to the great number of small lakes, 
streams and marshes in the northeast, the aquatic plants of the 
sub-alpine flora predominate — wild rice, reeds, callas, and water- 
loving plants generally. In the northeast part of the State it is 
estimated that there are 256,000 acres of cranberry marsh, which 
yield abundantly. Wild fruits come to great perfection, and, in 
cultivated fruits, all except the peach and the later grapes are 
produced of remarkable excellence and in great quantities. The 
apples, pears, plums, cherries, early grapes, strawberries, rasp- 
berries, currants, blackberries, whortleberries and gooseberries 
of Minnesota are not surpassed anywhere. 

Zoology. — The forests abound with wild animals and beasts of 
prey, but these are not as numerous in the prairie regions. The 
bear, panther or cougar, wild cat and lynx, and the gray wolf, as 
well as the marten, fisher, otter, mink, beaver, and muskrat, skunk, 
raccoon, fox, woodchuck, gopher, hare and squirrel, and other 



ZOOLOGY AND CLIMATE OF MINNESOTA. qq/ 

rodents are sufficiently numerous, and the coyote or prairie wolf 
hunts in packs in the open lands. Of the larger game there are 
the elk, two species of deer, and possibly the moose. The buf- 
falo is rarely seen, and the antelope, if ever an inhabitant of this 
recrion, north and east of the Missouri, is so no longer. Of 
game birds, land and aquatic, there is no end. Wild turkeys, 
pigeons, grouse of several species, and partridges, frequent the 
woods, and wild geese, several species of ducks, brant, teal, etc., 
are found in their season in great numbers, around the hundreds 
of larger lakes. Birds of gay plumage, and those of melodious 
soncr, make the woods, lakes and rivers vocal with their sweet 
notes or brilliant with their varied and beautiful hues. The rep- 
tile tribes are not so numerous as elsewhere. There are three 
or four poisonous, and a considerable number of innocuous ser- 
pents, large and small. The batrachians pour forth their music 
in the northern marshes, but the lizard family are missing-. Fish 
abound in all the waters of the State, and the State Fish Com- 
mission, in co-operation with the United States Fish Commis- 
sion, have been stocking the larger lakes and streams with choice 
species of edible fish. This work is still progressing. 

Climate. — A orgeat deal has been written about the climate of 
Minnesota, both in its praise and dispraise. From its central 
situation and the curving northward of the isothermal lines, as 
well as from its very moderate elevation, the climate is undoubt- 
edly milder than that of States or countries farther east in the 
same latitude. The mean average temperature of the State 
has been given as 44.6° Fahrenheit. This is not yet true, 
though it may become so in a few years. Its present average 
annual mean, from observations made at many different points 
for from eight to twelve years past, does not exceed 42.9° Fah- 
renheit, and this is a very decided advance from the mean of 
eight or ten years since. As the country is settled, the annual 
temperature rises, and though there may be occasional severe 
winters like those of 1877-78, and of 1879-80, when the temper- 
ature sinks to — 53°, or — 60°, yet it is gradually advancing to a. 
milder temperature. The air is very dry and bracing; the rain- 
fall is not as great as it is farther east, and probably averages^ 



()08 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

one year with another for the whole State, about 27.5 inches; 
but it is one of the pecuHarities of Minnesota and Dakota, that 
three-fourths of it falls between April and October, and more 
than one-half between the ist of May and the 15th of August — 
the season when the growing crops most require it. The sum- 
mer is hot, and everything (including weeds) grows with the 
greatest rapidity. When the harvest is gathered, winter comes, 
sometimes with abundant snows, but oftener without them ; and 
the frost-king reigns from November to April, but the dryness 
of the air renders the intense cold more endurable, and the 
winter is a season of activity. The climate is healthful, the 
death-rate low, and malarious diseases unknown. The climate 
is regarded as a desirable one for consumptives from its dry 
and bracing air. It is certain that many of those who come to 
the State with weak lunors, when the disease is not too far ad- 
vanced, do recover and enjoy good health. The table on page 
909 prepared with great care and labor, gives all the necessary 
particulars for determining the climate of all parts of the State. 
The temperature, rainfall, humidity, etc., are averages from ob- 
servations continued for from five to ten years, and are more 
satisfactory than any statement of the temperature, rainfall, etc., 
of a single year, which may be exceptional in its character. 

Railroads and Steam Navigation. — There are none of the 
Western States which have made more rapid progress in railroad 
construction than Minnesota, and none which possess greater 
facilities for travel and transportation. Let us begin with the 
navigable waters. The Mississippi, interrupted only by the 
Falls of St. Anthony, Sauk rapids, and Little Falls, is navigable 
to the foot of Pokegama Falls, distant but 236 miles from its 
source. As far as to the Falls of St. Anthony, about 175 miles 
from the point where it enters the State, it is navigable for large 
steamers, at all seasons of the year, since the recent improve- 
ments made by the United States government; and above Min- 
neapolis, there is navigation for smaller steamers for 400 miles, 
except the obstructions mentioned above. On the Minnesota 
river, in eood stages of water, boats run to Granite Falls, a dis- 
tance of 238 miles from its mouth. That fertile Nile, called the 



METEOROLOGY OF MINNESOTA. 



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pro OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Red river of the North, gives 380 miles of navigable water on the 
v^estern boundary of the State. The St. Croix furnishes fifty-two 
miles of navigable water on the eastern border. Lake Superior 
gives 167 miles of shore line to the northeastern section of the 
State, and the St. Louis river, the principal stream of that sec- 
tion, adds twenty-one miles of navigable waters to the extreme 
west end of Lake Superior. To sum up, Minnesota has 2,796 
miles of shore line of navigable waters — one mile of coast line 
to every thirty square miles of surface. 

Of railroads there were over 3,140 miles completed and in 
operation on the ist of September, 1880. The Northern Pacific 
Railroad crosses the State from Duluth to Farg^oand the North- 
west, and its principal feeders, the St. Paul and Pacific and the 
St. Paul and Duluth, connect it with the two chief cities of Min- 
nesota, Minneapolis and St. Paul, and with the more distant 
cities of Milwaukie and Chicasfo, also ; these three lines, with 
their various branches and extensions, include about 975 miles 
in the State, and have three lines crossino: the State from east to 
west, and two, the Duluth road and the St. Vincent extension, 
from north to south. The other four roads which cross the State 
from east to west at lower points are, the Hastings and Dakota 
Division of the Chicago, Milwaukie and St. Paul, which also 
operates two roads running southward to the State line (the 
River Division and the Iowa and Minnesota Division) ; the Wi- 
nona and St. Peter's ; the Sioux City and St. Paul, with its ex- 
tensions ; and the Southern Minnesota. These are crossed in 
every direction by local railways as well as by two important 
lines, the Minneapolis and St. Louis, the Rochester and Northern 
Minnesota, and the St. Paul and Sioux City, and the Milwaukie, 
Minneapolis and St. Paul, now the Iowa and Minnesota Division 
of the Chicago, Milwaukie and St. Paul Railway. 

All these roads, or all except a single narrow gauge road, are 
run in connection with, and controlled, more or less, by one of 
three great railways, viz. : The Northern Pacific, the Chicago and 
Northwestern, and the Chicago, Milwaukie and St. Paul. In 
January, 1S80, there was no town or village in the State, except 
in the great unorganized counties in the north, which was more 



RAILROADS OF MINNESOTA. qU 

than twenty-five miles from a railway station. When it is re- 
membered that the first railroad in the State was built in 1862, 
and that at the end of that year there were but ten miles of rail- 
road in operation, while by the close of 1880, eighteen years 
later, there will be at least 3,500 miles, in thirty different lines, 
and that the earnings have risen from about ^15,000 in 1862 to 
^8,156,846 in 1879, some idea may be formed of the rapid in- 
crease of the commercial wealth of Minnesota. This rapid de- 
velopment is destined still to go on. Among the projected roads, 
already in progress, is one to connect St. Paul and Minneapolis 
with the Grand Trunk road at Manitowoc, on Lake Michigan ; 
another to connect Duluth with the Sault Ste. Marie, and at that 
point with the Canadian Central ; while a third is already con- 
tracted for to tap the Canadian Pacific from Duluth. The two 
latter will open up the vast mineral country of the north and 
northeast, and may make the gold and silver region of Vermilion 
lake, and the copper and iron of the Lake Superior region as 
famous as any of the mining districts of the States and Territo- 
ries farther west. Most of the roads in the State hold land 
grants from the United States Government, and the commend- 
able enterprise which they have displayed in making known to 
emigrants from other lands and States the advantages which 
Minnesota had to offer to settlers, was undoubtedly prompted in 
part by the desire to sell their own lands, and to develop the 
region through which their route passed, so as to build up a 
large way traffic. It can be said, however, with truth, of most 
of them, that they have readily furnished information to settlers 
in regard to securing Government lands by purchase, by pre- 
emption, and by the Homestead and Timber-Culture Acts. 
. Agricultural Products. — The rapid increase of agricultural 
production has kept pace with the development of railways and 
other means of transportation for the crops which were raised. 
This progress has been greatly accelerated within the past three 
years. This is due in part to the penetration of railways into new 
districts, where the land is amazingly fertile, and in still greater 
measure to the discovery that the lands of the Red River valley 
were better adapted to the cultivation of spring wheat than any 



QI2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Other lands yet sown with that grain on this continent. This 
discovery, widely heralded, was immediately followed by the con- 
struction of railways through that valley and across it, which 
secured to every wheat-grower an immediate cash market for all 
the wheat he could raise. The great immigration to that region 
since 1877, ^-nd the immense quantity of land which has been 
broken there for wheat, has had a wonderful effect in bringing 
this new State into the front rank of grain-producing States. Yet 
only a very small portion of the vast territory of Minnesota has, 
up to this time, come into cultivation. Of its 53,459,840 acres, 
or somewhat more than 50,000,000 after deducting the water 
surface, not quite one-ninth is yet tilled ; and this not because the 
land is worthless or difficult of tillage, but because it is so exten- 
sive that men enough cannot be brought there to till it as rapidly 
as the demand for the grain requires. In 1850, thirty years ago, 
there were but 1,900 acres in the whole territory cultivated; in 
i860 there were 433,267; in 1S70 there were 1,863,316; in 1877 
there were 2,914,654; in 1879, 4,090,039; in 1880, a little more 
than 6,000,000. There is every reason to believe that 30,000,000 
acres yet remain of lands as fertile as any that have been pur- 
chased and broken by the plow, besides an area of about 
1 5,000,000 of acres of grazing and timber lands. In all, proba- 
bly nearly 30,000,000 acres have been disposed of, including 
the lands certified to railroads — something like 8,500,000 acres — 
and the lands sold and granted to actual settlers — over 15,000,- 
000 acres more — and the swamp lands, school, university, inter- 
nal improvement and other lands held by the State — but as we 
have said only a little more than 6,000,000 acres of the whole 
have yet been brought into cultivation. And what are the crops 
produced on these 6,000,000 acres ? The reports of the crops 
of 1880 are, of course, not yet at hand. We only know that the 
' wheat crop of the summer of 1880 was not less than 44,000,000 
bushels, and probably reached 48,000,000 bushels. 

Of the crops of 1879 we have more definite information. 
There were, it will be remembered, only 4,090,039 acres under 
cultivation that year, and of this 2,769,369 acres were in wheat. 
But 1879 was not, in Minnesota, a particularly good wheat year; 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. m\ 

the average yield throughout the State was only 12.3 bushels to 
the acre. Of course the Red River valley did much better than 
this, the yield there being over twenty-two bushels to the acre; 
but other parts of the State fell below the twelve bushels ; yet 
with this really half-crop, the State reported 34,063,239 bushels 
of wheat; 19,518,450 bushels of oats, which yielded thirty-five 
bushels to the acre; and 12,764,955 bushels of corn, which also 
yielded thirty-five bushels to the acre. The other principal crops 
were barley, sorghum (of which the Minnesota amber cane was 
most largely cultivated), potatoes, hay, of which a large propor- 
tion is what is known as "wild hay," and is derived either from 
the native grasses, some of which are of excellent quality, or 
from the nutritious wild rice which abounds in the vicinity of the 
lakes, and furnishes a valuable substitute for hay, much relished 
by cattle and sheep. There is, in the older counties, a disposi- 
tion to cultivate to some extent the forage grasses ; but the State 
has not yet made such progress in the rearing of live-stock as 
to make the cultivation of forage plants and grains on a large 
scale indispensable. The cultivation of sorghum, especially of 
the early amber variety, which ripens usually before frost comes, 
is becoming very general in the State, and mills or factories for 
grinding the cane and making sugar on a large scale are already 
numbered by the score. For the promotion of this new agricul- 
tural industry not only in this but in other States, the public is 
indebted to Hon. William G. LeDuc, the present Commissioner 
of Agriculture, who is himself a citizen of Minnesota. Mr. LeDuc 
has labored earnestly, zealously and persistently to bring about 
this great change from the Importing of cane sugar to the raising 
and producing our own sugar from the sorghum. The success 
which seems now to be within reach within the next five or ten 
years, means an increase of our agricultural production to the 
annual amount of eighty to one hundred millions of dollars, the 
diminishing of our importations to the same amount or even 
more, since the cheapening of the price of sugar will cause an In- 
creased consumption and the diminution of the duties to the 
extent of about forty millions of dollars. 

We have not the complete statistics of the crops of 1879 and 
58 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



9^4 

1880, but the following table gives the amount and value of the 
principal crops, with the yield per acre and the price : 



Crop. 



Wheat bu. 

Oats ^ bu. 

I Corn bu. 

! Barley bu. 

I Rye bu 

I Buckwheat .bu. 

j Beans bu. 

i Flaxseed bu. 

I Potatoes bu. 

I Sorghum Syrup. ...gal. 

Tame Hay tons. 

wad Hay — tons 

Wool pounds 



Totals. 



o -- 



880 
879 
880 

879 
880 
879 
B80 
879 
880 
879 
880 



879 



879 
880 
879 
880 
879 



Amount of crop 

n bushels, tons, 

pounds or 

gallons. 



Number of 
acres m i_io.j 






37.153.842 

45.93'. 538 
21,114,966 
27,536,600 
12,892,563 
16,398,504 

2,413.199 

3,565,680 

172,887 

404,540 

33.163 

33.359 

24.434 

25,260 

99.378 

407,124 

3,915,890 

4,203,963 

446,946 

775,602 

194.994 

205,700 

1,200,506 

1,270,000 

948,184 

925,278 



13-5 
15-5 
3725 
40.00 
34.00 
36.04 
24.88 
30.00 
15.0° 
175 
9.81 
10.5 
11.35 
12.00 

7-7 
9.00 
103.3 
103.7 
893 
106. 1 
1.35 
1.4a 



2,762,521 

2.963.325 

567,371 

688,415 

379,766 

455,5«4 

96.951 

118,856 

".534 

11,688 

3.380 

3.177 

2,156 

2,105 

12,966 

45,236 

37.910 

40,618 

5,033 

7,317 

145,150 

146,928 



8,507,917 



Total value of 
crop. 



$34,924,612 

45,012,907 

4.854.442 

7.985,614 

3.48._,,992 

5.739.476 

1,037,676 

7.495.976 

84.715 

153.405 

20,561 

21,016 

34,208 

41.679 
124,223 
529,261 

978,973 

2,101,982 

134.083 

248,193 

924,272 

1,090,210 

4,201,771 

4,908,000 

246,528 

277.583 



121,652,358 



Live-Stock. — Minnesota is too new a State, and has too much 
arable land and timber, and too many other interests calling for her 
special attention to allow her, as yet, to become largely engaged 
in rearing stock. By and by, when her great northern counties 
become accessible as grazing lands, and when her ample* pro- 
duction of hay, corn, oats, and the forage grasses and nutritious 
seeds, such as millet, pearl millet, rice corn, etc., gives her ample 
facilities for it, she will receive immense herds of catde and flocks 
of sheep to fatten for the foreign markets. We do not mean to 
be understood that the young State has not a respectable show- 
ing in the way of live-stock, or that it is not increasing ; but only 
that, as compared with States where the rearing of cattle, sheep 
and swine has been made a specialty, and where much of the 
land is better adapted to grazing than to cultivation, its numbers 
may appear relatively small. It is, at most, only another indica- 
tion of the variety of agricultural and pastoral pursuits of which 
" Our Western Empire " is capable. The following table shows 



LIVE-STOCK AND DAIRY FARMING. 015 

the number and value of the Uve-stock of Minnesota in January, 
1879, and January, 1880, according to the reports of the Agricul- 
tural Department: 



Animals. 



i Number in 
!jan., 1879. i 



Value. 



Hcnses 

Mules and Asses 

Milch Cows 

Oxen and other cattle. 

Sheep 

Swine 

Totals 



247,300 

7,000 

278,9001 

316,100 

307>50O| 
196,200^ 



563.01 

79.02 

19.10 

17.28 

2. II 

370 



I-353.000; 



)gi5>5«2,373 

553.140 

5.326,990 

5.462.208 

648,825 

725.940 



^28,299,476 



Number ii 
Jan., 1880. 



Value. 



274,1701^88.34 ^24,220,178 
7,350 100.00 I 735,000 
304,1101 20.16 1 6,132,885 
322,422 30.00 I 9,672,660 
369,0001 2.50 i 922,500 
196,000: 6. II I 1,197,560 



1.473.052; ^42,880,783 

Dairy farming has been constantly increasing in Minnesota 
during the last decade. In 1871 there were produced 7,356,768 
pounds of butter, and 469,147 pounds of cheese ; in 1872, 8,828,- 
030 pounds butter, and 772,630 pounds cheese ; in 1873 there 
were 10,140,316 pounds of butter, 1,031,510 pounds of cheese; 
in 1874, 10,916,942 pounds of butter, 1,090,238 pounds of 
cheese; in 1875, 12,000,000 pounds of butter, 1,250,000 pounds 
of cheese ; in 1876, 12,348,971 pounds of butter, 1,052,348 pounds 
of cheese; in 1877, 13,443,195 pounds of butter, and 829,075 
pounds of cheese ; in 1879, 15,639,069 pounds of butter, and 
586,448 pounds of cheese; in 1880, 16,000,000 pounds of butter, 
and 600,000 pounds of cheese. Great attention is paid to secur- 
ing the best cows for dairy purposes, and all the improved appa- 
ratus for butter and cheese-making is promptly obtained. The 
great extension of the cultivation of forage plants has been stim- 
ulated largely by the growing zeal of the farmers of Minnesota 
to become large producers of the best butter and cheese. The 
increase of 26,000 milch cows in a single year is a strong indica- 
tion of the energy and enterprise of the dairy farmers. 

Manufactw^es. — Few States of the Union, certainly none in 
the valley of the Mississippi, equal Minnesota in manufacturing 
capacities. In none is there a more advantageous distribution 
of water-power with reference to supplies of raw material and 
accessibility to markets. Here the great rivers take their rise 
which gather contributions from half the continent and afford 



ni6 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the marvellous interior navigation of the North American con- 
tinent. Yet the abrupt descents which give manufacturing 
power are in close proximity to the levels which afford navigation 
to the heart of the continent. The Mississippi itself lends the 
State a shore line of one thousand miles, half of which it con- 
tributes to purposes of manufactures and the other to those of 
commerce. The Mississippi originates at an elevation of 836 
feet above the mouth of the Minnesota, In its descent from the 
summit level to this, its water line is broken at long intervals by 
falls and rapids, which form extensive and valuable water-powers. 
Pokegama Falls, Little Falls, Sauk Rapids, and St. Anthony Falls 
are among those on the main river, besides numerous others on 
all the tributary streams, especially those on the eastern slope 
of the Mississippi, which have a much more rapid descent than 
this, and form numerous cascades and rapids. St. Anthony Falls, 
on which Minneapolis is situated, forms one of the most mag- 
nificent natural seats of manufactures in the country. 

The St. Croix affords navigation to the falls and rocky abut- 
ments which are capable of vast power. The Minnesota river is 
navigable to the granite obstructions, where busy industry is al- 
ready in full career. The St. Louis river descends to the level 
of Lake Superior through a series of jagged falls of incalculable 
power. Fergus Falls, on Red river, the several falls on the Zum- 
bro, on Cannon, Root, Cottonwood, Redwood, and other streams 
exhibit the distribution of water-power throughout the State. A 
small fraction only of this manufacturing force is yet made avail- 
able. Considering its vastness and diffusion, the capacity of the 
surrounding country for feeding it with raw material and the 
illimitable field for the consumption of the products, it is difficult 
to limit the industrial progress which may be reasonably expected 
of the future. 

The leading staples of manufacturing industry in Minnesota 
are flour and lumber — one the manufactured product of its vast 
areas of fertile soil, the other of the pine forests which cover a 
large part of Northeastern Minnesota above latitude 46° 30'. The 
pine belt is intersected by the St. Croix and its affluents and by 
the upper Mississippi and its numerous tributaries, which furnish 



MINNESOTA'S LUMBER TRADE. niy 

convenient channels for floating the logs cut upon their banks in 
winter, upon the high spring waters to Minneapolis and Still- 
water, which are the principal depots of lumber manufacture, 
though lumber is manufactured extensively at Marine Mills and 
other points on the St. Croix, and also at Hastings, Red Wing, 
Winona, which receives extensive supplies of logs from the Chip- 
pewa river, and indeed almost all the river towns. A first-class 
boom was constructed in 1879 at St. Paul, and two or three large 
saw-mills were erected in 1880. The pine forests which clothe 
the head waters of the three great river systems which have 
their sources in Minnesota are a part of the vast belt of pine 
which stretches across Northern Wisconsin. The immense 
areas of prairie country which stretch west, southwest and south 
of this pine zone, comprising about three-fourths of Minnesota, 
and all of Iowa, Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas, afford an illimit- 
able m.arket for this lumber, which is constantly increasing with 
the rapid growth of population, and its extension over the naked 
plains of the West. The railroad system which centres at St. 
Paul and Minneapolis, and which extends throughout all this vast 
region, the vast supplies of lumber manufactured at Minneapolis, 
Stillwater, Menomonie, Eau Clare, Chippewa Falls, and at other 
points in Minnesota and Wisconsin, are distributed throughout 
this great prairie region, and the transportation of lumber forms 
a very important item in the business of these railroads. Im- 
mense supplies of logs are annually floated down the Mississippi 
from the St. Croix river and its Wisconsin tributaries, to be sawed 
into lumber at different river points, especially at St. Louis. A 
great proportion of the lumber supply of Western Iowa and Ne- 
braska has heretofore been derived from Chicago and St. Louis ; 
but arrangements have recently been entered into by the rail- 
roads connecting the Wisconsin pineries with those penetrating 
these prairie States whereby the cost of transportation has been' 
considerably reduced. They have formed an organization known 
as the lumber line, with its head-quarters at St. Paul, by which 
lumber is transported without change of cars from the seats of 
its manufacture in Wisconsin to the most distant western markets 
upon such terms as will give them the control of the lumber 



pi 8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

traffic over an immense region of country in Iowa, Nebraska and 
Kansas. 

But the chief manufacturing industry of Minnesota, measured 
by the amount of capital invested and the value of its product, is 
flour. Flour mills are distributed all over the State, but the 
principal seat of this industry is at Minneapolis, which has in a 
few years past witnessed an enormous development of this in- 
terest. Minneapolis has now more than twenty saw-mills, which in 
1880 produced over 165,000,000 feet of lumber, besides the pro- 
portionate amount of lath and shingles. Its lumber product 
alone exceeded ^4,500,000^ Its flouring mills, including three 
erected during the year, were twenty-seven, several among them 
being the largest flouring mills in the world. They all make the 
so-called " New Process " flour, which can only be made in perfec- 
tion from spring wheat, the only wheat grown to any extent in 
Minnesota. These mills have the capacity for producing 17,500 
barrels of flour per day, or 5,250,000 barrels in the year of 300 
days — the equivalent of 25,000,000 bushels of wheat annually. 
There are also a great number of flour mills — many of them of 
the highest rank — along the numerous water-powers of the Can- 
non, the Zumbro, the Root and other streams of Southeastern 
Minnesota. Red Wing, Faribault, Cannon Falls, Stillwater, Ro- 
chester, Winona, and nearly every village in Houston and Fill- 
more are thriving seats of flour manufacture. There are almost 
as many run of stone employed in the mills along the Cannon 
river or along the Root as at Minneapolis. 

The number of saw-mills in the State is about 200, and of 
flouring mills not less than 450, though, of course, of varying 
capacity. The amount of lumber produced in the State cannot 
be accurately stated, but is not less than 1,000,000,000 feet, 
and is increasing. Most of it is pine, though the mills in the 
southwest of the State run on the loQfs from the " Bio- Woods," 
which are mostly hard woods. The flour production is , more 
than 10,000,000 barrels, equal to 50,000,000 bushels of wheat, 
and the Millers' Association, which has its head-quarters in Min- 
neapolis, by its admirable organization and management, has 
been able to command not only the greater part of the wheat 



INCREASE IN WEALTH AND TAXABLES. gig 

grown in Minnesota, but also most of that produced in Eastern 
Dakota and Northern Iowa. The flour manufacture in Minne- 
sota has an annual product of from thirty-five to forty millions 
of dollars. 

But though these are the leading manufactures of Minnesota, 
they are by no means the only productions of manufacturino- in- 
dustry in the State. -There are a number of iron works and 
several boiler, stove, harvester, plow and other agricultural ma- 
chine factories, woollen mills, cotton mills, paper mills, linseed oil 
mills, wood ware, furniture, fence, sash, door and blind factories, 
foundries, car wheel works, boot and shoe factories, clothing- fac- 
tones, creameries, cheese factories, wagon factories, soap and 
glue works, broom factories, brick yards, breweries, coopers' 
shops, confectionery, large printing and book manufacturing 
establishments, etc., etc. The entire annual products of manu- 
facturing industry in the State are estimated to exceed seventy- 
five millions of dollars. 

Increase in Wealth and Taxable Valuations of the State. — The 
only available measure of the increase of wealth in Minnesota is 
that afforded by the valuations of real estate and personal prop- 
erty for taxation — a very unreliable one, since real estate is 
generally valued at much less than its market value, while per- 
sonal property, even that small portion of it which is visible or 
listed, is generally valued in the assessment list at less than one- 
third, frequendy at one-fourth or fifth, its actual value. Besides 
this, under the laws of Minnesota, all public school-houses, acad- 
emies, colleges, their furniture and libraries and grounds, all 
churches and the lots on which they stand, all public buildings 
of State, county or cit}^ all public hospitals or institutions of 
charity, all public libraries, etc., and in addition to these the per- 
sonal property of each person liable to taxation, to the amount 
of one hundred dollars, are exempt from taxation or assessment. 
But, though these valuations are not even approximations to the 
true value, they will answer very well for purposes of compari- 
son. The following table will show the growth of taxable prop- 
erty and population in Minnesota since June, 1849: 



020 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Valuation. 

1849 $514,936 

1850 806,437 

i860 36,738,410 

1870 87,179,257 

1879 248,283,215 



Population. — The increase of populatioq in Minnesota has been 
exceedingly rapid from the first. In 1850, the first time when 
there were a sufifiicient number of white settlers to be enumerated, 
and when all the region west of the Mississippi was still occupied 
and held by the Indians, the number reported by the census was, 
by a singular coincidence, precisely that of the Indians now resi- 
dent in the Territory — 6,077, I" ^'^^ years it had increased 
more than ten-fold ; in ten years, almost thirty-fold ; in twenty 
years, seventy-five-fold ; in twenty-five years a hundred-fold ; and 
in thirty years, a hundred and thirty-one times. The following 
table gives some additional particulars of interest in regard to 
this population. The enumerations of 1870, 1875 ^"^ 1880 in- 
clude the tribal Indians resident in Minnesota: 



Total 
Popula- 
tion. 



1850 


6,077 


IBSS 


68,812 


i860 


172,023 


1865 


250,099 


1870 


446,056 


187s 


6r^,777 


1878 


700,000* 


1880 


787,005+ 



Males. 



3.716 

93,084 

235,299 
316,076 



2,361 
78,939 



204,407 

281,331 



Natives. 



"3,295 



279,009 
379,978 
444,748 



Colored 
I and 
Indians. 






1,977^ 
5'8.728 



39 
2,628 



160,697 7,799 
217,429 14,901 



I5,i75t' 



* Estimated from State census of 1875 and Assessors' returns. 
f Of which number 5,047 were tribal Indians. 



■04 

.85 ,883 

2.10 250 
3-04 45-3 
5.26' 78 

7.24 . 36.8 

8.38 , 14.9 

9.40 ^12.3? 

t Of which number 6,19! 
i For the decade, 77 per 



D U] « 

< S 



1,751 

52,731 
87,244 
157,913 

228,362 
262,328 
294,780 



o 



1,378 
41,226 
94,238 

'-■8,374 
147,370 



"4,739 

150,916 

J75.817 

196,639 

i were tribal Indians, 
cent. 



ui p. 
c ^-a 

o " 



,449 



From whence are the people who constitute the present popu- 
lation of this rapidly growing and thrifty State ? An investigation 
made in 1878 showed that about five-eighths were born in the 
United States, a trifle more than one-third being born in Minne- 
sota, and about twenty-nine per cent, in other States ; one-ninth, 
or eleven per cent, were natives of some of the German States ; 
fourteen per cent., or about one-seventh, were from Norway and 
Sweden ; three and a half per cent, were from Ireland ; about 



THE INDIAN POPULATION. m\ 

three per cent, from the British provinces, and one and one-half 
per cent, from England and Wales, while three per cent, were 
from other countries. The Scandinavian emigrants have very 
generally preferred Minnesota to other States and Territories 
from a real or fancied similarity between its climate and their 
own, and, In some of the counties, Norse is the lanoruao-e of a 
majority of the inhabitants. There are a number of newspapers 
printed in the Swedish and Norwegian languages, and at one 
time the laws of the State were published in these languages. 

The Indiaji Population. — In Its earlier history, even after It 
became a State, the Indians were very troublesome neighbors. 
They originally claimed the whole Territory, and their tide to 
lands east of the Mississippi was not extinguished till 1838 ; in 
1 85 1 the Indian title to lands between the Mississippi and the 
Red river of the North was extinguished, except the reservations. 
The southwest and part of the western portion of the State was 
still occupied by the Sioux, and in 1862, taking advantage of the 
absence of most of the able-bodied men in the civil war, these 
treacherous savages made an Irruption upon the new settle- 
ments and murdered about 1,000 persons, slaughtering whole 
families, burning and plundering villages, etc. Vengeance came 
swifdy upon the savages; they were pursued, defeated, con- 
quered and expelled from the State, and the most guilty publicly 
executed. The only Indians now In the State are the Chlppewas, 
6,198 In number, who have reservations at Leech lake, Red lake 
and White Earth. Their reservations comprise 4,761,112 acres, 
which include, however, a large amount of lake surface, probably 
more than 3,200,000 acres, as only 1,553,960 acres are reported 
as tillable. This tribe has always maintained peaceful and 
pleasant relations with the whites. 

Minnesota Is fully alive to her educadonal Interests. Her 
school lands consist of two sections, the sixteenth and thirty- 
sixth, in every surveyed township, and amount to 2,969,990 acres, 
which, by a provision of the constitution introduced at the sugges- 
tion of Governor Ramsey, the present Secretary of War in the 
United States War Department, cannot be sold for less than ^5 
per acre. Of these lands there have been already sold 602,873 



22 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE, 

acres, at an average price of $6.io per acre, or a little more than 
one-fifth ; ^3,678,472 have been derived from this source for the 
school fund ; and the addition of other items, stumpage, the sale 
of timber from the unsold school lands, etc., there had been re- 
alized up to August 31, 1879, the sum of $4,067,517, which con- 
stitutes the principal of the school fund. The remainder of the 
school lands are not inferior in quality to those already sold, and 
will probably yield in all from $18,000,000 to $20,000,000; but 
the interest from the school fund, which is now nearly $250,000 
and constantly increasing, forms only a small part of the total 
annual expenditure for public schools. In 1878 this expenditure 
was $1,322,949.07, or $8.40 to each scholar reported for appor- 
tionment. It is now probably at least $200,000 more. The 
excess over the current school fund is raised by county and local 
taxation. The following statement gives some particulars in 
regard to the condition of the public schools of the State for the 
year ending the 31st of August, 1879, the latest report yet pub- 
lished, which does honor to the enterprise and educational zeal 
of this youthful State: Permanent school fund, $4,067,517 ; cur- 
rent school fund, $246,942 ; enrolment of pupils, 171,945 ; school 
houses, 3,416; school districts, 4,001 ; average months of school, 
46; male teachers, 1,797 I female teachers, 3,210; total teachers, 
4,907; total of teachers in 1878, 4,872; average wages, males, 
$35,78 ;* average wages, females, $27.23 ;* amount paid for teach- 
ers' wages, including board, $920,121.38 ; value of school-houses 
and sites, $3,382,351.85. Besides these public schools, there 
were seventy-nine graded schools and sixteen high schools in the 
State, in all of which advanced studies were pursued. This was 
in 1878. The number is now increased largely. These graded 
schools were erected at a cost of over $1,500,000. But the public 
schools are only a part of the educational facilities afforded by 
the State. There are three normal schools in the State, at Wi- 
nona, Mankato and St. Cloud, all established since 1859, and 
having buildings erected at a cost of $239,932, and receiving an 
annual appropriation of $30,000 from the State. These schools 

*This is a slight falling off from the wages of the previous year, which were for males #37.52; 
for females, J28.12. 



EDUCATION— COUNTIES AND CITIES. 023 

had respectively eleven, seven and nine professors and teachers, 
and an enrolment of 407, 215 and 209 students in each. The 
graduates are in demand for the public schools of the State. 

There is also a State University at- Minneapolis, which includes 
also the Agricultural College, and has a faculty of about twenty 
professors and teachers, and had in 1879 about 250 students. It 
has an endowment fund from the sales of lands granted to it by 
Congress and the Agricultural College grant. This fund now 
amounts to about ^450,000, and nearly one-half the lands remain 
unsold, and have appreciated so much in value that the fund will 
probably amount to over a million dollars. Its buildings are 
very fine and commodious, and are unencumbered, and it has 
the proceeds of a State tax of one-tenth of a mill, which amounts 
to upwards of ^20,000 a year. It admits both sexes, and its 
teaching is of a high order. 

There is also an institution for the deaf, dumb and blind at 
Faribault, which has fine buildings and grounds, costing ^i 50,000, 
and capable of accommodating 200 pupils. 

There are also two or three colleges and seven or eight col- 
legiate schools of high order in the State under denominational 
control. Some of these are equal to any schools of their class in 
the country. 

Counties and Cities. — There are seventy-six counties in the 
State, of which seven were not organized in 1878. Several of 
the northern counties, as Polk, Beltrami, Cass, Itasca and St. 
Louis are of immense extent, and some of them have yet extensive 
Indian reservations within their limits. The assessed valuation 
of the taxable real estate of these counties (a laree amount 
escapes taxation for a variety of causes) in 1878 was ^183,615,- 
738. This was nominally on a valuation of sixty cents on the 
dollar, but really not more than fifty per cent. The assessed 
value of personal property (probably less than one-sixth of the 
real value) was ^46,175,304, and adding the two we have an as- 
sessed valuation of personal and real estate of ^229,791,042 ; in 
1879 this valuation had reached ^248,283,215, and the real value 
undoubtedly exceeded ^500,000,000. 

The principal cities and towns are : 



924 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



Cities and Towns. 



Counties in which they 
are located. 



Population 

in i86o. 



Population 
in 1870. 



St. Paul Ramsey 

Minneapolis ... Hennepin . . . 

Winona Winona .... 

Stillwater Washington. 

Red Wing '\ Goodhue 

Faribault Rice 

Mankato 1 Blue Earth. 

Rochester lOlmsted 

Hastings Dakota 

Duluth St. Louis. . . . 

Owatonna Steele 

St. Peter Nicollet 

Aust'n Mower 

Lake City Wabasha . . . 

New Ulm Brown 

Northfield Rice 

St. Cloud Stearns 

Wabasha Wabasha 

Shakopee Scott 

Waseca Waseca. 

Rushford Fillmore 

St. Charles [Winona 

Spring Valley Fillmore . . . 

Hokah I Houston 

Anoka Anoka 

Albert Lea Freeborn 

Beaver Falls ' Renville 

Hutchinson McLeod 

Chaska Carver 

Watertown Carver 

Sauk Centre Stearns 

Redwood Falls Redwood . . . 

Le Sueur Le Sueur 

Glcncoe \ McLeod 

St. Vincent ' Kittson . . . , 

Moorhead 'Clay 



10,401 

5,821 

2,464 

2,380 

1.156 

1,508 

1,559 

1,444 

1,653 

71 

6^9 

980 

200 

866 

635 

867 



191 

477 
659 
723 
309 
6j2 
262 



94 

759 



218 
237 



20,030 

18,079 

7,'92 

4,124 

4,260 

3,045 
3,482 
3,953 
3,458 
3,131 
2,070 
2,124 
2,039 
2,6.8 
1,310 
2,278 
2,161 
1.737 
1,349 

551 
1,245 
1,151 
1,279 

525 
1,498 
1,167 



440 
847 



Population 
in 1875. 



33,170 
32,721 
10,737 
5,750 
5,630 
5,525 
5,4>6 
4,344 
3,644 
2,953 
2,799 
2,680 

2,599 
2,452 
2,180 
2,140 
2,080 
1,866 
1,820 
1,325 
1,240 
1,202 
1,870 
1,021 
2,420 
1,897 

634 
1,581 

767 



1,009 
487 



1,178 

1,177 
1,120 
1, 001 



Population 



. 41,498 
46,887 
10,208 
8,500 
7,150 
6,950 
7,075 
5, '25 
4,500 
3,170 
4,250 



3.500 



1,308 
1,276 
1,175 



1,059 
1,500 



Religious Denominations. — The Lutherans (of whom there are 
at least six different and not entirely harmonious organizations) 
are the most numerous of the religious denominations in Min- 
nesota, having an actual membership in 1877-78 of 112,705, to 
which large additions have since been made by immigration and 
otherwise. 

The Catholics claimed a Catholic population estimated at 1 14,000 
in 1877 ; but though they have some strong colonies in the State, 
there is a large minority of the estimated Catholic population in 
these new States, which drifts away from that church, and cannot 
fairly be reckoned as under its control. The Methodist churches 
come next, with about 24,000 members, and are succeeded in the 
following order by Baptists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, 
Episcopalians, Mennonites, Free Will Baptists, Universalists and 
several minor denominations. The following table, which does 
not o-ive the number of churches or church edifices, except the 
Catholics, gives some other particulars of interest concerning 
them in 1877-78. Two years have undoubtedly wrought many 



REL IGIO US DENOMIN-A TIONS. 



925 



changes, but have hardly greatly disturbed their relative propor- 
tions : 

Membership of the Various Religions Bodies, Value of Church Property, and Benevolent Con- 

tributiotts in the State. 



Denomination. 



Norwegian-Danish Evangelical Lutheran 

Methodist Episcopal 

Baptist 

Congregational 

Presbyterian 

German Evangelical Lutheran 

■r-, ■ ,. f ^Reformed 

Episcopalian | p,^,,^^,^^ 

Evangelical Association 

Unitarian 

Friends 

Universalist 

Swedenborgian 

Hebrew 

Freewill Baptists 

Mennonite 



Norwegian and Danish Conferents. 
Other Lutheran Societies , 



*Swedish Evangelical Lutheran . , 
*Norwegian Lutheran Augustain. 



Y. M. C. A. of Minnesota. 



Member- 
ship. 


Value of 
Church 
property. 


47,469, 


$120,000 


20,160 


757,925 


6,430 


224,150 


6,223 
6,158 


255,000 
420,000 


22,000 




J9 


2,000 


4,298 
3,801 


278,245 
96,575 


150 
160 


5,000 


966 
80 


190,225 
8,000 


54 
1,280 


4,000 


1,408 




13,966 




5,000 




22,268 


175,000 


2,000 


10,000 


2,358 


6,000 



Membership 
of Sunday- 
Schools. 



5,000 
20,265 

5,415 
10,430 

9.279 



4,766 

3,690 

80 

75 
560 



No.ofsch'ols 
70 

No.ofscho'ls 
100 

Number of 
Associations 
15 



Contributions 

to benevolent 

objects. 



#671.94 

10,046,26 

10,595-87 

7,265.00 



*5,o69.oo 
6,566,71 

400.00 
730.00 



10,904.91 



18,000.00 



* CATHOLICS. 



Colleges 

Religious Orders 

Academies (Female) . . 
Charitable Institutions. 
Priests 



18 

7 

5 

118 

Churches 1 88 

Hospitals I 

Asylums 3 

Catholic population 1 14,000 

History. — Father Hennepin, a Franciscan priest, was the firsv. 
European who is known to have visited Minnesota. In 1680 he 
ascended the Mississippi with a party of fur traders to the Falls 
of St. Anthony, to which he gave the name which they still bear. 
Some French traders and their descendants settled around the 
falls, but they soon lapsed into Indian customs and modes of life. 
In 1763 the country subsequently known as the Northwest Ter- 



* Report of 1877, 



g25 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

ritory was ceded to Great Britain. In 1766 Jonathan Carver, a 
native of Connecticut, explored that part of Minnesota extending 
from the present southern border to the sources of the Missis- 
sippi. In 1783 it was transferred to the United States as a part 
of the Northwest Territory. In 1805 a tract of land was pur- 
chased from the Indians at the mouth of the St. Croix river, in- 
cluding the present site of Hastings, and another at the mouth 
of the Minnesota river, which includes the Falls of St. Anthony. 
In 1820 Fort Snelling was built, and in 1822a small grist mill 
was erected on the present site of Minneapolis for the use of the 
oarrison at Fort Snelling. In 1823 the first steamboat visited 
Minnesota. Between 1823 and 1830 a small colony of Swiss 
setded near St. Paul. The Indian ude to lands east of the Mis- 
sissippi was extinguished in 1838. In 1843 a settlement was 
commenced at Stillwater, on the St. Croix. The Act of Congress 
establishing the Territory of Minnesota was passed March 3, 
1849, and the Territory was organized in the following June. It 
extended to the Missouri river, and thus included nearly all of 
Eastern Dakota. Its population was then between 4,000 and 
5,000. In 1 85 1 the Indian title to the lands lying between the 
Mississippi river and the Red river of the North, except the res- 
ervations, was extinguished. Immigration at once commenced, 
though considerably hindered by the very general impression 
that the region was too cold to produce any crops. Gov- 
ernor Ramsey, the first Territorial Governor, now United 
States Secretary of War, says that when he came to Wash- 
ington, and brought with him some ears of corn and wheat 
raised in the vicinity of St. Paul, he was accused of trying 
to deceive, for it was said that it was impossible that anything 
should grow in such an Arctic climate. But the Territory 
grew, and in 1857 had about 150,000 inhabitants; and on the 
26th of February in that year, Congress passed an enabling act, 
providing for its admission as a State. It was admitted into the 
Union May 11, 1858. In i860 it had a population of 172,023. 
General H. H. Sibley, one of its pioneer setders, was its first 
State Governor, and was succeeded in i860 by Governor Ram- 
sey. In 1862 occurred the Sioux massacre, to which we have 



HISTORICAL NOTES. 037 

already alluded. Nearly a thousand of the inhabitants of the 
State were subjected to the most cruel outrages and butchered 
in cold blood. It seemed at first that this would paralyze the 
young State, and prevent its growth for a long time. But it had 
just the contrary effect. The summary and terrible punishment 
inflicted on the Sioux for their atrocious crimes and their prompt 
ejectment from the State, encouraged immigration, and in the 
eighteen years which have since elapsed, the State has grown 
with wonderful rapidity. The railroad controversy, involving 
the power of the State to limit and reduce the charges for freight, 
to which all the States of the Northwest were in a greater 
or less degree participants, was less severe or protracted in 
Minnesota than in some of the other States, and was amicably 
settled. In the extent and fertility of her soil ; in the cheapness 
of choice lands, whether purchased from the United States, the 
State or the railways ; in the accessibility of every settled county 
of the State to the best markets, thereby securing high prices for 
her products ; in her abundant water and all the facilities for suc- 
cessful manufacturing ; in the excellence of her educational 
system and its expansion over the whole State, and in the moral 
and religious character of its inhabitants, the immigrant will find 
Minnesota, as a home for himself and his children, unsurpassed 
by any State or Territory in "Our Western Empire." 



CHAPTER XII. 

MISSOURI. 



Missouri's Situation, Boundaries and Extent of Latitude and Longi- 
tude — Face of the Country— Mountains and Hills — Valleys — Rivers 
and Lakes— Geology and Mineralogy — Economic Minerals — Lead — 
Zinc — Copper — Iron — Coal — Baryta — Cap,inet Minerals — Building 
Materials — Mineral Springs — Zoology — Climate — Meteorology — Soil 
and Vegetation — Agricultural Products — Tables of Crops, 1878 and 
1879 — Notes on the Crops — Live-Stock — Tables, 1879, 1880 — Adapta- 
tion of Missouri for Grazing and Dairy-Farming — Manufactures — 



928 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



Mining Products — Railroads — Population — Notes on Population — 
Counties AND Cities — Table of Cities — St. Louis — Kansas City — Lands 
for Immigrants — Immigration in the Past — Why it has largely passed 
BY Missouri — The State now a Desirable One for Immigrants — Educa- 
tional Advantages — Public Schools — Normal Schools — Universities — 
Colleges and Professional Schools — Special Institutions — Religious 
Denominations and Churches — Historical Dates. 

Missouri is one of the central belt of the States of " Our 
Western Empire," having the Mississippi for its eastern bound- 
ary, and tlie Missouri in part for its western. It extends (includ- 
ing a small tract lying between the Mississippi and the St. Francis 
rivers) from the parallel of 36° to that of 40° 30' north latitude, 
and from the meridian of 89° 2' to that of 95° 44' west longitude 
from Greenwich. Its greatest length from north to south is about 
309 miles; its greatest breadth from east to west 318 miles, and its 
average breadth about 244 miles. It is bounded on the north 
by Iowa, the parallel of 40° 30' forming the dividing line from the 
Missouri river to the Des Moines, and thence down the channel 
of that river to the Mississippi ; on the east it is bounded by the 
Mississippi river, which separates it from Illinois, Kentucky and 
Tennessee ; south by Arkansas, on the line of 36° from the Mis- 
sissippi to the St. Francis river and from the St. Francis to the 
meridian of 94° 38', the parallel of 36° 30'; on the west by the 
Indian Territory, Kansas and Nebraska, following the meridian 
of 94° 38', from the Arkansas line to the mouth of the Kansas 
rivet, and from that point to the parallel of 40° 30', the channel 
of the Missouri river. Its area is 65,370 square miles, or 41,- 
836,931 acres, the whole of which has been surveyed. 

Face of the Country. — The State is divided into two unequal 
portions by the Missouri river, which crosses it from west to 
east, and also forms its northwestern boundary. The portion 
south of the Missouri, which forms about two-thirds of the terri- 
tory of the State, has a very varied surface. In the southeast, 
the region lying between the Mississippi and the St. Francis 
rivers, as far north as near the parallel of Cape Girardeau, is 
very low and swampy and subject to frequent overflow by the 
Mississippi and its tributaries. This comprises all the land lying 
opposite to Tennessee, Kentucky, and most of Alexander county, 



FACE OF THE COUNTRY. q2q 

Illinois. Above this, a little below Cape Girardeau, the highland 
bluffs commence, and extend up to the mouth of the Missouri. 
Between St. Genevieve and the mouth of the Meramec these 
bluffs, which are solid masses of limestone, rise from 250 to 36Q 
feet above the river, and extend westward across the State, but 
are less precipitous and rugged as they approach the Osage 
river. In the south and southwestern portion of the State, the 
Ozark mountains, or, rather, hills, occupy a considerable portion 
of the country ; they form no continuous or systematic rano-es, 
but render the whole region exceedingly broken and hilly, the 
isolated peaks and rounded summits {buttes they would be called 
farther west) sometimes rising from 500 to 1,000 feet above their 
bases, and then sinking into very beautiful and often very fertile 
valleys. Though not distinctly defined, the general course of 
this hilly region is slighdy north of east from the southeastern 
border of Kansas, where it enters the State to the Mississippi 
river. Beginning as a broad arable plateau, it slopes gently to 
the water courses on either side, and with fine farming lands even 
on its highest levels. For one-third of the distance across the 
State it possesses no characteristic of a mountain range, and 
from thence as it extends eastwardly its ridges become gradually 
more irregular and precipitous, until near the centre of the range 
they begin to break up into a series of knobs and hills, which 
finally attain their highest elevation at Iron Mountain and Pilot 
Knob, in the eastern portion of the State. The numerous river 
bottoms formed by the tributaries of the Qsage ,and Missouri 
rivers are generally fertile, but most of them are subject to over- 
flow. Farther north, in the basin of the Osage and above it, the 
land is mostly rolling prairie with occasional forests ; the imme- 
diate valley of the Missouri is a rich alluvial valley of great 
fertility, and abounding in forest trees of magnificent size and 
circumference. 

North of the Missouri the country is generally either rolling 
or level prairie, though with considerable tracts of dmber; it forms 
a part of that great bed of the prehistoric lake more than 500 
miles from shore to shore, through which the Missouri formerly 
flowed, and which included the greater part of Iowa and Eastern 
59 



Q^Q OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Nebraska, and its surface soils, for many feet in depth, are com- 
posed of loess or silty deposits ; the tributaries of both the Mis- 
sissippi and Missouri have worn deep channels through the rocks, 
and the valleys of erosion thus made, as well as the surface and 
soil of this entire region north of the Missouri, are very similar 
to those of Iowa. The river bottoms are exceedingly rich and 
productive. 

Rivers and Lakes. — The Mississippi river forms the entire east- 
ern boundary of the State, for a distance of 540 miles. The 
Missouri river flows along its western boundary, separating it 
from the States of Nebraska and Kansas, for a distance of 250 
miles, and then flows eastwardly entirely across the State, until it 
joins the Mississippi upon the eastern boundary, twenty miles 
above St. Louis, a distance of 450 miles ; thus giving the State a 
shore line upon these two great inland arteries of commerce of 
upwards of 1,550 miles. The tributaries of the Mississippi on 
its west bank in this State are, with the exception of the Mis- 
souri, mostly small and of no great importance. The St. Francis 
and its largest tributary, the Little river, as well as the White with 
its numerous branches, forks, and its tributaries, the Black, Current, 
Paint and Spring rivers, all belong to Arkansas, and enter the Mis- 
sissippi in that State. The Meramec and its principal tributary, the 
Big river, is the only considerable affluent of the Mississippi in the 
State south of the Missouri. North of that river, Salt river is the 
largest affluent, but the Cuivre or Copper river, North river, 
South, Middle and North Fabius, Wyaconda and Fox rivers, are 
streams of considerable size. The Missouri receives numerous 
large affluents in the State, On the south side are the Lamine 
river, the Osage (a large and beautiful stream), with its tributa- 
ries, the Little Osage, Marmiton, Sac river, Grand river, Pomme 
de Terre, Big and Litde Niangua, Auglaize, and Marie's creek ; 
and Gasconade river, with its Osage, Lick and Piney Forks, On 
the north side there are the Nishnabatona, the Big and Litde 
Tarkio, Nodaway, Platte, Grand (with fourteen considerable trib- 
utaries), Chariton (with seven or eight), Rocher Perche, Cedar, 
Muddy and L'Outre creeks. In the southwest the Neosho, an 
affluent of the Arkansas, with its tributaries, drains six or eight 



GEOLOGY A ND MINER A LOGY. p 3 1 

counties. Wherever the Great American Desert may be, it is 
certain that no part of it is in a State whose every county is so 
abundantly watered by large and small streams as Missouri. 
There are comparatively few lakes in the State. In the southeast 
there are extensive swamps, overflowed at seasons of high water 
like those on the Atlantic coast. In St. Charles county, between 
the Missouri and the Mississippi, there are a number of small 
lakes. In the northwestern part of the State, in Platte, Buchanan 
and Holt counties, there are several lakes of considerable size. 
The Missouri, as well as the Mississippi, at times widens into a 
wide expanse of water dotted with islands. 

Geology ajid Mmeralogy — The geology of Missouri maybe 
briefly summed up as follows : i. Quaternary (alluvium, bluff, and 
drift or loess) deposits, found in greater or less degree all over the 
State, but especially deep and thick in the southeastern counties, 
Ripley, Butler, Dunklin, Pemiscot, New Madrid, Mississippi, 
Scott, Stoddard, and portions of Carter, Wayne and Bollinger, 
as well as through the immediate valley or bottom lands of the 
Missouri, to the point in the northwest at which it enters the 
State. There are no tertiary, cretaceous, triassic or Jurassic 
groups in the State, but we come below the quaternary immedi- 
ately upon — 2. The upper carboniferous, which with — 3. The 
lower carboniferous, covers 23,000 square miles of the State. 
There are in these two formations, the upper, middle and lower 
coal, and the Clear creek sandstone of the upper carboniferous, 
and six successive deposits of the lower carboniferous, com- 
prising an unclassified sandstone, and the St. Louis, Keokuk and 
Chouteau groups of limestones and sandstones, most of them 
rich in fossils. This great coal field occupies in general the 
western, northwestern and northern portions of the State. 

Next in order, and for the most part immediately adjacent to 
the coal measures, are — 4. Three considerable tracts of Devonian 
rocks, one in the southwest, another in the northeastern part of 
the State, and the third a narrow belt which follows the eastern 
edge of the carboniferous deposits in all their devious lines, and 
extends southeast to the immediate vicinity of St, Louis. The 
only strictly Devonian rocks in the State are the Hamilton and 
Onondaga groups, both mainly limestones. 



g^2 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

5, The upper and lower Silurian formations come next in 
order ; they occupy a tract almost 200 miles in width, and ex- 
tending from the Missouri river to the southern line of the State, 
and also crop out in the immediate bottom lands of the Missis- 
sippi above the mouth of the Missouri, The groups of the upper 
Silurian found here are Oriskany sandstone, lower Helderberg or 
Delthyris shale, Niagara group, and Cape Girardeau limestone. 

' Of the lower Silurian formation there are three groups belonging 
to the Trenton period, viz. : The Cincinnati, Galena and Trenton 
groups, composed mainly of shales and limestones ; and three 
groups of the magnesian limestone series, consisting of mag 
nesian limestones, saccharoldal and other sandstones, and Pots- 
dam limestones, sandstones and conglomerates. 

6. Below these, around the head waters of the affluents of the 
St. Francis and White rivers, there are frequent outcrops of eozoic 
or archaic rocks — greenstone, porphyry and granite. Much of 
the limestone of the coal measures, as well as some of the other 
formations, is cavernous, and there are numerous caves of great 
extent and beauty in the central and western portions of the 
State. 

Missouri has a great variety of minerals, and in those of 
greatest economic value is hardly surpassed by any State or 
Territory of " Our Western Empire," Gold has thus far been 
discovered only in the drift in Northern Missouri in placers over- 
lying the coal measures, and therefore without hope of veins or 
lodes ; these placers are, as they are situated, too lean for profit- 
able working, yielding only from thirteen cents to $2.51 per ton. 
Silver has been diligently sought in the lead ores which abound 
in the State, but they are not, to any profitable extent, silver- 
bearing. In August, 1S79, argentiferous galena was discovered 
in the eozoic rocks in Madison county, one of the eastern coun- 
ties of the State, about twelve miles east of Ironton, and perhaps 
fifteen miles southeast of Pilot Knob. What is the value of these 
lodes is not stated, but they are sufficiently rich to have drawn 
about twenty companies there, who are now at work, and are 
very sanguine that these lodes also contain gold and platinum. 
The first attempts to reduce the ores were made by the wet 
amalgamation process, and not by smelting. 



METALS AND METALLIC ORES. g^^ 

But if the precious metals (so called) have not hitherto yielded 
much wealth to Missouri, her mines of lead, copper, zinc, and, 
above all, of coal and iron, have made ample amends for any 
lack of the others. Iron is found in some form in every county 
in the State — bog ores in Southeastern Missouri; limonite, or 
brown haematite, in most of the southern counties: goethite, a va- 
riety of the brown haematite in Adair county; red haematite 
throughout the coal measures; red and yellow ochres in many 
counties; spathic ores in the coal measures and in Phelps county ; 
the specular oxide, in vast masses, such as the Iron mountain, 
Shepherd mountain, Pilot Knob, Simmon mountain, Iron ridge, 
the Meramec mines, in Phelps county, and numerous other de- 
posits in eight or ten other counties ; sulphurets (iron pyrites) 
throughout the coal measures, and sulphate of iron (copperas) in 
the coal measures and abandoned coal mines. Some States and 
Territories have perhaps an equal abundance of iron ores, but 
lack smelting coals to reduce them ; but Missouri has an abun- 
dance of excellent smelting coals and fluxes in close proximity 
to her beds of iron ores. 

After iron, lead is the metal most largely produced in Mis- 
souri, her product of that metal being greater than that of all the 
rest of the United States. Our latest complete statistics of the 
lead produced in the State are for 1879, when the St. Louis Mer- 
chants' Exchange reported a production of 56,868,960 pounds. 
This was a very decided falling off from the product of 1878, 
v;hich was 60,348,560 pounds, and still more from that of 1877, 
ivhich was 63,202,240 pounds. About one-third of the whole 
\ias exported. The consumption as well as the production of 
lead has largely increased within the past five years, and while 
Colorado, Montana, Utah, Nevada and California are sendino- 
into market large amounts of lead parted from silver, and New 
Mexico and Arizona are preparing to do the same, the produc- 
tion in Missouri, Iowa and Kansas has also increased and kept 
pace with them. There are two great lead fields — one in South- 
eastern and the other in Southwestern Missouri. It is also 
found in smaller quantities in many counties outside of these lead 
fields ; galena, or sulphuret of lead, and cerussite, or the carbon- 



g-,^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

ate, are the principal ores, though some deposits of the phosphate 
(pyromorphite) are found. Zinc in the form of blende is abun- 
dant in the same regions as the lead — in Southeastern and South- 
western Missouri, and the silicates and carbonates, also, while 
zinc bloom sometimes occurs. The production of zinc in Missouri 
is about one-third of that in the entire United States, and is ex- 
ceeded only by that of Illinois. Copper in the form of blue and 
green carbonates (malachite) and sulphurets, is found in large 
quandties in Shannon, Crawford, Jefferson, Franklin and Madison 
counties, and in smaller quantides in a dozen other counties. 
For many years copper mining was successfully carried on in the 
State, and even now small quantities are produced ; but the yield 
of copper in the ores ranges only from twenty-two to twenty-six 
per cent., and the Lake Superior ores are so much richer, and 
their mines contain so much native copper as to render the busi- 
ness generally unprofitable. The sulphate of cadmium (greenock- 
ite) is associated with the zinc blende in many of the mines. 
Nickel and cobalt are found in paying quantities at Mine La 
Motte, in Madison county, and in the St. Joseph mines, and the 
beautiful hair-like crystals of sulphuret of nickel (Millerite) in the 
vicinity of St. Louis. Wolfram occurs in Madison county, and 
manganese and manganiferous iron in Iron and other counties. 

Of minerals, not ores, there is a great variety ; carbonate of 
lime (calcite), arragonite, pearl spar, fluor spar, quartz in all 
forms; heavy spar (sulphate of baryta), mainly used in the adul- 
teration of white lead ; gypsum, mainly in the form of selenite ; 
pickeringite, feldspar, mica, hornblende, asbestos, bitumen or min- 
eral tar (throughout the coal measures), fire-clay, potter's clay 
and kaolin ; an excellent glass sand from the saccharoldal lime- 
stone ; lime of several qualities ; hydraulic lime and cement; pol- 
ishing stone, saltpetre, building stones of granite, sandstones, 
limestones and marbles, grindstones, millstones, slates, and numer- 
ous fine varieties of colored marbles are the principal of these. 
But of all the minerals not metallic, coal is the most important in 
Missouri. The coal fields underlie an area of about 26,000 square 
miles in the State. The coal includes deposits belonging to the 
upper, middle and lower coal measures, and is of various quail- 



ZOOLOGY AND CLIMATE. 935 

ties, some being common bituminous, some very rich in carbon, 
and developing excellent results under the coking process, while 
some will not coke; some is equal in quality to the Liverpool 
cannel coal. The percentage of fixed carbon varies from thirty 
to sixty per cent., the average being not far from fifty per cent. 
Among the coal beds already worked are many which produce 
excellent smelting coals, though perhaps a larger number yield 
a coal better adapted to the use of locomotives and stationary 
engines. The coal mines are usually easily worked, and do not 
require deep shafts or expensive machinery, and coal is very 
cheap. There are many mineral springs in the State, sulphurous, 
saline and chalybeate, but none of national reputation. There 
are also brine springs in Howard county, which yield from two 
to three ounces of very pure salt to the gallon. 

Zoology. — Having extensive forests, Missouri has an abun- 
dance of wild animals. They are mostly those of the Mississippi 
valley and of the plains. Bears (the black and cinnamon), cou- 
gars or panthers, wild cats, lynxes, wolves, both the gray wolf and 
the coyote, foxes, raccoons, opossums, skunks, beavers, martens, 
minks, muskrats, gophers, woodchucks, and nearly all the ro- 
dents and burrowing animals. The buffalo and the elk have 
disappeared from Missouri, though they were formerly abundant 
there ; but there are two species of deer, antelopes (rare), rabbits 
and hares. Wild turkeys, quails, pigeons, partridges, prairie 
hens (though these are not as numerous as formerly), and other 
grouse exist in great abundance. The birds of prey, eagles, vul- 
tures, hawks, owls, etc., destroy great numbers of game birds and 
rodents ; wild geese, ducks, brant, teal and snipe are found in 
their season on the rivers and in the marshes, and with them 
herons, swans, divers, and more rarely ibises. Snakes, lizards, 
frogs, toads, turtles, etc., are numerous. 

Climate. — The climate of Missouri is generally healthy, except 
in the river bottoms and the marshy districts of the southeast; 
but it is a climate of frequent changes and of great extremes. 
The months of July and August are marked by extreme heat, and 
there are periods of equally intense cold in January and Feb- 
ruary. The autumn and spring are very mild and pleasant, 
though with occasional days of intense cold or heat. 



93^ 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



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METEOROLOGY OF MISSOURI. 



957 



We give below the following additional items in regard to the meteorology 
of St. Louis, taken from the Signal Service Reports. 



Months 
1878. 



January.... 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 
October.... 
November. 
December. 
Year 



"" 2.S. H 
•a 3 a u 



X c4 0) ^ (^ 

?: Sj £■ "- h 

c ^ 3 o u 



Inches. 
29.462 



29 
29 
29 
29 
29 
29 
29 
29 
29 
29 
29 
29 



361 

353 
201 
362 
366 
398 
372 
503 
475 
467 
562 
476 



PrevaLnt winds and their direction 
each month. 



Inches. 
2.36 
1.69 
2.79 
6.74 

463 

2.40 

3-92 
4-75 
3-42 

3-27 
1.38 

3-48 
40.83 



N. W., S., W., N., E. 

N.,S.,N. W., N. E.,S. E. 

S.,N. W.. S. E., W., N. 
S. E.,N.,N. W.,S.,S. W. 
S.,N. W.,N.,S. E.,N. E. 
S.,N.,S.E.,N.W.,W.,N.E. 

S., N., N. E., E., S. W. 
S.,N.,S. W.,N.W.,N.E. 

S., N., S. E., E.,.N. W. 

S., N., N. W., W. 
S.,N.W.,W.,N.,S.E.,N.E. 
W.,N.W.,S.E.,N.,S.,E. 
S.,N.W.,N.,S.E.,W.,N.E.,E. 



According to a well-known authority, Dr. Engleman, of St. 
Louis, the mean annual temperature on a line passing across the 
State from east to west, not far from its northern border, is 50° 
Fahrenheit ; a little south of the middle, including St. Louis, 
53° Fahrenheit; at about middle, including St. Louis, summer 
mean 75° Fahrenheit; somewhat north of southern border, 
0.1so including St. Louis, winter mean 32° Fahrenheit. The 
Doctor states that the climate on the whole is dry and rarely 
overloaded with moisture, and that it yields an unusual amount 
of fair weather. 

Such meteorological conditions are highly conducive to health, 
since they admit of and encourage active out-door life at all 
seasons. Missouri presents such a diversity of surface that all 
can find localities within its boundaries suitable to their peculiari- 
ties of constitution. The Signal Service Reports do not vary 
greatly from Dr. Engleman's meteorological estimates, but they 
exhibit one feature which he does not particularly notice, viz. : 
the great range of the thermometer in the winter, spring and 
autumn months. The annual range is about 93° ; the range of 



^38 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the spring months averages 80° ; of the summer, about 45° ; of 
the autumn, about 65° ; and of the winter, a Httle more than 70*^. 

The average rainfall all over the State is 40.5 inches, and con- 
trary to the popular belief is greater in the western than in the 
eastern part of the State, being 46.16 at St. Joseph, and only 
37.83 in the same years at Jefferson Barracks, on the Mississippi. 

Soil and Vegetation. — The Hon. Andrew McKinley, President 
of the Missouri State Board of Immigration, a man thoroughly 
familiar with the soils and productive capacity of the Missouri 
lands, thus classifies and describes them : 

" When the territory now embraced within the boundaries of 
Missouri emerged from the waters that covered it, the marls of 
the bluff formation were the upper stratum beneath the soil, of 
all that section of the State lying north of the Osage and Mis- 
souri rivers, and also of the county of St. Louis and other coun- 
ties lying on the Mississippi river, to the southern boundary of 
the State. This formation furnishes a deep, porous, flexible and 
imperishable sub-soil, that absorbs moisture like a sponge and 
enables the soil to endure greater excesses of rain or drouth 
than any other. It rests upon the ridges and river bluffs and 
descends along their slopes to the lowest valleys. Reposing on 
this surface is a great variety of soils, each in its kind of unsur- 
passed fertility and productiveness. From time to time animal 
remains and decayed vegetable matter, in vast profusion, but in 
just proportions, were added, until the soil formation became 
complete, and now exhibits all of the essentials for the fullest 
nourishment of the vegetable kingdom. In the process of the 
formation of the upper soil, a rank vegetation of grasses, plants 
and trees sprang up, which was suppressed in the dryer portions 
by fires that overrun the country. Along the streams, and where 
there was a scarcity of vegetation, the fires failed to destroy the 
young trees, which grew apace until strong enough to resist, and 
then they began to encroach upon the prairies ; this they con- 
tinued to do until more than one-half of the State was appropri- 
ated by our magnificent forests. 

" The margins of the rivers first received the most extensive 
deposits of soil matter from floods, which carried down the wealth 



SOIL AND VEGETATION. g^g 

of the vast regions they drained, and, upon the subsidence of the 
waters, deposited it on the lower levels. Each flood furnished 
its new supply, adding to the height of the bottom lands until, 
after the lapse of time, they became, for the most part, sufficiently 
elevated to be above danger of overflow. No rivers of the world 
can boast of more extensive bottom lands than can the Missouri 
and Mississippi, and none have soils with ingredients richer, 
better combined, or more productive. 

" For practical purposes, the best classification of the soils of 
Missouri is that adopted by Professor Swallow, which, after de- 
fining them in general as forest, prairie and alluvial lands, indi- 
cates their great variety by the kind of timber which is most 
abundant on them, or, where timber is wanting, by the grasses 
and plants of the prairie. Following this classification those 
known as Hackbcny Lands are first in fertility and productive- 
ness. Upon these lands also grow elm, wild cherry, honey 
locust, hickory, white, black, burr and chestnut oaks, black and 
white walnut, mulberry, linden, ash, poplar, catalpa, sassafras and 
maple. The prairie soils of about the same quality, if not iden- 
tical, are known as Crow Foot Lands, so called from a species of 
weed found upon them, and these two soils generally join each 
other where the timber and prairie land meet. Both rest upon 
a bed of fine silicious marls, and even under most exhaustive 
tillage will prove perpetually fertile. They cover more than 
7,000,000 acres of land. On this soil white oaks have been 
found twenty-nine feet in circumference and one hundred feet 
high ; linden twenty-three feet in circumference and quite as 
lofty; the burr oak and sycamore grow still larger. Prairie 
grasses, on the Crow Foot Lands, grow very rank and tall, and 
by the old settlers were said to entirely conceal herds of cattle 
from the view. These lands alone are capable of sustaining a 
population greater than that now occupying the State of Mis- 
souri. 

"The Ebn Lands, whose name is derived from the American 
elm, which here grows magnificently, are scarcely inferior to the 
hackberry lands, and possess very nearly the same growth of 
other timber. The soil has about the same properties, except 



g.Q OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

that the sand Is finer and the clay more abundant. The same 
quality of soil appears in the prairie known as the Resin Weed 
Lands. 

" Next in order are Hickory Lands, with a growth of white and 
shellbark hickory, black, scarlet and laurel oaks, sugar maple, 
persimmon and the haw, red-bud and crab apple, trees of smaller 
growth. In some portions of the State the tulip tree, beech and 
black gum grow on lands of the same quality. Large areas of 
prairie in the northeast and southwest have soils of nearly the 
same quality called Midatto Soils. There is also a soil lying 
upon the red clays of Southern Missouri similar to the above. 
These hickory lands and those described as assimilating to them, 
are highly esteemed by the farmers for the culture of corn, wheat 
and other cereals. They are admirably adapted to the culti- 
vation of fruits, and their blue grass pastures are equal to any 
in the State. Their area may be fairly estimated at 6,000,000 
acres. 

"The Magnesian Li77iestone Soils extend from Callaw^ay county 
south to the Arkansas line, and from Jefferson west to Polk 
county, an area of about 10,000,000 acres. These soils are dark, 
v/arm, light and very productive. They produce black and white 
walnut, black gum, white and wahoo elms, sugar maple, honey 
locust, mulberry, chestnut, post laurel, black, scarlet and Spanish 
oaks, persimmon, blue ash and many trees of smaller growth. 
They cover all the country underlaid by the magnesian lime- 
stone series, but are inconvenient for ordinary tillage when they 
occupy the hillsides or narrow valleys. Among the most fertile 
«;oils in the State, they produce fine crops of almost all the staples, 
and thrifty and productive fruit trees and grape vines evince 
their extraordinary adaptation and fitness to the culture of the 
grape and other fruits. Large, bold springs of limpid, pure and 
cool \vaters gush from every hillside and flow away in bright 
streams, giving beauty and attraction to the magnificent forests of 
the elm, the oak, the mulberry and the buckeye, which often adorn 
their borders. The mining regions embraced in this division of 
the soils are thus supplied with vast agricultural wealth and a 
large mining, pastoral and agricultural population may here be 



OAK, BLACK JACK AND PINE LANDS. 04I 

brought together in relations scarcely to be found in any other 
country in the world. Blue grass and other succulent and nutri- 
tious grasses grow luxuriantly, even on the ridges and hillsides 
of the upland forests, in almost every portion of Southern Mis- 
souri. The alfalfa grass [medicago sativa), so highly prized in 
California, has been introduced into this part of Missouri, and 
proves a valuable addition to the forage grasses, yielding eight 
tons of the best of hay at four cuttings, withstanding summer 
droughts, and furnishing excellent pasture in October and No- 
vember. 

"On the ridges, where the lighter materials of the soil have 
been washed away, or were originally wanting. White Oak Lands 
are to be found, the oaks accompanied by shellbark and black 
hickory, and trees and shrubs of smaller growth. While the sur- 
face soil is not so rich as the hickory lands, the sub-soil is quite 
as good, and the land may be greatly improved by turning the 
sub-soil to the surface. These produce superior wheat, good 
corn and a very fine quality of tobacco. On these lands fruits 
are abundant and a sure crop. They embrace about 1,500,000 
acres. 

''Post Oak Lands have about the same grrowth as the white oak 
lands, and produce good crops of the staples of the country, and 
yield the best tobacco in the West. Fruits of all kinds excel on 
this soil. These lands require deep culture. 

"The Black Jack Z,^;?^j occupy the high flint ridges underlaid 
with hornstone and sandstone, and under these conditions are 
considered the poorest in the State, except for pastures and 
vineyards. The presence, however, of black jack on other lands 
does not indicate thin or poor lands. 

"■Pliie Lands are extensive, embracing about 2,000,000 acres. 
The pine is the long leaf variety, grows to great size, and is mar- 
ketable. It is accompanied by heavy growths of oak, which takes 
Che country as successor to the pine. This soil is sandy, is 
adapted to small grains and grasses, and carries fertilizers well. 

"The bottom lands of the southeast are now being rapidly re- 
duced to cultivation by the common effort of the lumberman and 
settler. A more extensive system of scientific drainage is now 



g^2 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

authorized by the State, and effective measures are determined 
upon. They are of the Hackberry variety of soils, and bear the 
heaviest of timber. The strength of soils is such as to produce 
great crops with regularity, proved in many fields by more than 
fifty years of cultivation without rotation of crops." 

Agricultural Products. — In 1870 somewhat more than one- 
half the area of the State — 21,707,220 acres — was included in 
farms, of which, however, only 9,130,615 acres were under culti- 
vation ; within the last decade, the amount of improved lands has 
greatly increased. The culture of the grape and the production 
of wine has been largely developed, and the vineyards of Mis- 
souri are favorably known. The State possesses some advan- 
tages for the production of excellent wines, which are not sur- 
passed by those of any other State in the Union, and not equalled 
by any except California. Two classes of grapes — those which 
produce the best wines — the yEstivalis or summer grapes, and 
the Ripara or river grapes, attain their greatest perfection on her 
soil ; and many of the best varieties of these are either native 
Missouri grapes or seedlings from them. Of the yEstivalis class 
the " Norton's Virginia " and its seedlings, the Hermann and 
the White Hermann, the Cynthiana, a grape of wonderful ex- 
cellence, and the Neosho, a native grape, produce the finest red 
wines. Burgundies, sherries, clarets and white wines, in the world. 
Of the river grapes, the Taylor, and especially its seedlings, the 
famous Elvira, the Amber, the Pearl and others, are of the great- 
est value for the production of the choicest hocks, still wines and 
champagnes. Most of these, also, are very fine table-grapes. A 
wide field is open to the State and to immigrants from wine- 
growing countries for the production of pure wines of the 
highest qualities. There are six native varieties of grapes, and 
they are all, so far as known, proof against the phylloxera, that 
deadly enemy of the grape-vine. Among other special crops are 
sorghum, now largely cultivated, both for sugar and syrup ; tlax 
and hemp, both for fibre and seed ; cotton and sweet potatoes in 
the southern counties, hops and the larger fruits. Apiaculture 
is also very popular in some portions of the State, and large 
quantities of honey and beeswax are exported. The following 



CROPS AND STOCK-RAISING IN MISSOURI. 



943 



tables show the production of agrlcuhural staples in the years 
1878 and 1879, and also the amount of live-stock, which is a 
large and rapidly increasing interest in Missouri : 

The Principal Crops of Missouri. 



Crops, 1878. 



Indian corn, bu. 

Wheat, bu 

Rye, bu 

Oats, bu 

Buckwheat, bu. 
Potatoes, bu. . . . 
Tobacco, pound. 
Hay, ton 



Totals 



Quantity pro- 
duced in 1878. 

93,062,400 

20,196,000 

732,000 

19,584,000 

46,400 

5,415,000 

23,023,000 

1,620,000 



Average 

yield per 
acre. 

26.2 
II. 

IS- 

30.6 

16. 

75- 
770. 
1.62 



No. of acres 
in each crop. 



3,552,000 

1,836,000 

48,800 

640,000 

2,900 

72,200 

29,900 

1 ,000,000 



Price per | 

bushel, pound: 

or ton. I 



Value of 
each crop. 



1^24 
I 1^. 



196,224 
531.320 
300,120 
525,120 
24,128 
,057,700 
,151,150 
416,600 



7,181,800 $55,202,362 



Crops, 1879. 



Indian corn, bu. . 

Wheat, bu 

Rye, bu 

Oats, bu 

Buckwheat, bu. . 

Potatoes, bu 

Tobacco, pounds . 
Hay, tons 



Quantity pro-j 
duced in 1879. | 



Average \ 

yield per' ^'"' "' ""-"""' bushel, pound 
■' ' in each cmn ' ' 



acre. 



No. of acres 

rop. 



Totals 



153-446,400 

18,984,240' 

688,080 

15,077,680 

46,864 

6,570,200 

21,411,390 

1,012,500 



40 
14 
17 
25 
20 

91 
663 
1.06 



3,836,160 
1,356,016 

40,475 

603,107 

2,871 

72,200 

32.595 
955,200 



or ton. 

$ -25 

1. 01 

.61 

.26 

•63 

.48 

.06 

9-43 



Value of 
each crop. 



$38,361,600 

19,174,082 

419,729 

3,807,114 

29,524 

3.153.696 

1,284,684 

9.547,^^75 



6,898,624 [^75,778,304 



Missouri is remarkably adapted for grazing and stock-raising 
generally, and has within her own borders markets so accessible 
and of such boundless capacity that she can increase her live- 
stock to any extent without fear of glutting the market. In 
swine husbandry she is very close to her northern neighbor, 
Iowa, and no other State, except Illinois, equals these two in the 
number and quality of its swine. In the number of its sheep it 
ranks below Texas, California, Oregon, New Mexico and Colo- 
rado, but with more enterprise it might easily pass the last three, 
as it has ranges for sheep equal to any in the world. Her beeves, 
whether shipped to Europe or to the New York markets, have 
an excellent reputation, and she is a formidable competitor with 
Iowa for the excellence as well as the abundance of her dairy 
products. 

Barley, though not named among the crops in above tables, is 



944 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



raised to the amount of a million bushels or more annually. The 
average yield is about twenty-eight bushels to the acre, and the 
price in 1879 was sixty-seven cents per bushel. The production of 
cotton is confined to the southern counties of the State, and seldom 
exceeds 1,500 bales. The sorghum crop is becoming a very im- 
portant one for the State. The following statistics show the 
number, price and value of the Uve-stock in the State in January, 
1879, and January, 1880: 



Live-stock in Missouri, Jan., 1879. 



! 

Animals. Number. I Price. Total value. 



Horses 

Mules and asses . . 

Milch cows 

Oxen and other cattle! 1,632,000 

Sheep 1,296,400 

Swine 2,817,600 



6::7,300 
191,900 
516,200 



539-89 
43-38 
17.80 
14.94 

1-59 
22.1 



$25,022,997 
8,324,622 
9,188,360 
24,382,080 
2,061,276 
6,226,896 



Totals I I ^^75,206,231 



Live-stock in Missouri 


, Jan., 1880. 


Number. 


Price. 

545.52 

57-05 
19.21 

23-33 
2.00 
4.02 


Total value. 


639,846 

192,000 

i 526,524 

! 1,648,300 

1,322,328 

2,620,368 


$29,115,790 

10,953,600 

10,114,52(1 

38,45 5. 30<> 

2,644,65(1 

io,533,97i» 






$ioi,8i7,75V 


1 





Manufactures. — Missouri possesses greater advantages for 
extensive and successful manufacturing than any other State of 
"Our Western Empire" and she has improved them in part. 
In 1870 Missouri ranked as the fifth State in the Union in the 
annual product of her manufactures, and St. Louis in 1876 was 
the third manufacturing city in the Union. Within the last de- 
cade the State, outside of St. Louis, has nearly tripled, and the 
city of St. Louis has more than doubled the amount of its manu- 
factures. Great manufacturing centres have sprung up in differ- 
ent sections of the State ; St. Joseph, Kansas City, Hannibal, St. 
Charles, Springfield, Palmyra, Union, Jackson, Columbia, Lex- 
ington, Moberly, Sedalia, Boonville and Rolla, are all manufac- 
turing centres of considerable importance. About three-fourths 
of the manufactures of Missouri are produced in St. Louis, which 
reported In 1879 manufactured articles of the value of $2 75,000,- 
000. For the whole State the products of manufactures the 
same year were estimated in round numbers at ^335,000,000. 
The principal lines of manufacture were approximately as follows: 
Flouring mills, ^40,000,000 ; carpenters and builders. ^20,000,000; 



MANUFACTURES AND MINING PRODUCTS. 



945 



meat packing, ^20,000,000; tobacco, including cigars, $14,000,000; 
iron and castings, $15,000,000; liquors, $10,000,000; clothing, 
$1 1,000,000 ; lumber, $10,000,000 ; bags and bagging, $7,000,000; 
saddlery, $7,000,000; oil, $6,000,000; machinery, $6,000,000; 
printing and publishing, $5,500,000 ; molasses and sugar, $10,- 
000,000; boots and shoes, $5,000,000; furniture, $5,000,000; 
paints and painting, $4,500,000 ; carriages and wagons, $4,500,- 
000 ; marble, stone- work and masonry, $4,000,000 ; bakery pro- 
ducts, $4,000,000 ; bricks, $4,500,000 ; tin, copper and sheet iron, 
$4,000,000; sash, doors and blinds, $3,250,000; cooperage, $3,- 
000,000 ; blacksmithing, $3,000,000 ; bridge building, $2,500,000 ; 
agricultural implements, $2,000,000 ; patent medicines, $2,500,- 
000 ; soap and candles, $2,500,000 ; plumbing and gas-fitting, 
$2,000,000. 

Mining Products. — The principal of these now profitably 
worked are — i. Lead, of which the receipts at St. Louis from 
1863 to July, 1879, are given in pigs in the following table. 
(N. B. — A pig of lead is eighty pounds.) 



YEARS. 



1863 

1864 

1865 

1866 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

60 



RECEIPTS. 



Pigs. 



79.823 

93.035 

116,636 

149.584 

M4.5S5 
185,823 

228,303 

237.939 
229,796 
285,769 
356,037 
479.448 
579,202 

665,557 
790,028 



754,357 
817.594 



INCREASE. 



Pigs. Per cent. 



13,212 
23,601 
32,948 

41,268 

42,480 

9.636 

55.973 

70,268 

123,411 

99.754 

86,355 
124,471 

DECREASE. 

35.671 
INCREASE. 

63.237 



16.56 

2536 
28.25 

28.55 
22.86 

4-23 
24.36 

24.60 

34.66 

21.00 

14.91 
18.70 

DECREASE. 

4.50 
INCREASE. 

8.30 



946 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



The lead industry of St. Louis amounts annually to over 
5^5,000,000. This includes pig lead, white lead, shot, pipe and 
sheet lead. 

2. Ii'on. With ample facilities for making, at the lowest pos- 
sible prices, iron enough to supply the whole continent, Missouri 
has fallen far below her proper position in the production of iron. 
In 1872 the iron ore mined amounted to 509,200 tons, of which 
291,200 tons were exported, and the remainder smelted in Mis- 
souri. The same year 87,1763 tons of pig iron were produced 
and shipped to St. Louis. In 1879 the iron product of St. Louis 
was over ^12,000,000. 

3. In 1872 11,582,440 pounds of zinc ore were raised and 
shipped to St. Louis. Of this 10,000,000 pounds were smelted 
for zinc, yielding 1,727,450 pounds, and the remainder was used 
for the manufacture of white oxide of zinc. The same year 10,- 
437,420 pounds of barytes were shipped to St. Louis. In 1879 
Kansas City alone shipped 15,931,793 pounds of zinc; 32,371,059 
pounds of lead, and 55,709,497 pounds of ore. 

4. Copper is not now produced except incidentally in connec- 
tion with other metals. Nickel is shipped to St. Louis from 
several mines to a large and annually increasing amount. 

5. The output of coal in the State was, in round numbers, 
900,000 tons in 1877, and 1,000,000 tons in 1878. In 1879 the 
amount was 36,978,150 bushels, or about 1,100,000 tons. 

The products of the quarries consist of building-stone of many 
kinds, granite, sandstones, limestones, marbles, white, black and 
colored, slate of all kinds, millstones, grindstones, polishing 
stone, hydraulic lime, glass sand from the saccharoidal sandstone, 
etc. The amount of quarry products is known to be very large, 
but we have no statistics of it. 

Railroads. — The State is traversed by 3,627 miles of railway. 
The greater part of the railroad lines are great trunk routes, 
connected with the Union Pacific, the Northern Pacific, the At- 
chison, Topeka and Santa Fe, or some of the routes to Texas and 
the Gulf. Of thosp traversing Northern and Western Missouri, 
the Chicago railway kings have obtained and hold possession, 
greatly to the grief of St. Louis, which is, nevertheless, a great 



POPULATION OF MISSOURI. 



947 



railroad centre, having nineteen trunk lines radiating from it. 
The Chicago roads Include the Chicago and Northwestern, the 
Chicago and Rock Island, Chicago and Alton, the Wabash, the 
Chicago, Burlington and Ouincy, the Missouri, Kansas and 
Texas. The principal roads going westward or southward from 
St. Louis are the St. Louis, Kansas City and Northern, the Mis- 
souri Pacific, made up of several lines, the St. Louis and San 
Francisco, the St. Louis, Keokuk and Northwestern, and the St. 
Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern. Hannibal, Louisiana, 
Quincy, Illinois, St. Joseph and Kansas City are also points at 
which several important railways originate. There are also a 
few merely local railways. Of the 115 counties in the State, it 
is stated that only seventeen are without railroads. The actual 
cost of road and equipment for the roads within the State has 
been about ^160,000,000. Of course, their stock and debts rep- 
resent a still larger sum. Recently combinations have been 
formed with great railway companies holding possession of trunk 
lines, by which much of the railroad property of the State will 
become more profitable. 

Population. — With the exception of Louisiana, Missouri Is the 
oldest State of " Our Western Empire," having organized as a 
State in 1820, and having been admitted Into the Union in 1821. 
The following table exhibits its population at various dates of Its 
history, their condition of race, color, birth, etc. : 

POPULATION OF MISSOURI. 



1810 

1820 
1830 
1840 
1850 
i860 
1870 



20,845 

66,586 

140,455 

383,702 

682 ,044 

1.182,012 

1,721,295 

2,168,804 



.390 9.4S5 17,227 
36,544 3°.o42 55,988 
74,128 66,327 114,795 
203,095 180,607 323, 
357,8321324.212 592,004 
622,201' 559, 8ii| 1,063,489 



607 

376 

569 

1,574 

2.618 



3,o" 
10,222 

25,091] 
58,240' 
87,422 



o rt 
c o 



604,522 76,592110 
3,572 114,931 1,021,471 160,541 1 18 



022,201! 559,011 j 1,003,489 3,572 114,931 1,021,471 100,541 IB, 
896,347: 824,948' 1,603,146 118,0711 none j 1,499,028, 222,267 26. 
,127,4241,041,380! 2,023, 568!i45,236i none ; 1,937,564 ; 211,2401 36 



32 




02 


210. 


15 


I 10. 


87 


173- 


44 


77- 


09 


73- 


34 


45- 


•34 


38. 



-go 



bn 3 

"-a 
bjoc 
c n . 

'^ S " 



43 

94 

18 

751273,157 138,2481262,157 

301446,397 249,2491290,778 

62 577,803 352,9981408,206 



There are several things worthy of notice in this table. One 



948 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



is, the marked disproportion at each census between males and 
females. This is very singular in a State as old as Missouri. 
Another is that Missouri, having been a slave State until 1863, 
there should have been so small a proportion of the African race 
there, never much exceeding ten per cent, of the entire popula- 
tion, and that after their emancipation their number actually de- 
creased. A third is that while the State is so orreat a thoroughfare 
for immigrants and offers such inducements to them, so small a 
proportion of its inhabitants should be of foreign birth, nevermore 
than thirteen per cent., and that the actual number is decreasing. 

Counties mid Cities. — There are 115 counties in the State, 
which had in 1870 a true valuation of ^1,284,922,897. Their 
present true valuation would probably exceed ^2,000,000,000. 

The following table gives the principal towns and cities of the 
State, with their population in 1870 and as far as reported in 
1880. St. Louis is considerably the largest city in " Our Western 
Empire," although somewhat less populous than its enterprising 
inhabitants hoped. Kansas City has grown very rapidly, and is 
now the second city in the State. 



CITIES. 


9 

cj 00 

g-.s 


c . 
2 

cj 00 


CITIES. 


d 

ri CO 


c . 


"Zl CO 

g-.s 


St Louis 


310,864 
32,260 

19.565 
10,125 

5.570 

5.555 
4.560 

4.373 
3.978 
3,585 
3.639 
3.678 


350,522 

55,813 
32,484 
11,074 


Booneville 


3.506 
3,184 

4,420 

2,945 
2,363 
2,236 
2,615 

2,554 
1,354 
2,602 
2,018 
1,514 


6,000 


Kansas City 

St. Joseph 

Hannibal 


Independence 

Jefferson City 

Warrensburg 

Canton 


St. Charles 

Springfield 


Columbia 


Sedalia 


Palmyra 


Lexington 

Chillicothe 


Pleasant Hill 

Rolla 

Mexico 


Cape Girardeau. ... 
Louisiana 


Iron Mount 


Macon 


Moberly 





St. Louis is a city of great enterprise, largely engaged in 
manufactures and in the sale of mining products, dairy products, 
meats and provisions, mining, agricultural and railroad machinery, 



LANDS FOR IMMIGRANTS. q^q 

locomotives, cars, wagons, Concord coaches, hollow-ware, and 
generally articles of steel and iron. Its schools and some of its 
institutions of higher learning are models in their way, and it has 
a deservedly high reputation for morality and business probity 
and honor. Its growth during the past decade has been some- 
what retarded by various causes, but it is now increasing with 
great rapidity. 

It is the point of departure for the great volume of travel and 
immigration to the Western and Southwestern States and Terri- 
tories, and with its rapidly growing daughter, Kansas City, on 
the western border, and St. Joseph on the northwestern, manages 
to secure for Missouri by far the largest part of the passenger 
and freight traffic of the Great West. 

Kansas City, as we have elsewhere said, has concentrated 
within its own bounds all the principal lines traversing the West, 
Northwest and Southwest. Its growth has been very rapid, rising 
from 32,361 in 1870 to 56,946 in 1880, and its schools, churches, 
public buildings and general improvement have kept pace with 
its growth in population. Much the same can be said of St. 
Joseph, Hannibal and Sedalia. They are all railroad centres of 
considerable importance, and are having a rapid growth. 

Lands for Immigrants. — Immigrants coming to the State of 
Missouri, who desire to buy and improve lands, will have their 
choice of the following, namely : 

I. There are 1,000,000 acres yet belonging to the United 
States, subject to sale and homestead entry. These lands lie 
principally south of the Missouri river, in counties heavily tim- 
bered, well watered, and are among the best fruit and pasture 
lands in the United States. It is desirable that these lands 
should be taken as homesteads by the poorer classes, who will 
improve them, and add to the taxable wealth of the State. These 
lands can be purchased at $1.25 per acre where they are not 
within ten miles of a land-grant railway, and at $2.50 or upwards 
where they are inside of that limit. They are also subject to 
entry under the homestead law, which will make the cost of a 
good farm of 160 acres from 5^25 to ^28, the title being perfect- 
ible after five years of residence and improvement. The Timber- 



Q50 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Culture and Desert Land Acts do not apply to public lands in 
Missouri. 

2. There are yet large bodies of swamp lands in different 
parts of the State. These lands are the richest alluvial lands in 
the world, which are subject to occasional overflow, which make 
the best meadow and pasture lands. 

3. Much of the land grant made by the general government 
to the Agricultural College remains unsold, and these lands are 
now in market. 

4. Of the lands belonging to the various railroads, which were 
granted them by the general government, a considerable quan- 
tity are yet for sale. These grants embrace some of the best 
agricultural lands in the State ; well located, accessible to market, 
with all the conveniences of an old settled country, of churches, 
schools and markets. 

5. There is a large amount of land in the State owned by non- 
residents, speculators, widows and orphans, who are anxious to 
part with it. 

6. There are many large farmers in the State who are anxious 
to divide their farms to enable them to reduce these farms to 
cultivation, and still others who through age, infirmity and other 
causes, desire to change their business, and will put their land 
into market at a low rate. 

7. There are a great many persons whose property is mort- 
gaged, and who are compelled to make sale of it, to save their 
equities that remain after the payment of the liens. 

The entire aggregate of these lands amounts to several million 
acres, and they are scattered through every part of the State. 
The products of these lands embrace everything which may be 
grown in the temperate zone, from the apple to the orange and 
fig, from flax to cotton, from the Irish potato to the yam. 

The advantaofes of these lands over those more remote from 
the great markets, from schools, churches and the social sur- 
roundings which make homes desirable, must be obvious ; yet 
these lands have been taken up slowly, while those of Kansas, 
certainly no more intrinsically desirable, and many of them less 
so, have found ready purchasers. The reasons for this difference 



lV//y IMAIIGRATION HAS NOT BEEN LARGER. g^ I 

in the past have been : The Missouri lands have been much less 
thoroughly advertised ; the State has not kept itself before the 
public to so great an extent, and has, indeed, seemed wholly in- 
different to accessions by immigration ; the State debt was some- 
what large, and with the county and city debts made taxation 
heavier ; the lands, though fairly fertile, were badly cultivated, 
and gave to the new-comers an impression of their barrenness 
and worthlessness, which facts did not justify ; the farming in 
many parts of the State was very slovenly and inefficient. On 
as good lands as those of Missouri, the average yield of wheat 
should never be as low as eleven bushels to the acre ; of corn, 
twenty-six bushels to the acre, or of potatoes seventy-five bushels 
to the acre ; yet these were the reported averages of 1878. The 
efforts of the State Agricultural Society have produced some 
improvements in these crops, but they are, even now, much below 
what they ought to be. The educational advantages in the 
country were much inferior to those of the neighboring States of 
Iowa and Kansas, whereas they ought to have been much better 
than in those States. There was, moreover, hancrino- about the 
State the old taint of slavery. The slaves had been emancipated 
ten, fifteen, sixteen years before ; but the thriftless, indolent, reck- 
less, and sometimes ruffianly spirit engendered by it, still re- 
mained in some degree, and this spirit repelled immigration. Il; 
is now more than half a generation since slavery was abolished, 
and most of these untoward obstacles have now disappeared. 
To-day Missouri is as good a State for the immigra'nt as any in 
the Great West, and better than some. Its climate, soil, markets 
and advantages are unsurpassed, and cordiality toward the 
stranger is no longer wanting, though perhaps not yet so warmly 
manifested as in some of the newer States ; but this will come in 
time. 

Educational Advantages. — The public schools of Missouri are 
in an anomalous condition. In the cities the schools are of a 
high order, and will compare favorably with those in any State 
or city in the Union. In St. Louis within the last decade, owing 
to an enormous estimate of more than 100,000 more inhabitants 
than the city contained, the school population was supposed to be 



P52 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

much larger than it really was, and the city superintendent and 
other officers were distressed because the scholars enrolled were 
but two-sevenths, and the actual attendance less than one-fifth 
of the supposed school population. They understand this better 
now. 

The country schools were, to a large degree, without system 
or order, and were as much below those of the neighboring 
States in all good qualities as those of the cities were beyond the 
same class of schools elsewhere. There are not quite 300 
schools of very high character in the State, most of them in the 
cities; the remainder, numbering nearly 8,200, are of very indif- 
ferent quality. In 1875, out of 7,224 school-houses in the State, 
2,164 were built of logs; 4,636 were frame buildings, and only 
424 brick or stone. The school fund is partly available, and 
partly at present unavailable. About ^3,000,000 are available, 
and ^7,300,000 unavailable now, but will eventually become so. 
The low condition, of the country schools is due in part to the 
indifference of a considerable portion of the people to education ; 
in part to the apathy of the legislature, and in part to the vague- 
ness and incompleteness of the school law. The superintendent 
is deserving of great credit for his perseverance and efficiency 
under circumstances of great difficulty, but his efforts have not 
been so thoroughly sustained by the legislature as they should 
have been. 

The following are the school statistics of the State for 1878, 
the last year whose report is published : School population, 
688,248 ; school enrolment, 448,033 ; number of ungraded school 
districts, 8,142 ; number of graded school districts, 279 ; number 
of school-houses, 8,092 ; estimated value of school-houses, $8,32 1 ,- 
399 ; average school year in months in graded school districts, 9 ; 
in all the districts, 5 months ; total number of teachers employed, 
11,268 ; total wages of teachers, ^2,320,430.20; average wages 
of teachers per month, males, %'-)^.'}i^\ females, ^28.09; average 
wages of teachers per month in graded schools, males, ;^87.8i ; 
females, ^40.73. 

Revenue. — From interest on State permanent fund, $174,- 
030.15; from one-fourth the State revenue collections, $363,- 



EDUCATION IN MISSOURI. gr j 

276.32 ; from county and township permanent funds, $440,- 
191.37; from district taxes, ^2,446,910.71 ; total, ^3,424,408.55. 

Permanent Funds. — State fund, "^2,909,457.1 1 ; county fund, 
^2,388,368.29 ; township, or sixteenth section fund, ^1,980,678.51 ; 
total, ^7,278,046.80. 

There are five normal schools in the State, besides normal de- 
partments in several of the colleges. There is one of these 
(Lincoln Institute) in Jefferson City for the instruction of colored 
teachers, which receives ^5,000 a year from the State. The ap- 
propriations to the other normal schools are ^7,500 each per 
annum. The State University at Columbia, v/ith a School of 
Mines and Metallurgy at Rolla, has ten different departments or 
courses, in two groups, academic and professional. The Univer- 
r;ity receives ^19,500 annually from the State, and the School of 
Mines, ^7,500. Washington University, at St. Louis, has de- 
partments of science, medicine and law, besides its academic 
course. There are also fifteen other colleges, four of them Ro- 
man Catholic, three Methodist, and the rest under the control of 
other denominations, four of medicine, one of dentistry, and one 
of pharmacy, beside those which are connected with the State Uni- 
versity and Washington University. There are special institu- 
tions for deaf mutes, for the blind, for orphans, the aged, etc., etc. 
Most of these receive liberal appropriations from the State. The 
educational condition of the State, as a whole, is improving, and 
will in a few years attain to as high a standard as that of the 
adjacent States. 

Religious Denominations and Churches. — About 315,000, or 
one-seventh of the population of Missouri, are members of 
churches, and two-thirds of the population, say 1,575,000, are 
adherents, more or less pronounced, of these churches. The 
Baptists have the largest number of churches and church edifices, 
but are followed very closely by the Methodists, who are, how- 
ever, divided into Northern and Southern. The Methodist 
membership is a few hundred more than the Baptist, and their 
adherent population is about the same — not far from 375,000. 
The Roman Catholics count all their adherent population as 
members, and report about 275,000, but their church property, 



QK . OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

including their costly cathedral and churche3 at St. Louis, is esti- 
mated at about ^4,300,000, or double that of the Methodists or 
Baptists. The other denominations in their order of churches, 
membership and church property, are regular Presbyterians, 
Christians and Disciples, Cumberland Presbyterians, Lutherans, 
the Protestant Episcopal Church, Congregationalists, United 
Brethren in Christ and Evangelical Association (both minor 
Methodist churches). Free V/ill Baptists, Reformed German, 
Unitarians, Friends, Universalists, Jews, New Jerusalem Church, 
and Union. The total amount of church property in the State 
exceeds ^15,000,000; the whole number of churches is about 
5,000, and of church edifices nearly 4,000 ; of clergymen and 
preachers about 2,900. 

Historical Dates. — First settlements in Missouri at or near St. 
Louis and Cape Girardeau, by the French, probably in 1720; at 
St. Genevieve about 1755. In 1775 St. Louis was a fur depot 
and trading station, with 800 inhabitants. In 1803 France ceded 
all this territory to the United States. In 1805 St. Louis was 
made the capital of the new Territory of Louisiana. In 18 10 
there were 1,500 inhabitants within the present limits of Missouri. 
In 181 2 the name of the Territory was changed to Missouri Ter- 
ritory. In 1820 the people prepajred and adopted a State Con- 
stitution. It was admitted into the Union as a State August 10, 
1 82 1, after a bitter and violent controversy in Congress as to its 
admission as a slave State, by an act known as the Missouri 
Compromise, which permitted slavery there, but prohibited it in 
all territory north of 36° 30' north latitude. This act was virtu- 
ally repealed in 1854. The people took part in the Kansas 
difficulties of 1854-59, and were very much divided in the civil 
war. Several severe battles were fought in the State. A new 
Constitution was adopted in 1865, and still another in 1875. 



TOPOGRAPHY OF MONTANA. 935 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Situation — Boundaries — Extent — Mountains — Timber — Lakes — Rivers — ' 
Geology and Mineralogy — Gold in Extensive Placers and Lodes — 
Silver — Copper — Lead — Iron — Other Minerals — Soil and Vegetation 
— Arable Lands — Grazing Lands — Timber Lands — Mining Lands — 
Desert Lands — Zoology — Climate — Blizzards — The "Chinook" Wind 
— Meteorology of Fort Keogh — Fort Benton — Helena — Virginia City 
— Mining — Enormous Yield of the Placers — Gold Lodes — Silver Lodes 
— The Stemple District — Last Chance Gulch, now Helena — Phillips- 
burg — WicKES — Butte — Peculiarities of the Butte Mines — Other Mines 
— Trapper District — Mining thus far almost Exclusively in Western 
Montana — Probabilities of Mines in Southern and Southeastern Mon- 
tana — Agricultural Productions — Testimony of Z. L. White — of Rob- 
ert E. Strahorn — OF Thomson P. McElrath — Enormous Crops, of Excel- 
lent Quality — Stock- Raising — Sheep-Farming — Breeding Horses and 
Mules — Gov. Potts' Experience — Manufactures— Objects of Interest 
— The Madison River — The Upper Yellowstone Valley — The Struggle 
of the Waters to Force a Passage Through — Other Wonders — Rail- 
roads — Best Routes for Immigrants at Present — Indian Reservations 
and their Population — Population of Montana Counties and Assess- 
ment — Principal Towns of Montana — Prices of Articles of General 
Use — Average Wages — Education — Religious Denominations — Con- 
clusion. 

Montana Territory is a central Territory of the northern belt 
of States of "Our Western Empire." About four-fifths of its 
area lies east of the Main Divide of the Rocky Mountains. Be- 
tween this Main Divide and the Bitter Root Mountains, which 
are a second range of the Rocky Mountains, and form the 
boundary between Montana and Idaho, is a broad, elevated 
valley, through which flows Clarke's fork of the Cokimbia river. 
East of the Mainy Divide there are several isolated mesas or pla- 
teaus, such as the Snake's Head, Beque d'Otard, Bear's Paw, 
Little Rocky Mountains, the Snow Mountains and Bull Moun- 
tains farther south. In the southeast there are several short 
ranges extending northvi^ard from Wyoming, and part of them 
apparently connected with the Black Hills. These are, begin- 



QC6 ^UR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

ning with the west, a short spur from the Big Horn range, the 
Wolf Mountains, Tongue River Mountains, and the Powder River 
rang-e, which consists of four or five chains of hills of no g^reat 
elevation, on both sides of the Powder river and its tributaries, 
and Cabin creek, all affluents of the Yellowstone. The valleys 
of the Missouri and its three constituent streams, the Madison, 
Jefferson and Gallatin, of the Yellowstone and its numerous 
tributaries, of Clarke's fork, the Milk river, Maria's river, Flathead, 
Musselshell and other rivers, affluents of the Missouri or the 
Yellowstone, are fertile and level or rolling lands, somewhat ele- 
vated, but not cold or bleak. The timber of Montana is peculiar, 
there being very little hard wood; if deciduous, the trees are 
almost wholly willow, poplar, linden and cottonwood ; the only 
exception being on Tongue river, near the southern boundary, 
where there are large bodies of oak ; if evergreens, pine, spruce, 
fir, cedar and balsam. The native grass is mainly the bunch grass, 
which grows to the height of four or five feet, and is the most 
nutritious of all the native grasses of this region for cattle, fatten- 
ing them more thoroughly than corn or barley. Flowers are 
abundant in their season in all the valleys. 

Montana is bounded on the north by British Columbia ; on the 
east by Dakota ; on the south by Wyoming and Idaho ; on the 
west by Idaho, from which it is separated by the Bitter Root 
Mountains. It lies between the parallels of 44° 6' (its southwest- 
ern corner only extending below 45°) and 49° north latitude ; 
and between 104° and 116° west longitude from Greenwich. Its 
greatest length from east to west along the 48th parallel is over 
700 miles; and its greatest breadth near the 113th meridian is 
about 340 miles. Its area is 143,776 square miles, or 92,016,640 
acres. 

Mountains, Lakes, Rivers, etc, — Montana is appropriately 
named, for mountain ranges, spurs, isolated peaks and hills con- 
stitute a large portion of its surface. Yet between, around and 
among these mountains are a great number of as lovely valleys 
as the sun ever shone upon. The mountains, unlike those of 
Idaho, are not, with a few exceptions, bare, with steep and inac- 
cessible sides, but rounded summits, covered either with grass 



MOUNTAINS AND RIVERS OF MONTANA. gcy 

or timber to the very top. They are admirably adapted to 
grazing, and of all the lands of "Our Western Empire," Montana 
is likely to be most completely the grazier's paradise. The sum- 
mits are none of them so lofty as some of those in Idaho or 
Colorado, none of them reaching ii,ooo feet. There are three 
peaks in the Yellowstone Park which are credited, not all of them 
correctly, to Montana. Of these Electric Peak is 10,992 feet; 
Mount Washburn, 10,388 feet, and Mount Doane, 10,118 feet. 
Aside from these there are but six peaks above 9,000 feet in 
height. These are: Emigrant Peak, 10,629; Ward's Peak, 10,- 
371 ; Mount Delano, 10,200; Mount Blackmore, 10,134; Old 
Baldy, 9,711, and Badger's Peak, 9,000 feet. There are four 
passes over the Rocky Mountains within the limits of the Terri- 
tory : Cadott's pass, between the 47th and 48th parallels, 6,044 
feet high ; Deer Lodge pass, between the same parallels, 6,200 
feet; Lewis and Clarke's pass, 6,323 feet, and Flathead pass, in 
the north of the Territory, 5,459 feet. The general elevation of 
the Territory is from 2,500 to 3,000 feet. 

Montana is not, like Minnesota, a land abounding in lakes. 
There are not more than ten or twelve in the Territory ; of these 
Flathead lake is the largest, and Grizzly Bear lake, a triangular 
lake in the western part, nearly north of Helena, the most pecu- 
liar in form. 

Montana is certainly well supplied with rivers, though portions 
of it may need irrigation. The Missouri, including its head 
waters, has a course of more than 1,200 miles in this Territory; 
the Yellowstone, its largest affluent, about 850 ; Maria's river, 
Milk river, Breast or Teton river. Rolling Branch and Park river 
are the principal tributaries of the Missouri on its north bank ; 
on its south bank it receives Red Water, Elk Prairie and Big Dry 
creeks, and the large and important Musselshell river, the Judith 
river and many smaller streams, besides the three forks, Jeffer- 
son, Madison and Gallatin, which unite to form the Missouri. 
The Yellowstone, rising in Yellowstone lake in the National 
Park, has numerous affluents, especially on its south bank; among 
these are Clarke's fork, Pryor river, the Big Horn or Wind river, 
Rosebud creek, Tongue river, the Powder river with its numerous 



QCg OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

branches, and Cabin creek. In the valley, between the Rocky 
and Bitter Root Mountains, the Clarke's fork of the Columbia 
river has a course of about 300 miles, and the Lewis fork or 
Snake river, another affluent of the Columbia, has its source in 
Yellowstone National Park, and perhaps within the bounds of 
Montana. The Kootenai, probably still another tributary of the 
Columbia, has its head waters in Northwestern Montana. Clarke's 
fork has two or three affluents of considerable size, the most 
important of which are the Missoula and the Flathead river; the 
latter passes through Flathead lake. Nearly all these rivers 
furnish abundant water-power. 

Geology and Mineralogy. — The volcanic action in the past, and 
the repeated epochs of upheaval, have made the geology of Mon- 
tana somewhat involved, but some simple explanations will give 
the reader a tolerable understanding of it. In the early geologic 
aofes, the eastern half of Montana seems to have been a shallow 
sea, and its deposits w^ere of chalk and the chalky limestones of 
the cretaceous period. These cretaceous deposits were suc- 
ceeded farther west by the rocks of the Wealden and Jurassic 
periods — limestones, sandstones and shales, and during their 
deposition, as well as that of the cretaceous rocks farther east, 
there was a great abundance of the lower forms of animal life 
of gigantic size, mollusks and radiate animals, and some fish. 
The ammonites, conchifers, gasteropods, terebratulse and other 
radiates and mollusks found in these rocks are among the 
largest of these fossils ever discovered. Fossil plants are also 
plentiful, and, in the Wealden, fossil insects, reptiles and fish 
abound; at the western limit of these beds there are narrow belts 
of Silurian rocks. Over all the Rocky Mountain region, in the 
Bitter Root range and the valley between, as well as in occa- 
sional patches east of the mountains, especially in the isolated 
mountains and buttes of Central Montana, we have evidence of 
repeated and violent convulsions of nature, and the ejection of 
vast quantities of lava and of molten azoic and metamorphic 
rocks through the superimposed strata. There were at one time 
numerous active volcanoes in this region. The repeated up- 
heavals and their time of activity was probably mainly during the 



GEOLOGY AND MINERALOG Y. qCq 

tertiary period, though a later upheaval occurred in the post- 
tertiary or quaternary period, perhaps almost within historic 
times. As a result of this action, the whole of the Rocky Moun- 
tain summits and those of the Bitter Root Mountains, Bear Paw, 
Great and Little Belt, Crazy, Judith, Snowy and Highwood 
Mountains, are composed of eozoic rocks, granite, porphyry, trap, 
etc., and contain many veins and lodes of gold, silver, copper, 
lead and zinc, and possibly platinum and quicksilver. The course 
of these veins, as well as the regular position of the stratified 
rocks, is greatly disturbed and deranged by the frequent dikes 
of porphyry, trap and obsidian which have intruded upon the 
others when in a state of fusion. 

Bordering these igneous rocks we find belts of Silurian rocks, 
and beyond these the Jurassic and Wealden beds, often overlaid 
by either tertiary or post-tertiary deposits, and these by allu- 
vium. Farther south, in the Yellowstone Park, we find abundant 
evidence that volcanic action, though feebler now than formerly, 
has not yet ceased. After the volcanic action of which we have 
spoken, Montana must have presented the appearance of a series 
of large fresh water lakes whose shores were the summits of the 
present mountain ranges. From these mountain slopes came 
extensive glaciers, as the elevation was greater than now after 
many ages of denuding action and the intense cold of that time 
favored the formation of these glaciers, which carried down in 
the glacial deposits large quantities of gold and silver, and thus 
formed those immensely rich placers which have yielded such 
vast quantities of gold. While the glaciers, by their denudatory 
action, reduced the mountains and cut them into the most fan- 
tastic shapes, there must have been also a gradual subsidence of 
these elevated plains, and this subsidence rendered the climate 
milder, and thus the ice of the glaciers, melting the moraines or 
debris, were deposited along their course. The boulders scat- 
tered by these glaciers are found all over the western half of 
Montana, and to a considerable extent in the southeast also. 
Eastern and Northeastern Montana, having been originally the 
bed of a lake, have not undergone so many changes, and the super- 
ficial geology is later ; the tertiary and post-tertiary deposits are 



q5o our western empire. 

the surface rocks of this region, though there are occasional out- 
crops of the cretaceous rocks. It is a disputed point whether 
the Hgnite or brown coal of the region lying west of the Little 
Missouri river and extending almost to the Rocky Mountains, 
and from the Black Hills nearly to the British line, belongs to 
the tertiary or to the cretaceous epoch, but the opinion of the 
most eminent geologists is in favor of its being a tertiary deposit. 
It is a very good coal, and is coming into demand largely not 
only for the Northern Pacific Railway, which traverses it for hun- 
dreds of miles, but for domestic purposes, for which purpose it 
is far better than the cottonwood and linden firewood, and is less 
than half the price of wood. 

The mineral wealth of Montana is very great. The whole re- 
gion lying west of the Big Horn, Musselshell and Milk rivers, 
comprising fully three-fifths of the Territory, is full of gold and 
silver. The placers and gold lodes of this region lying west of 
the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, comprising not more than 
one-fourth of the Territory, have yielded in gold since 1863 
about $140,000,000 in gold and $10,000,000 or more in silver. 
Eastern Montana, except perhaps in the southeast, is better 
adapted to agriculture and grazing, though this, as we have said, 
includes extensive beds of coal. Of other minerals, copper, lead 
and zinc are found extensively, the last two generally in connec- 
tion with silver. There are immense beds of iron ores. Petro- 
leum has been discovered at several points. The silver ores of 
Montana belong to the refractory class, and the principal obstacle 
in the way of a much greater annual yield from the rich silver 
mines of Montana has been due to this very refractoriness. The 
ores averaged perhaps sixty-five to seventy-five ounces of silvc/, 
and from twenty to forty-five per cent, of lead to the ton, but in 
the various processes necessary for their reduction — processes 
which could only be conducted at Omaha, Newark, N. J., or 
Freiberg, Germany, and the enormous expense of their trans- 
portation to a railroad, the nearest being about 300 miles distant, 
and the freight very heavy, while the reducing processes were 
also expensive — there was a necessary expenditure of from $108 to 
$114 per ton, and the returns did not come in under from four 



SOIL AND VEGETATION. q6i 

to six months from the time of shipment of the ore. Under these 
circumstances the mining companies lost money on all ores which 
did not yield at least 140 ounces of silver to the ton, and even on 
150 ounces they only made a mere pittance. Several attempts 
were made to establish reduction works at some point in the 
Territory, but owing to the immense cost of their transportation 
and bad management afterwards, they all proved failures. The 
last effort was made in 1879 at Wickes, and has proved success- 
ful, and as the Utah and Northern Railroad now traverses this 
part of the Territory, and the Northern Pacific will soon be there, 
the days of costly transportation and high cost reduction have 
come to an end. 

Soil and Vegetation. — In the western, central and southern 
portions of the Territory, the land along the valleys adjacent to 
the streams is rich and well adapted to agriculture, large crops 
of grain, vegetables, etc., being produced with little or no irriga- 
tion. The soil of the table lands is generally good, only re- 
quiring irrigation, for which abundant water can be had, to pro- 
duce largely; while the foot hills are covered with an abundant 
growth of nutritious grasses extending to the timber line. In 
the northern and eastern portions of the Territory are vast tracts 
of so-called Bad Lands; but these have a much worse name than 
they deserve, many portions of them being covered with grasses 
more or less abundant, and affording grazing to large herds of 
buffalo, antelope, etc., and where there are stock farms near, to 
cattle also. The Territory is well timbered throughout, though, 
as we have already said, the soft woods, whether evergreen or 
deciduous, predominate largely. There are some small groves 
of ash, and large bodies of oak have lately been discovered on 
the head waters of Tongue river, near the southern boundary. 
The forests In the immediate vicinity of the settlements have suf- 
fered somewhat from the wanton depredations of settlers, who 
often destroy half a dozen small trees in obtaining one of requi- 
site size for their purposes ; but even In those sections, where 
the hillsides have been stripped entirely bare, there Is a sturdy 
and flourishing second growth. The loss from forest fires is far 

greater than from any other source, but as the country becomes 
61 



q52 our western empire. 

more settled, and the Indians, who are most careless with fire, are 
kept upon their reservations, these will become less frequent. 
Until the present year (1880), there being no railroad for the 
transportation of grain out of the Territory, and the steam- 
boat navigation interrupted by falls and rapids, there was no ex- 
port demand for Montana grain. This is all changed now ; the 
Northern Pacific enters the Territory from the east, and is already 
near Powder river, while the Utah and Northern is already at 
Helena, and will probably go further, and the Pend d'Oreille 
Division of the North Pacific, which communicates directly with 
the Pacific through the Columbia river, will soon be stretching 
down the valley of Clarke's Fork. With these three outlets the 
agricultural lands of Montana will be rapidly taken up, and there 
is no better land for agricultural crops in the world. The yield 
per acre of grain, vegetables, etc., with irrigation where it is 
needed, and without it where it is not, is very large, and the quality 
is of the best. Montana wheat especially is unexcelled; careful 
analysis has demonstrated that it contains a larger amount of 
both the flesh and fat producing constituents than any other, and 
the weight is from sixty-four to sixty-nine pounds to the bushel 
(the standard being sixty), and the average yield from thirty to 
forty bushels. The Territory will not only be self-sustaining in 
respect to its cereals, but will have for many years to come a large 
supply for exportation. 

Zoology. — The larger game animals are abundant in Montana. 
This is one of the few remaining haunts of the buffalo, which is 
now found in considerable numbers both north of the Missouri 
and south of the Yellowstone. The moose is seen, though not 
in laro-e numbers, in the mountain o-orees. The elk roam in 
large herds on the mountain slopes and in the valleys, as do the 
two species of deer. The Big Horn or Rocky Mountain sheep 
and the antelope are at home all over the Territory. Bears, 
badgers, gray wolves, panthers, beaver, otter, marten and mink, 
are found in the forests and streams in great numbers, and are 
largely captured for their pelts. In the mountain streams are 
an abundance of salmon trout, brook trout and grayling ; and 
in their season the rivers and lakes are alive with wild geese, 



ZOOLOGY AND CLIMATE OF MONTANA. q6j 

brant, ducks of numerous species, and teal. The birds of prey 
are less numerous than farther south, though there are two 
species of eagle and many hawks and owls. Song birds are 
abundant. 

Climate. — " In a general way," says Mr. Thomson P. McElrath, 
in his excellent little volume on the Yellowstone valley, just pub- 
lished, " the climate of Montana may be compared to that of the 
western sections of the Middle States. The summers are very 
warm, but, as a rule, the winters are far from being rigorous. 
The mean annual temperature of the valleys of Montana is 48°, 
which is higher than that of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin or Iowa, and only a little lower than that of Ne- 
braska, Illinois and Ohio. Owing to the purity and dryness of 
the atmosphere, the heat, which is in the ascendency during five 
months of the year, is seldom oppressive. There is a reduced 
tendency to perspire, and out-door exercise with the mercury at 
100° is not nearly so uncomfortable as it is in the East under 
considerably lower conditions of caloric. A brief rainy season 
sets in annually, in April or May, lasting with considerably more 
persistency than in corresponding latitudes on the Missouri river, 
until the middle of July, under the refreshing influence of which 
vegetation receives a wonderful impulse. The same amount of 
rain distributed through the whole year would be of little value 
to the agriculturist. During the rest of the year rain seldom 
falls in large quantities." * 

The average mean temperature of Helena, Montana, which is 
1,000 feet higher than many of the valleys, is 44.5 degrees; 
that of six stations in Minnesota for the same time 41.6 degrees; 
the amount of rain and melted snow at Helena, 22.36 inches; in 
Minnesota, 27.89 inches. The average temperature of the winter 
months at Helena is 23.7 degrees; of Minnesota, 21.3 degrees. 

* In the first part of this volume we animadverted with some severity upon some papers pub- 
lished in the North American Review and the New York Tribune, by Colonel (now Brigadier- 
General) Hazen, U. S. A., in relation to the climate, rainfall and fertility of Montana. These 
papers have brought upon General (Colonel) Hazen a large but just measure of opprobrium, 
because he wrote without any thorough acquaintance with the actual climate and character of 
the region he was denouncing, and because many of his statements in regard to it have been effec- 
tually disproved. His recent appointment as Chief Signal Service Officer may convince him of 
his errors. 



q54 0^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The mean annual temperature of Maine and New Hampshire 
for six years (from 1866 to 1872) was 43.7 degrees ; of Vermont. 

43.2 degrees; that of the valleys of Montana, 48 degrees; yet 
half of Maine and nearly the whole of Vermont and New Hamp- 
shire are below the 45th parallel, which forms Montana's south- 
ern boundary. The mean annual temperature of Wisconsin for 
five years (1866 to 1871) was 44.8 degrees; of Michigan, 45.8 
degrees ; of Iowa, 46.4 degrees ; Massachusetts and New York, 

47.3 degrees ; Connecticut, 47.6 degrees ; Nebraska, 48.6 de- 
grees ; Illinois, 49.9 degrees; Ohio, 51.2 degrees. 

The Missouri river at Helena is thoroughly open a month 
earlier each spring than at Omaha, 500 miles further south. The 
rainy season is in June, while the amount of rainfall is three- 
fourths that of Minnesota. 

The winters are generally open, the long nights at that season 
being quite cold, but the days brilliant and far milder than would 
be expected in so high a latitude. The dryness of the atmosphere 
likewise prevents the cold from being as severely felt as it is in 
damp climates. The snow fall in the valleys is in most winters 
quite light, and after falling it is quickly melted or carried off by 
evaporation. The army officers stationed at Fort Keogh declare 
that until the past winter they have never enjoyed sleighing on 
the prairies for a week at a time, except occasionally in March, 
when the clear weather which had prevailed almost unbrokenly 
since the previous rainy season gave way to a short period of 
cold squalls accompanied by snow. These wind storms are liable 
to occur at any time during the year, resembling in the sudden 
lowering of temperature which accompanies them the chilling 
" northers " of the Gulf of Mexico, and occasionally equalling in 
their vehemence and abrupt subsidence the hurricanes which pre- 
vail on our South Atlantic coast yearly, from the middle of Au- 
gust to the middle of September. 

Another phenomenon of a more agreeable character witnessed 
frequently in the winter season is the occurrence of the so-called 
" Chinook wind," a balmy zephyr, which, wafted from the Pacific 
Ocean and penetrating the gaps and passes of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, converts winter cold into summer warmth so suddenly that 



BLIZZARDS AND '< CHINOOK" WINDS. ggc 

sometimes a foot depth of snow will evaporate and disappear 
under its influence in the course of a single day. This is the 
realization of the "Japan current" theory, and while it prevails, 
it fully justifies that idea. One writer says: "I have known a 
foot of snow on the level to fall during- the night and every patch 
of it to be melted before noon of the next day; and there are 
open spells in mid-winter, often lasting m.any days, when the 
trapper is comfortable without a coat over his woollen shirt," 
General Miles and others at Fort Keogh testify to similar facts. 
The winter of 1879-80 was exceptionally cold and protracted. 
From the end of November to the middle of March there was 
almost continuous sleighing in the lower Tongue river region, 
though the snow was not deep and the mercury, ranging in the 
vicinity of zero for several weeks, reached on one occasion, and 
probably only momentarily, on the night of December 24, 1879, 
as low a point as — 57°. The Indians about Fort Keogh declared 
emphatically that they had never known the cold weather before 
to be so intense and so long continued. Notwithstanding the 
remarkably low temperature which prevailed for so long a period, 
no extraordinary discomfort was experienced beyond a few frozen 
fingers and toes on the part of travellers and soldiers unavoidably 
exposed on the bleak prairie roads, and not a single instance has 
been announced of cattle perishing from cold on their snow-cov- 
ered pastures. The " Chinook wind " did not seem to manifest 
itself as efficiently as usual during that winter season. There 
was not much snow, however, in the valley twenty miles above 
Miles City; and eighty miles up the Tongue river the cold was 
not nearly so severe as that above recorded. Subjoined is a 
condensed summary never before published of the meteorological 
observations made at the United States signal station at Fort 
Keogh since the occupation of the valley by white residents. The 
observations were begun irt the middle of January, 1879. The 
table shows the highest and lowest temperature recorded during 
each month, the average daily temperature, the range of temper- 
ature in each month, and the total rainfall. 



966 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 
Themwmetric Observations at Fort Keogh, 1 875-80. 



TEMPERATURE. 



MONTH. 



Highest. Lowest. 



1879. 

■ January (from 13th) 36 

i February j 52 

March ] 76 

April 76 

May I 85 

i June 94 

I July 100 

{August I 97 

1 September i 96 



October. 

November. 

December,. 



1880. 



January.. 
February 
March 



90 

94 
42 

50 
54 

72 



II 
-15 

-25 
23 

30 
40 

50 
40 

33 
12 

- 5 
-46 

-18 
-19 

-24 



Mean 
temper- 
ature. 



32 
23 
40 
60 
66 
74 
83 
83 
71 
5S 
42 
2 



Range. 



Total rain- 1 
fall, Inches. 



Annual range, 146 degrees. 

Total rainfall and melted snow in 1879, 22.75 inches. 



25 
67 

lOI 

53 

55 
54 
50 
57 
63 
78 
99 



68 

73 
96 



.26 
.69 

.28 
20 

■75 
•23 
,90 

.84 
■44 
•47 
, 1 1 
.58 

■32 
■17 
■51 



Thefigures in the fifth column form a more effective refutation 
of the "barren land" theory than any argument that could be 
framed in words alone. But the collateral facts speak yet more 
emphatically than the figures ! 

In further illustration of the climate, we add the weather report 
from Fort Benton, Montana, which lies on or near the forty- 
eighth parallel : 



Weather Report at Fort Benton fro77i Jajiuai'y i, \%']2, to July I, 1879. 



] No. of fair clays 

i No. of cloudy days 

I Mean temperature of year. 

^'spi'ing 

I Summer 

Autumn 

Winter 



Average annual fall of rain 
or melted snow 



1872. 


1873- 


1874. 


1875- 


1876. 


1877. 


305 


291 


277 


289 


286 


300 


60 


74 


88 


76 


79 


65 


37-25 


42" 


42°.5 


43°-5 


30°.75 


4i°.oo 


11° 


2S" 


13" 


17" 


14° 


24° 


48° 


S2" 


56" 


SS° 


■54° 


,So° 


6i° 


6^" 


68° 


66° 


61° 


58° 


29° 


28° 


3,3° 


36° 


30° 


32° 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


17.00 


12.72 


23.76 


21.84 


20.64 


12.72 



1878. 



195 

169 

S°.oo 
37° 
55° 
64° 
36° 
In. 



First six 

months 

1879. 



no 

70 

21° 

58° 



Inches. 
21.60 



METEOROLOGICAL TABLES. 



967 



This shows an average of 275 fair days for each year. 
We also give from the Surveyor-General's office in Helena 
the following record of temperature and weather in 1878-9 : 

Record of Temperature at Helena, Montana, from July, 1878, to Jime, \%'](), inclusive, taken 
at the office of the Surveyor- General for Montana. 



Month. 



July, 1878 

August, 1878 

September, 1 878 

October, 1878 

November, 1878 

December, 1878 

January, 1879 I 5^ 

February, 1879 ^^ 

March, 1879 [ 71 

April, 1879 ] 70 

May, 1S79 I 77 

June, 1879 80 



For the year. 



98° 



50 

51 

30 

12 

22 

o 

-12 

-II 

8 

27 

30 

43 



74 

70% 
54^^ 
46% 
41% 
27 >^ 

26 

38>^ 
49 
53K 
59>< 



44.6 



24 

28 
16 
14 
23 
9 
23 
19 
24 
16 

14 
12 



I 

2 

10 

12 

5 

15 
5 
4 
4 
13 
12 



88 



I 

5 
13 

33 



We add also the — 

Meteorology of Virginia City, Montana, 1878. 



Year and 
Months. 


Tempekature. 


Moisture. 


Barome- 
ter. 


Winds. 


• 


3 5 

H 


ii 


c2 
2 0. 

i 


H 






c 
n 2 " 


Prevailing Winds 

in the 

Order of their Frequency. 


i Year 

■ January 

February 




92 
43 

64 

65 
70 

85 
92 
90 
88 
64 

46 




—•5 
—4 
10 
II 
19 
25 
35 
42 
50 
26 

9 
II 

—'5 




42.2 
23.1 
27.9 

39-8 
45-5 
53.0 
67.2 
69.2 
489 
38.9 
35-1 
17.7 



107 
47 
39 
53 
46 
45 
50 
50 
40 
62 
55 
48 
6x 


inches. 

20.g6 

0.45 

0.62 
o.gi 
1.83 

5I3 
3.78 
0.88 

2. 16 
1.36 
0.98 
0.31 
0.65 


perc 
54 
62 

63 
58 
57 
54 
48 
36 
45 
54 
59 
54 
72 


ent. 



5 

2 

2 



8 



9 

4 

5 

7 






inches. 
29,705 
29,661 
29.536 
29,657 
29.565 
29,668 
29,766 
29,745 
29,808 
29.771 
29,734 
29,777 
29,785 


Direction. 
Calm, S. E.,W.,S.W.,N.E. 
Calni.S. E..S. W., N. E. 
Calm, S. W., S. E., W. 
S. E., calm, S. \V., W. 
W., S. E., S. W.. E.,calm. 
Calm, S. E.,N. E., W.,S.W. 
Calm, S.E., W., N.W., N.E. \ 
Calm.S. E., W.. S.,N. E. | 
Calm. S. E., N. E., H., W. 1 
Calm.S. E..W..N. E. j 
Calm, W., N. W., S. W. 1 

Calm, S. E.. W. 
W., calm, S. W., N. W. 






June 

Tulv 


1 August 

September 

October 

November 

December 



Minmor, — It is matter of history that in 1852, a Scotch half- 
breed from the Red River country, returning from California, 



q58 our western empire. 

found gold on Gold creek, in Deer Lodge county. This was, of 
course, a placer, diough apparendy not a very rich one. Others 
who had heard of this find, in 1856 prospected Benetsee creek, 
in the same vicinity, and found some gold, as did another party 
who came thither in 1858 ; but being without provisions or tools, 
and the Indians being hostile, they soon abandoned the country. 
In i860, Henry Thomas, better known as "Gold Tom," sunk a 
shaft down to the bed rock on Benetsee creek, a depth of thirty 
feet ; but owing to his poverty and disadvantages for work, 
having but little food and but few tools, he only made about $1.50 
• a day. From i860 to 1863, the Stuart brothers, James, Granville 
and Thomas, a Mr. Anderson, M. Bozeman, S. T. Hauser, F. 
Louthan and others, were the principal pioneers in gold discov- 
eries in what is now known as Southwestern Montana. The 
earlier discoveries were all of placers, some of them exceedingly 
rich. Alder gulch, on which Virginia City is situated, was prob- 
ably the richest placer ever discovered in any part of the world. 
At first the product was from ^100 to ^200 a day for each man, 
and in the first five years after its discovery Alder gulch and its 
tributaries yielded on an average ^8,000,000 a year. The total 
product from this single placer up to the end of 1876 was $70,- 
000,000. Latterly it has fallen off to ^600,000 or ^800,000 a 
year. Silver Creek gulch, about twelve miles from Helena, and 
Last Chance gulch, upon which the town of Helena itself is situ- 
ated, have also proved very rich placers, the two yielding about 
<^i 6,000,000 since their discovery. Mining is still continued in 
these and other placers, and the advent of railroads into the re- 
gion has caused machinery and timber to be brought there at so 
much less expense, and the gold product sent to market at so 
much cheaper rates, that hydraulic mining on a most extensive 
scale is to be resorted to in all the best placers. The total product 
of gold from placer mining in the Territory has been variously 
estimated at from $120,000,000 to $140,000,000. It is difficult 
to determine the exact amount, as the returns of the placers and 
the quartz veins or lodes have not in all cases been kept separate. 
It is probably not less than $125,000,000. 

Quartz mining for gold began in Montana almost simultane- 



QUARTZ MINING IN MONTANA. g^ 

ously with that of the placers. The first lode located was discov- 
ered near Bannock, in Beaverhead county, in 1862, and the mine 
was called the Dakota. Mr. Warner, in his " History and Di- 
rectory of Montana," says that the decomposed quartz found 
near the surface of this vein was taken down the hill on which it 
was situated, to the creek, on pack animals, and the gold was 
there washed out. In the spring- of 1863 a small water-mill for 
crushing this quartz was completed. The stamps were made of 
old wagon-wheel tires welded together and had wooden stems. 
Other mills were subsequently erected, and gold in small quan- 
tities has been taken from this and other mines in the vicinity 
almost ever since. Gold quartz ledges were discovered in the vi- 
cinity of many other placer mines, and the ores have been worked 
on a small scale in different parts of the Territory. A few of the 
lodes have produced large quantities of bullion. The chief ob- 
stacles to the development of the gold quartz mines of Montana 
have been lack of capital, bad management due to want of expe- 
rienced superintendents, and the enormous cost of machinery. 
When freights from Chicago or St. Louis were never lower than 
five cents, and frequendy as high as ten, twelve or fifteen cents a 
pound, it cost two or three times as much to bring machinery into 
Montana as was paid for it at the place where it was manufac- 
tured, and a man not only had to have a good mine but consid- 
erable ready capital in order to be able to develop it and brino- 
it into a paying condition. Some of the most promising gold 
mining enterprises in this Territory have also failed on account 
of ignorance or extravagance in their management, and these 
failures have deterred capitalists, who at best were timid about 
investing their money in a country so difficult of access, from 
becoming interested even in the good properties. 

The principal mines of gold in quartz lodes are almost as 
numerous as the placers. After the Dakota, which still yields a 
fair amount, are the Union lode and others in Lewis and Clarke 
county, which have yielded about ^3,000,000; the Atlantic Cable 
lode, in Deer Lodge county, a very rich mine ; while there are 
mines which have paid well for a number of years at Unionville 
and the Park, four miles from Helena, at Silver Star, Summit, 



Q^o ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Alder, Meadow Creek, Iron Rod, Bannock, Radersburg, Pony, 
Boulder and Highland. But die richest quartz gold mines in 
Montana are those of the Stemple District, fifteen to twenty 
miles northwest of Helena. The famous Penobscot and other 
extensions of the Snow Drift lode are probably the most valuable 
gold quartz mines in the world. Mr. Nathan S. Vestel first de- 
veloped the Penobscot mine, which is on the summit of the main 
range of the Rocky Mountains. His first efforts in 1877 ^^^^ "ot 
meet with much encouragement, and late in the year he found 
himself ^7,000 in debt and in doubt where he could obtain the 
means of payment. But the three shafts he had sunk on the 
Penobscot claim began to show good results, and the first clean- 
ups from a little five stamp mill, which had been brought there, 
gave him ^20,000, with which he paid his debts and had ^13,000 
over. The yield now increased rapidly, some of the ore yielding 
$1,000 in gold to the ton, and the average being more than $100 
to the ton aside from the waste, which was considerable, as it was 
in very fine particles. In the summer of 1878 he sold the mine 
to Mr. William B. Frue, of Detroit, on terms from which he re- 
alized $350,000. It has proved a very profitable investment, 
yielding about $23,000 a month. Mr. Vestel immediately com- 
menced developing another mine, 900 feet below the Penobscot, 
which is yielding about $1 2,000 a month. It is called the Bel- 
mont. Other mines of this district and vicinity are the Blue 
Bird, Whip-poor-will, Black Hawk, Viola, Grey Eagle, Emma 
Miller, Mount Pleasant, Green Northern Light, Piegan, Humbug 
and Long Tom. These are all paying largely. The gold quartz 
mines have yielded since 1864 over $20,000,000; of the $162,- 
000,000 of the precious metals sent to market to the end of 1879, 
about $145,000,000 are gold and the remainder silver. 

The silver ores of Montana are mostly refractory, and have 
proved difficult of reduction, and in the past would only pay 
when they were very rich. Now the machinery, and concen- 
trating, stamping, smelting, wasting, chlorodizing, amalgamating 
and leaching works are all in the Territory and easily accessible by 
railway, and the silver ores, which are, many of them, very rich, 
will yield great profits to the mine-owners and ore reducers. 



SILVER MINING IN MONTANA. gprj 

The most important of these works are those of the Alta Mon- 
tana Company, which owns several mines also, at Wickes, about 
twenty-five or thirty miles southwest of Helena, and about mid- 
way between the Utah and Northern Railroad and the Rocky 
Mountain Division of the Northern Pacific. When these works 
were first established they proved a failure, but they have now 
been taken up by an enterprising company from the East, with 
large capital, and are achieving a grand success. The Colorado 
and Boulder Districts have a large number of silver mines, with 
very rich lodes, many of which will contribute to the supply of 
ores to be reduced at Wickes. Another extensive silver lode, 
the earliest one discovered in Montana, is in the district of Phil- 
lipsburg, in Deer Lodge county, nearly loo miles west-southwest 
of Helena, in the elevated valley between the main Rocky Moun- 
tain chain — the "Great Divide" — and the Bitter Root Moun- 
tains. This is on the surveyed route of the Rocky Mountain 
Division of the Northern Pacific. The Speckled Trout, the 
Algonquin and the Hope mine are the largest and most promising 
mines in this district. These have yielded somewhat largely of 
argentiferous galena, with considerable sulphur and other com- 
binations. The yield is from seventy-five to ninety ounces of 
silver to the ton. Owing to heavy expenses, these mines have 
not proved very profitable till recendy. But the most remark- 
able of all the mining districts is Butte and its vicinity, also in 
Deer Lodge county, but east of the Great Divide. The silver 
ores were first discovered in 1864 (or perhaps earlier), but the 
working of them could not be made profitable on account of their 
refractory nature and the great cost of transportation. They 
again attracted attention in 1874-5, and Butte City has a popu- 
lation of about 3,500, and in its immediate vicinity are twenty or 
more mines, all yielding well. The ores are of different kinds, 
and require different processes for their reduction. There is a 
silver-gold belt, with no copper, but some galena and oxide and 
carbonate of manganese. Above the water-line this is free mill- 
inof, and can be reduced with a moderate amount of labor. Below 
the water-line it is baser, and requires chlorodization and roasting 
for its reduction. The silver predominates, but there is a small 



0^2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

amount of gold mixed with it. The yield ranges from twenty-five 
to one hundred and eighty ounces of silver to the ton. One mile 
east of this is a belt of copper ore of great richness, but containing 
some arsenic. The yield is about 400 pounds to the ton. In a 
contrary direction, a mile and a half west of the silver-gold belt, 
just beyond the Butte, is an extensive lode of chloride of silver, on 
which several mines have been opened, but though apparently 
very rich, it has not yet been largely developed. There are now 
extensive reverberatory furnaces for smelting these ores, and 
when reduced to a matte carrying from 600 to 900 ounces of 
silver to the ton, they are sent to Denver to be parted. Most 
of the mines are what are known as surface mines ; that is, they 
do not penetrate below the water-line. Indeed, it was found that 
the ores rapidly depreciated in quality as they approached this 
line. The owners of the Alice mine, one of the best of the sur- 
face mines, had the courage, against the opinion of all the other 
miners, to go below the water-line, and, following the vein, to 
ascertain whether it would not improve as they reached deeper 
levels. They have expended ^600,000 on this experiment, all 
of which, however, had been made out of the mine, and at 300 
feet depth found the ore much better, and at 400 and 500 feet 
they were richer than at the surface. Encouraged by this they 
have proceeded to strike the vein at a depth of 800 feet. The 
silver deposits at Butte are believed to be more extensive than 
any yet discovered in Montana. The production of silver and 
gold at this camp to September, 1880, had been somewhat more 
than ^4,000,000, and is likely to be largely increased. 

Glendale and the Trapper district, situated in and around the 
Trapper Creek Canon, in Beaverhead county, but on the eastern 
side of the "Great Divide," has come into notice within the last 
four years, and is regarded by Mr. Z. L. White as one of the 
two successful silver camps of the Territory, Butte being the 
other. The mines which have proved most profitable are on 
White Lion Mountain, about 9,000 feet above the sea. The ore 
is found in a wide belt of dolomite or soft white limestone, lying 
between two limestone strata of a much harder texture. The 
bulk of the ore in these mines is decomposed, earthy, and easily 



PROBABLE EXTENSION OF MINING DISTRICTS. ^73 

mined with pick and spade. It consists of silver, copper, sulphur, 
lead, arsenic, antimony, aluminum and silica, with occasionally a 
little undecomposed galena. It yields on an average from eighty 
to one hundred and twenty ounces of silver to a ton. 

There are several copper mines in the Territory, one large 
deposit of copper ores being at Copperopolis, on the head waters 
of the Musselshell river. There is also a beginning of iron 
mining in the Territory. Coal mining is becoming a profitable 
pursuit along the Missouri and Yellowstone Divisions of the 
Northern Pacific Railroad. The mining products of Montana 
in 1879 were about ^10,000,000 — an amount which will soon be 
doubled. 

It is worthy of notice that all the vein and lode mining, whether 
of gold or silver, has been confined to the southwestern section 
of Montana, a region lying west of a line drawn southward from 
the junction of the Dearborn river and the Missouri, and striking 
the Yellow^stone at or near Fort Ellis, thence along the Yellow- 
stone to the Yellowstone National Park. It comprises both 
slopes of the "Great Divide," extends across the valleys beyond, 
and includes the eastern slope of the Bitter Root Mountains. 
That this is not the only part of the Territory which contains 
gold deposits appears from the fact that rich placers have been 
found in Missoula county, northwest 175 miles or more from 
Helena, and east and northeast of the Missouri river as far as 
the slopes of the Bear's Paw Mountains, northeast of Fort Ben- 
ton ; and where there are placers the gold and silver lodes are 
not far off. We may look confidently for further discoveries of 
both gold and silver in the detached and isolated mountains of 
the Territory, and very possibly extensive gold lodes in the 
Powder river range, in the southeast of the Territory, that range 
having strong geological affinities with the Black Hills. There 
have been some gold and silver lodes of rich promise recently 
discovered on Clarke's fork of the Yellowstone, about the middle 
of the Crow Indian reservation, and negotiations are now in 
progress with the Crows to cede this part of their reservation. 

Agricultural Productions. — Writers on Montana have gener- 
ally estimated its arable lands at 15,000,000, or at the utmost 



gy^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

16,000,000 acres ; but the recent reports of the Surveyor-General 
of the Territory, and of the missionaries and travellers who have 
been up the valley of the Yellowstone and through Eastern Mon- 
tana indicate that there are millions of acres which, with moder- 
ate irrigation, for which the facilities are abundant, will yield 
immense crops, and in fact a part are already yielding crops 
which astonish all beholders. Of the agricultural productions of 
the valleys and benches of Western Montana, the affluents of 
Clarke's fork of Columbia river, of the Jefferson, Madison and 
Gallatin, and of the Yellowstone and the upper Missouri, we will 
let Mr. Zimri L. White, the cautious and able correspondent of 
the New York Tribune, tell us : 

"The agricultural lands of Montana are the valleys. The 
main range of the Rocky Mountains extends through the Terri- 
tory generally in a northerly and southerly direction, and from 
this there are spurs and auxiliary ranges extending in all direc- 
tions and covering nearly the whole face of the country except 
in the north and east, where there are extensive elevated plains. 
Between these ranees flow hundreds of beautiful clear-water 
streams, some large and some small, and bordering these rivers 
and creeks are fine rich valleys from one to ten or twenty miles 
in width. The soil in the valleys is an alluvial deposit, and the 
land generally has a gentle and regular slope from the bed of 
the stream to the foot of the bench which separates the valley 
from the foot-hills. So true is this slope that in almost every in- 
stance water taken out in a ditch parallel with the stream can be 
made to flow over every foot of land below it. The benches, of 
which there are sometimes several and somedmes only one, are 
simply condnuations of the valley at a higher elevation. They 
frequently look like great terraces rising one above the other, and 
where the quantity of water in the stream and the fall are sufficient 
to make irrigation possible, the bench lands are found to I^e equally 
productive with the valleys proper. Behind the benches rise the 
foothills, with their rounded, grass-clad tops, now extended for 
miles and forming the divide between two streams, and again 
seeming to support a rocky, precipitous ridge that rises beyond 
them. 



THE FERTILE VALLEYS OF MONTANA. gye 

" Very few of these valleys are as yet settled. The Bitter Root 
Valley, in the west, where the farmers have become rich by the 
sale of their products to the government for use at the military 
post at Missoula, the Gallatin in the east, Prickly Pear, in which 
Helena is situated, Deer Lodge and Jefferson Valleys, have the 
oldest ranches, and until lately the largest breadth of land under 
cultivation. 

"Within the last year or two the immigration to the Yellowstone 
Valley and its tributaries has been very great. This is about 
650 miles long, and the average width of the valley which can be 
irrigated is about ten miles. It has only recently been safe for 
white people to go there, but the vigor with which the Northern 
Pacific Railroad has pushed westward during the past summer 
(this line will extend through the Yellowstone Valley for almost 
its entire length) has attracted many settlers, and I am told that 
there are already about 400 families there. I saw it reported 
early in the summer that General Sheridan told a Chicago re- 
porter that he saw on one boat in his late trip up the Yellow- 
stone twenty-seven threshing-machines bound for the very 
country in which General Custer lost his life in 1876, and which 
three years ago was one of the most remote and inaccessible 
sections of the country. So rapid has been the agricultural 
development of the Territory that Mr. R. H. Mason, the Sur- 
veyor-General of Montana, estimates that the acreage under 
cultivation this year is twice as great as it was in 1878, a part of 
the increase being due to the enlargement of the older farms, and 
a part to the opening of new farms. 

" In all the older settled portions of the Territory the ranchmen 
are, alniost without exception, remarkably prosperous. I have 
not visited the best agricultural sections of the country, nor shall 
I be able to do so. The area of the Territory of Montana is 
three times as great as that of the State of New York, and there 
is not as yet (in 1879) a single mile of railroad within its limits. 
Travel here is therefore very slow, and it would require more 
than one whole summer to see even the most important points. 
I did, however, ride through the Jefferson, Boulder and Deer 
Lodge Valleys, and spent an entire day in visiting a few repre- 



Q^5 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

sentative farms In the Prickly Pear Valley, so that I can speak 
from personal knowledge of what I saw in those. 

" The average yield of wheat in Montana is at least twenty-five 
bushels to an acre. Other writers have placed it at from thirty 
to forty bushels, and fifty bushels is by no means an uncommon 
crop; but taking the whole country together, I doubt if the farmer 
can depend upon much more than twenty-five. This is ten 
bushels or sixty-six per cent, more than what is considered a 
good crop in the great grain States of the Mississippi Valley. 
The wheat of Montana is also of a very excellent quality. An 
analysis of samples of Montana wheat made at the Agricultural 
Department in Washington shows eighteen per cent, more nitro- 
genous or flesh-producing matter than Minnesota wheat, and that 
bulk for bulk it weighed about six per cent. more. I have before 
me a sample of spring wheat of the crop of 1878, raised by Mr. 
Reeves in the Prickly Pear Valley, that averages to weigh sixty- 
four pounds to a measured bushel. Some of the crops of wheat 
that have been raised in Montana have been almost fabulous. 
Forty, fifty, and even sixty bushels to an acre, are not uncommon 
crops. Several years ago the State Fair Association offered a 
premium for the best acre of wheat raised that season, and the 
award was made to Mr. Raymond, of the Prickly Pear Valley, 
who had 102 measured bushels on a single acre. The committee 
who made the award were prominent citizens of Montana, and 
one of them has told me that the same year a farmer in the Gal- 
latin Valley raised an equally large average crop on a forty-acre 
lot, but as he could not show that he had more than 102 bushels 
on any single acre, the committee decided that he was not entided 
to the premium. 

" I have seen, in August this year, many fields of wheat, both 
standing and in the shock, in the country around Helena, and I 
have not seen one that appeared to have less than thirty bushels 
to an acre. In many fields the shocks of grain stood almost as 
thick as the sheaves in the fields of the Mississippi Valley." 

Mr. Robert E. Strahorn, in his " To the Rockies and Beyond," 
gives the following statement in regard to crops in different val- 
leys of Montana in 1878 : 



FARMIiVG IN MONTANA. 



977 



"As considerable has been said concerning large average 
yields of grain fields in Montana, the reader may be interested 
in noting a few names of farmers whose experiences for the past 
year or two have come under the observation of the writer. Fol- 
lowing are the names of several prominent farmers of different 
valleys, with size of fields, amount of grain threshed, the average 
yield per acre for one season, and the selling price of the crop : 



Name. 


Location. 


Field 

in 
acres. 


Crop and Yield — 
bushels. 


Av. per 

acre — 

bushels. 


Value of I 
crop. 1 


A. G. England 

Robert Vaughn 

M. Stone 


Missoula V.Uley 

Sun River Valley. . . 

Ruby Valley. . .' 

Yellowstone Valley.. 
Gallatin Valley 

Prickly PearValley. . 

Missouri Valley 

Deer Lodge Valley . . 

Gallatin Valley 

Reese CreekValley. . 
Ruby Valley 


1 60 
40 

4 
100 

8 

6 
23 
50 

23% 

II 

85 

48 

400 


Wheat, 7,000.. 
Oats, 2,000. . 
Oats, 410. . 
Wheal 6,000. . 
Oats, 600. . 
Oats, 620. . 
Wheat, 1,150. . 
Oats, 3,500. . 
Wheat, ■) , ^^„ 
Oats, 1 '-°° • 
Oats, 1,200. . 
Oats, 4,982.. 
Wheat, 2,200. . 
Wheat, 10,000. . 


50 

I02>^ 
60 

75 

103 h' 
50 
70 

45 
100 

57 
45 f 
50 


5^8,400 
1,200 

246 
7,200 

360 

362 
1,380 
2,100 

1,250 

720 ; 
2,989 1 
2,640 
11,000 


Brockway's Ranch. . 

Brigham Reed 

Marion Leverich.. . . 
William Reed 

Charles Rowe 

Con. Kohrs 

John Howe 

Robert Barnett 

S. Hall 





Mr. White continues : 

"Oats and barley grow as well as wheat. The average yield 
of oats to the acre is considerably greater than that of wheat, and 
the weight per bushel is much above the standard. Mr. Reeves 
gave me a sample of oats from his farm which he said would 
average to weight forty-six pounds to a bushel. General Brisbin 
says that Mr. Burton raised a field of oats which averaged loi 
bushels to an acre, and a field of barley on which there were 113 
bushels to an acre. 

"This is the bright side of the picture. On the other hand, it 
should not be forgotten that a considerable portion of the grain 
crop in certain portions of Montana is frequently destroyed by 
grasshoppers, and that there is reason to fear that for some years 
to come, and until the agricultural population of the Territory 
becomes much greater than now, these insect pests will make the 
business of grain-raising here somewhat hazardous. That the 
scourge of locusts has not been as serious as it might have been, 
nor as destructive as it would naturally have been expected to 
62 



9/3 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



be, is shown by the prosperous condition of all the farmers who 
have been established for a few years. Those in the neighbor- 
hood of the military posts, especially, have grown rich with 
wonderful rapidity. General Brisbin told me that the govern- 
ment has paid as much as ^4,000 to one farmer in a single year 
for grain and hay raised by himself, and that the income of a 
farmer in the neighborhood of Fort Ellis from the portion of his 
crops sold to the United States is frequently as much as ^3,000. 
Corn has not been very successfully cultivated in Montana, ex- 
cept in the warmer regions west of the main range of the Rocky 
Mountains. The hay cut in the Territory is wild, and costs the 
farmer who cuts it from $1.50 to ^2.00 a ton. 

"The soil of Montana seems to be especially fitted for the 
production of large crops of garden vegetables. The best market 
garden I ever saw, if abundant yield is a criterion, is that of Mr. 
Dorrington, in the Prickly Pear Valley. He sold ^2,000 worth 
of strawberries, and his root crops, such as turnips, onions, beets, 
parsnips, etc., seemed literally to fill the ground. He expected 
to take ten tons of onions from a small patch of ground, and 
would receive five cents a pound for them in Helena. The fol- 
lowing table, compiled by General Brisbin, shows what the pro- 
duct of the gardens cultivated by troops at Fort Ellis was in 

1877: 



Com.pany 

and 
Regiment. 


Number of 
acres. 


Bushels 
Potatoes. 


Bushels 
Onions. 


Bushels 
Turnips. 

Bushels 
Carrots. 


Bushels 
Beets. 

Bushels 
Parsnips. 


Bushels 
Salsify. 


Heads of 
Cabbage. 


F 2d Cav. 
G " 
H " 
L " 

Gyth Inf. 


1 

7 I/i ! T Ton CiCi 


60 
60 

35 

150 

40 


60 

35 
40 

25 
12 


50 1 10 
15 1 20 
40 1 25 




3,600 
2,500 
3.300 

2,300 

Soo 


//2 

5 
6 

5 
3 


C CO (^(^ 




j'-' 

1,200 

700 

3-^3 


130 

50 
6 









20 


3 


1 

j Totals, 


26>^ 


3.865 


336 


345 


172 


105 


75 


3 


12,500 



"The value of the several articles, if bought at the fort, would 
have been : Potatoes, $3,865 ; onions, $2,352 ; turnips, $85 ; car- 
rots, $206.40; beets, $315 ; parsnips, $225 ; salsify, $9.40; cab- 



FR UIT. GR O WING. g^n 

bag-e, $125. Total, ^7,182.80. The garden crops at Fort Ellis 
in other years have been fully one-third greater for the same 
amount of ground." 

The best farmers are turning their attention largely to fruit 
culture. This for many years to come will be the most profitable 
of crops, especially when it is not too far from a local market. 
Writing in 1879, ^I^- White said: "Very little fruit has yet been 
raised (/. e., has come to the bearing stage) in Montana. 

"It has always been supposed that the part of the Territory east 
of the Divide was too cold in winter for even the hardier kinds 
of fruit, and very few varieties have been planted. In the west, 
in the Bitter Root Valley, orchards planted a few years ago are 
just beginning to bear, and the rapidity with which the trees 
have grown and the manner in which they have wintered have 
led to the belief that fruit-raising may yet become one of the im- 
portant industries of that section. The fruit crop this year is not 
sufficiently large to affect the price, but the rapid extension of the 
Utah and Northern Railroad has had a very marked effect upon 
it. I bought nice grapes, peaches and pears in Helena for fifty 
cents a pound, which two years ago would have cost ^i. 

"As a rule the farms of Montana have to be irrigated, and in 
most of the valleys there is an abundance of water for this pur- 
pose. The cost of constructing good canals for the irrigation of 
160 acres of land is, of course, considerable, but when once com- 
pleted the expense of keeping them in order is very small, while 
the ability of the farmer to regulate absolutely the amount of 
moisture which his crop shall have, more than compensates 
for all the extra labor and expense which irrigation makes 
necessary. 

" While some of the valleys near the mining centres of the Ter- 
ritory have been pretty well settled up, none of them can be said 
to be full, while in other parts of the Territory the land is almost 
untouched. Finely improved farms near markets are now worth 
$20 or ^25 an acre; others a little more remote and not as well 
improved, sell for from ^5 to ^i 5 an acre, and there are hundreds of 
thousands of acres which can be obtained simply by settling upon 



q3o our western empire. 

them under the Homestead law, or pre-empted and purchased for 
^1.25 an acre." 

Mr. R, E. Strahorn gives the following statement of the pro- 
ductions of Montana in 1878. The crops of 1879 were of nearly 
double this amount, and those of 1880 larger yet. In 1878 he 
says: 

"The different valleys of Montana, with their mere sprinkling 
of farmers, produced about 400,000 bushels of wheat, 600,000 of 
oats, 50,000 of barley, i 2,000 of corn,* 500,000 bushels of vege- 
tables, and 65,000 tons of hay, the total value of agricultural pro- 
ducts being not less than §3,000,000, A ready market has 
always been afforded by the non-producing population in the 
mines and cities, and by the numerous military posts. The con- 
stant increase in the magnitude of mining and other operations 
in all parts of the Territory justifies the belief that any consider- 
able surplus of produce cannot be raised in Montana for years to 
come, and until that time prices must remain from fifty to one 
hundred per cent, higher than in the ' States.' The following 
were ruling prices paid farmers for produce in different Montana 
cities in January, 1879: flour, $4.75 per 100 pounds; oats, two 
cents per pound; wheat, two cents; hay, ^12 to ^14 per ton; 
potatoes, one and a half cents per pound ; onions, six cents ; 
butter, forty-five cents ; eggs, sixty to seventy-five cents per 
dozen ; squash, four cents per pound ; cheese, sixteen to twenty 
cents ; beets, four cents ; cabbage, five cents ; carrots, three and 
a half cents ; parsnips, four cents ; turkeys, %i to ^5 each ; spring 
chickens, ^6 to $7.50 per dozen." 

Mr. Strahorn has contrasted in the following table the prices of 
farm and dairy products in Montana and in Ohio, and the yield 
in the East with the yield in Montana. The contrast is very 
instructive : 



PRODUCTIONS OF MONTANA. 



981 



Kind of Produce. 



Bacon, per pound 

Barley, '' 

Butter, ** 

Beets, '* 

Beans, ** 

Cabbage, ** 

Carrots, " 

Cauliflower," 

Corn, " 

Cheese, '* 

Chickens, per dozen 

Eggs. " 

Flour, per cwt 

Green corn, per dozen... 

Hay, per ton 

Hogs, per cwt 

Oats, per pound 

Onions, " 

Parsnips, *' 

Potatoes, ** 

Peas, " 

Rye, " 

Squash, " 

Turkeys, live, per pound 

Turnips, per pound 

Wheat, " 



75 


rt 


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Ph 


Ph 


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5c 


15c 






i>4c 


2C 


19 bu 


35 bu 


1 6c 


40c 






>^c 


4C 






2C 


5c 


24 bu 


37 bu 


J4^c 


3c 




6,565 lbs 


IC 


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5c 


34 bu 


37 bu 


8c 


17c 






$2 00 


^6 CO 






i8c 


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25c 






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12 00 


iJ4;ton 


1J4; ton 


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10 CO 




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23 bu 


45 bu 


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208 bu 


385 bu 


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200 bu 


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i9,ooolbs 


7c 


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150 bu 


225 bu 


T-Y-Z^ 


20 


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30 bu 



"I fjrmly believe," he adds, "that no land under the sun offers 
such a favorable field for diversified rural industry as Montana. 
Take here, in connection with grain-raising, the production of 
poultry, eggs, butter, pork, vegetables, and similar items now^ 
almost unnoticed as ' not worth bothering about,' and the indus- 
trious and frugal farmer and housewife, managing as of necessity 
do those in the thickly settled States, should soon make them- 
selves independent. It is often almost impossible in winter to 
secure fresh eggs at seventy-five cents per dozen in Montana 
cities, and during the winter of 1878-79, I have seen ninety cents 
freely offered in Helena. Butter ranges from forty to sixty cents 



g§2 ^^^ WESTERX EMPIRE. 

the entire winter, and it was frequently impossible to secure a 
o-Qod article. The Montanian who desires to celebrate Christmas 
in the time-honored way — turkey and all — will make a sad inroad 
in his bank account; as for spring chicken — at from fifty cents to 
^i each — they might be of recent origin, but unfortunately that 
class is never numerous enough to go round." 

Dairy Farming and Stock- Raising. — Mr. R. E. Strahorn, after 
several years' residence in Montana, says, in regard to dairy 
farms : " Climate, pasturage, water and an unequalled market for 
dairy products, all combine to render dairying here one of the 
most lucrative and sadsfactory pursuits. Cows cost nothing for 
their keep, and the product of butter or cheese is clear gain, as 
the increase in stock will pay all expenses. I am personally 
acquainted with several Montana dairymen who commenced four 
or five years ago with rented cows and not a dollar of capital. 
They are to-day the possessors of fine herds, good ranches, and 
worth from $5,000 to $10,000 each — all made by good honest 
labor in the corral and milk-house. Dairy cows cost about $30 
per head, or they can be rented by giving the owner the Increase 
and one-fourth of the butter or cheese manufactured. Of course, 
dairying is generally carried on only during the seven or eight 
months of spring, summer and early autumn, as few provide 
even so much as hay for cold weather, and when winter comes 
the cows have .about enough to do to keep in good flesh. The 
number of cows milked in Montana in 1878 was placed at 10,000, 
and the product of butter and cheese in that year at 1.000,000 
pounds. Butter sold at from thirty-five to fifty cents per pound, 
and cheese at from fourteen to twenty cents." 

Mr. Thomson P. McElratli, a resident of the Yellowstone Valley, 
says that "in the winter of 1879-80 butter sold throughout the 
valley at from forty to fifty cents a pound, and home-made was 
not to be had even at those prices. Fresh milk brought ten 
cents a quart. The raising of poultry will also for a long time 
to come be a paying field for enterprise. Winter eggs are scarce 
at a dollar a dozen. Chickens for eating are correspondingly 
expensive, and the thanksgiving turkey, brought from Minnesota 
in a frozen state, is a very ineffective and costly reminder of that 



SrOCA'-KAISING IN MONTANA. 



home luxury by the time it is thawed out and ready for 



roastmg. 



For stock-raising Montana has unrivalled facilities. " It is,'* 
says Mr. Z. L. White, " the best grazing country in the world. I 
know that this is a bold assertion to make, but after seeing some- 
thing, during the past summer, of the best cattle-ranges of Kansas, 
Nebraska, Colorado, Dakota, Wyoming and Utah, which States and 
Territories turnish so large a proportion of the beef consumed in 
this country, and talking with stockmen, army officers and others 
whose acquaintance with the West is far more extensive than my 
own, and whose experience gives to their opinion great weight, 
I am certain that it is not an exaggeration. There may be por- 
tions of South America where cattle, sheep and horses can be 
raised at less expense than in Montana, but there certainly is no 
part of the United States where the same grade of animals, ready 
for market, cost the ranchman less money, while the price which 
they command is many times greater than in any of the Spanish 
American Republics, and but very little below that obtained in 
the less remote States and Territories this side of the Missouri 
river." 

In the classification of the area of 93.000,000 acres of Montana 
to the different purposes for which it could be utilized, after the 
assignment of 15,000,000 or 16,000,000 of acres to cultivation for 
farm purposes, an estimate, as we have already said, far below 
the fact, it has been customary to allot 38,000,000 acres to 
grazing lands, 14,000,000 acres to timber, and from 22,000,000 to 
25,000,000 of acres to mountain, inaccessible, and desert or bad 
lands. Both the grazing and timber lands have been much 
underestimated. There are " bad lands," that is, lands of creta- 
ceous rocks and soil, which, when eroded by the mountain torrents, 
have been cut into all sorts of fantastic shapes, and the clay strata 
exposed ; but a large part of these " bad lands " furnish some of 
the sweetest and best pasturage to be found anywhere, and under 
the influence of irrigation, for which there are ample facilities, 
they will yield enormous crops. There are volcanic "bad lands" 
in the southwest, around the head waters of the Jefferson, Madi- 
son and Gallatin rivers, and the Firehole river and basin. Part 



Qg< OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of these volcanic lands are unfit either for grazing or cultivation, 
but 10,000,000 acres is a very large estimate of all the worthless 
land in the Territory. Mr. Thomson P. McElrath, to whom we 
have already referred, and whose little work on the Yellowstone 
Valley, just published, is admirable for the valuable and interest- 
ing information it imparts, has discussed at considerable length 
in his book the fact and the causes of the superioiity of Montana 
over other regions of the West In stock-raising. He says : " It 
is universally conceded that Montana Is the best grazing country 
in the world. The beef raised there is superior, and more profit- 
able than that raised in the best cattle ranges of Texas, Kansas, 
Colorado, Nebraska, Dakota, Wyoming or Utah, which States 
and Territories furnish a large proportion of the beef consumed 
in this country. This superiority is largely due to the fact that 
the Montana grasses are more nutritious than any of the culti- 
vated grasses which grow elsewhere. The perennial bunch-grass 
{Bouteloiia oligostachya), superior to all others, shoots from the 
root in the spring, before the frost disappears, and clothes the 
whole country, except the mountains, in a velvety vesture of 
emerald. It grows In small bunches, close and fine, which aver- 
ao-e from six inches to one foot In helMit. The stalk, unlike that 
of tame grass, is solid, and the head Is well filled with small, firm 
seeds, full of nutriment. Exposed to the summer sun, and unaf- 
fected by frequent rains or early frosts. It begins to ripen about 
midsummer, and in the early fall Is thoroughly cured, affording a 
standing hay for winter use, which needs no harvesting, and which 
unites with all the desirable qualities of good hay the fattening 
principles of oats and corn.* Professor R. W, Raymond, United 
States Commissioner of Mining Statistics, says: "To pasture a 
horse on bunch-grass is like giving him plenty of good hay, with 
regular and liberal feeds of crraln." From Aucrust until the fol- 
lowing spring the grass has a color somewhat similar to that of 

* Mr. McElrath says, in describing the grazing lands of the Yellowstone Valley : " Back from 
the rich river valleys, and walling in their outer edges, rise the ranges of ' bad lands,' which are 
bare of vegetation and very forbidding in appearance, but which extend back only a few miles, 
usually terminating in rolling, grassy plains. These fantastic ranges form the escarpments of a 
vast expanse of table-land, covered with bunch grass, and far superior for stock-raising to any 
other public lands owned by the United States." 



THE MONTANA BUNCH-GRASS. gge 

ripe wheat, though not quite so brilliantly yellow, and the coun- 
try looks like one boundless field of grain nearly ready for the 
reaper. The Eastern visitor ascending the Yellowstone for the 
first time finds it difficult to realize that the vast yellow expanses 
which wave and glisten in the brilliant sunshine as the summer 
breezes play over their surfaces, are not cultivated fields, and as 
the steamboat approaches a bend in the stream the eye instinc- 
tively seeks for the farm-houses and granaries pertaining to these 
enormous stretches of agriculture. It is one of the earliest im- 
pressions experienced after entering the Yellowstone, far below 
the mouth of Glendive creek, and though the illusion is soon dis- 
pelled, the appearances which create it continue through the 
length of the valley, and in every part of Eastern Montana not 
actually given up to "bad lands." This bunch-grass, moreover, 
so prolific in growth, is, as already stated, wonderfully sweet and 
nutritious. Cattle fatten on it more rapidly and keep in better 
condition than those which feed on the blue grass in Kentucky 
and Southwestern Virginia, or the buffalo grass of Nebraska and 
Colorado. The beef is remarkably sweet, tender and juicy, the 
chief fault to be urged against it being that in summer it is some- 
times too fat. The bunch-grass grows not only all over the val- 
leys and the benches, but on the foot-hills, and even on many of 
the mountains. The supply of it is inexhaustible. Even in the 
older settled portions of the Territory, where improved farms are 
frequent, often adjoining each other in the valleys, the catde, 
sheep and horses do not eat down the grass, and although the 
ranges in some sections on each side of the valleys may be nomi- 
nally taken up, they are still capable of sustaining many times as 
many animals as now graze upon them. Of course no person 
intending to raise stock on a large scale, or to make that his 
chief business, would think of driving his bands of animals to 
locations near the settlements ; but the farmers whose flocks and 
herds are now feeding upon them, and who want their cattle near 
home, may increase the size of- their bands almost indefinitely 
before there will be any scarcity of pasturage. 

" In this vast free pasturage," says a recent writer in an account 
of Western Montana, and the description applies likewise to the 



gg5 <^^'-^^' IVESTERN EMPIRE. 

Yellowstone Valley, " no one need really own an acre of land, 
and thus far few have cared to. But all stockmen have head- 
quarters as near their range as is practicable. This is called the 
ranch, and usually consists of a plain log-cabin, and a large corral 
or pen in which stock can be held at branding time. What ex- 
tent of the boundless grass lands surrounding are utilized by the 
owner depends entirely upon the size of his herd, and his incli- 
nation to let cattle roam and care for themselves. It is true that 
ranch sites are sometimes better improved, and herders em- 
ployed ; but to feed, water, shelter or salt the steer of the period 
would be a sad innovation upon the all-prevailing custom of let- 
ting said steer shift for himself. The improvements need not cost 
more than $250 — not that, if the owner will rely largely on his 
own muscle. The additional expense will be the cost of living, 
if the owner does his own herding, and this will vary from $250 
to ^400 per year; if herders are employed, they are paid about 
^40 per month and board. One man can easily care for 1,000 
cattle, except during the 'round-up' period, which here occurs 
twice per year, lasts about two weeks each time, and will require 
three or four extra men durino^ that time. I have before me the 
statement of a stockman who commenced with $3,500, buying 100 
head of cows, putting up a neat log-cabin, and reserving enough 
of the capital to pay his expenses for one year. At the end of 
the fourth year the increase from this little herd, at a low valua- 
tion, was worth $8,000. Another statement made by a well- 
known stockman of Helena, shows a net profit of $42,500 made 
in six years from an investment of $13,500. The average profit 
realized can without any doubt be placed at two per cent, per 
month on all capital invested in cattle in Montana. Men who 
put a few hundred dollars into cattle five or six years ago have 
become rich almost before they could realize how wonderfully 
the profits multiply in a region where food and shelter for their 
herds cost nothing. 

" Very few Montana stock-farmers make any provision for 
feeding their cattle in the winter, and as yet there is no summer 
herding as irr Nebraska, Colorado and Wyoming. In the winter 
season the animals speedily learn to ' rustle,' as it is called, with 



fREE PASTURAGE. ng^ 

their hoofs through the snow to the bunches of sweet hay be- 
neath, and in ordinary seasons cattle come out in the spring in 
excellent condition. Old cattle-owners say that a herd which is 
fed occasionally, on the occurrence of a heavy storm, will not 
winter as well as one that is not fed. The cattle once receiving 
hay are likely to remain in the neighborhood of the ranch even 
after the feed there has become short, and if driven away will 
return thither. As it is impracticable to feed them all the time, 
they become lean, while if they remained out on the range where 
they could ' rustle ' and graze steadily, they would keep in good 
condition. The grass is stiff on the stalk, and on the hillsides it 
is rarely entirely covered with snow. The loss from exposure is 
said to be not more than one or two per cent. It is nevertheless 
worth while to note that in Western Montana several of the 
most careful and most successful stcckmen are beginning to put 
up hay as a precaution against severe cold and deep snows. They 
claim that the cost of the hay, cut with machines in the natural 
meadows along the river bottoms, is only from fifty cents to ^i 
a ton, and that in the long run, by being prepared to feed their 
cattle a little in the winter if it is found necessary, they can save 
more than enough animals that would otherwise perish, to pay 
for the trouble and expense. Judging from the unusually severe 
winter of 1879-80, which lasted from November to the middle of 
March, during which time much of the central Yellowstone coun- 
try was covered with snow, while the mercury ranged from a 
few degrees above zero to fifty odd degrees below that point, it 
may be advisable to adopt a similar course in Eastern Montana. 
The expense would not be greater than that above estimated. It 
is true, that notwithstanding the protracted severity of the season 
referred to, no complaints have been heard on the part of the 
ranchmen in the valley in regard to losing catde by reason of the 
cold and exposure. This, however, is partially attributable to 
the paucity of the herds in the valley. Had the stock been as 
numerous as it probably will be two or three years hence, the 
risk would have been very gready enhanced. Sheep, of course, 
require more careful handling than cattle, and must be pro- 
vided with constant means for shelter, as well as with feed in 
winter. 



o88 OCn IVE^l ERN EMPIRE. 

" The customary vv^ay of managing- a band of cattle in Montana 
is simply to brand them and turn them out upon the prairie. 
Some stock-owners give no more attention to their cattle until 
the next spring, when they ' round them up ' and brand the 
calves, select those they intend to sell, and turn the remainder 
out again. Under this careless management, which no prudent 
man would be likely to willingly imitate, they are certain to lose 
some steers, which stray away or are stolen. Others, more careful 
of their interests, employ herders, one man for every 1,500 or 
2,000 head of cattle, whose duty it is to ride about the outskirts 
of the range, follow any trails leading away, and drive the cattle 
back, and seek through neighboring herds, if there are any, for 
cattle that may have mistaken their companionship. At the 
spring round up, a few extra men have to be employed for sev- 
eral weeks. In starting a new herd, cows, bulls and yearlings are 
bought. The older cattle of ordinary grade are all American, 
tJie long-horned Texan stock being excluded, and cost from ^15 
to ^25 a head. Calves under one year old running with the 
herd are not counted. Yearlings may be obtained for from ^5 
to ^7 each. 

"The average cost of raising a steer, not counting interest or 
capital invested, is from sixty cents to ^i a year, so that a four 
year old steer raised from a calf and ready for market costs about 
^4. He is worth on the ranch about ^20, and if driven to the 
Missouri river at Fort Benton, or the railroad in Wyoming, fully 
<^2 5. A herd consisting of yearlings, cows and bulls, will have 
no steers ready for the market in less than two or three years. 
Taking into account the loss of interest on capital invested before 
returns are received, besides all expenses and ordinary losses, 
the average profit of stock-raising in Montana during the 
last few years has been at least thirty per cent, per annum. 
Some well-informed cattle-men estimate it at forty or forty-five 
per cent. Mr. Z. L. White, from whose correspondence several 
of the above-mentioned points respecting stock-raising in West- 
ern Montana have been taken, refers in the following passage to 
the profits of the business : ' No one can spend a week in any 
part of Montana without hearing some of the most marvellous 



CATTLE RANCHES IN MONTANA. 



989 



reports about the profits that have been realized during- the last 
few years in the business of stock-raising in this Territory. These 
stories, many of which have reached the East recently in enthu- 
siastic newspaper letters and pamphlets, are true, so far as I have 
been able to verify them ; but while, as a rule, they relate only 
to the exceptionally successful ventures — just as the wonderful 
yield of a bonanza mine in a camp is heralded from one end of 
the country to the other, while the hundred prospect holes which 
have been failures are never heard of — the unvarnished truth 
about the average profits of the business will seem almost incred- 
ible to eastern people. It is only now and then that a band of 
cattle, sheep or horses yield a net income of from forty to sixfy 
or even one hundred per cent, per annum ; but I doubt if there 
is a single instance in which, taking a series of years together, 
the profits on stock-raising have not been from twenty to thirty 
per cent, on the original investment, and that, too, in cases where 
the animals have suffered severely from unusual cold weather and 
snow in the winter, or from disease.' 

"A large and increasing percentage of the Montana cattle and 
sheep are not managed by the owners personally, the latter in 
many cases not being even residents of the Territory. Nearly 
all the leading merchants and bankers of the larger towns own 
interests in bands of stock ; and lawyers, doctors and federal 
officers are following their example, and investing their own 
money or that of their eastern friends in cattle, sheep or horses. 

"A man who desires to invest In stock, and who has not the 
time or inclination to attend to the business himself, takes as an 
associate some man of experience and known honesty, who lacks 
the means for going singly into the enterprise, and gives him 
entire charge of the herd. This man selects the range, cuts the 
hay, moves the animals when necessary — sheep requiring to be 
changed to a new range at least every two years — attends to the 
rounding up, and drives those that are sold to the place of de- 
livery, paying all expenses, and being entirely responsible for 
the management of the business. In compensation for these ser- 
vices he receives one-half the increase of the herd, the capitalist 
taking the other half The returns which the latter class obtain 



QQO ^'^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

on their money invested on this plan are never less than fifteen 
per cent., in a flock of sheep twenty per cent, and upward, and 
in a band of horses much greater than in either of those men- 
tioned. A new plan for dividing the profits of this business be- 
tween capitalists and managers has lately been suggested, and 
will probably be experimented upon this year. The manager is 
to take the herd purchased with the money his partner furnishes, 
the latter retaining the title to the animals, find a suitable range 
and defray all the expenses of the enterprise, until out of the profits 
he has paid back to the investor a sum of money equal to that 
which he at first put in. Then the manager is to become the owner 
of one-third of the business, and to receive thereafter one-third 
of the profits, the expenses being paid out of the receipts. It is 
proposed by responsible men in Montana to organize stock com- 
panies in the East for the purpose of conducting the cattle and 
sheep-raising business on this plan, and with adequate precau- 
tion in the selection of proper men to manage such enterprises 
there are few openings available for capital in which the security 
is better, or the certainty of large profits greater. 

"The export of catde from Montana began in 1874 with about 
3,000, increasing during the following four years respectively to 
5,000, 6,000, 10,000 and 22,000. In 1879 it is estimated to have 
been between 30,000 and 40,000. The principal route to market 
heretofore has been down tlie Yellowstone to Fort Custer ; thence 
into Wyoming, via Forts McKinney, Reno and Fetterman, to 
Pine Bluff, a railroad station fifty miles east of Cheyenne. This 
route furnishes plenty of excellent grass and water, and the 
cattle reach the railroad in fine condition after a drive averaging 
about two months in duration. They are mostly shipped to 
Chicago. The completion of the Northern Pacific Railroad to 
the western extremity of the Yellowstone Valley will completely 
alter this feature of the cattle trade. Instead of the long drive 
through the Wyoming wilderness, stock from all parts of the 
Territory will be shipped by rail direct to its destination in, at the 
most, one-sixth of the time at present consumed in the journey, 
and by the shortest possible rail route that can ever traverse 
that Territory. For the Atlantic seaboard and for foreign export 



SHEEP-FARMING IN MONTANA. poI 

the route by the great lakes, via Duhith, the eastern terminus of 
the Northern Pacific Raih'oad, will be availed of, the cattle traffic 
by that route having already assumed considerable dimensions, 
which are destined to a great expansion in the near future. The 
great market at Chicago will be no less benefited by the opening 
of this new and direct line. 

''Sheep- Raising. — As already stated, the management of sheep 
is different in many essential respects from that of cattle. A 
band of sheep containing i,ooo head and upward, in good con- 
dition and free from disease, are procurable in Western Montana 
for from ^3 to $3.25 per head. They must be herded summer 
and winter in separate bands of not more than 2,000 or 3,000 
each, must be corralled every night and guarded against the 
depredations of dogs and wild animals. Hay must be provided 
to feed them while the ground is covered with snow, and sheds 
must be erected to protect them from severe storms. They 
must, moreover, be raised by themselves. Catde and sheep 
cannot live together on the same range. The latter not only eat 
down the grass so closely that nothing is left for the cattle, but 
they also leave an odor which is very offensive to the others for 
at least two seasons afterward. But, notwithstanding that the 
cost of managing sheep is greater than that of handling cattle, 
the returns from sheep-raising are quicker and larger. While a 
herd of young cattle begin to yield an income only at the expira- 
tion of three years, sheep yield a crop of wool the first summer 
after they are driven upon a range, and the increase of the band 
is much greater than that of cattle, being from seventy-five to one 
hundred per cent, each year. The wool is of good quality, free 
from burrs, and brings a good price on the ranch, agents of 
Eastern houses being always on hand eager to buy it. Many 
thousand sheep were driven into Montana in 1879 from Cali- 
fornia, Oregon and Washington Territory, and every band that 
arrived was promptly purchased by men eager to increase their 
flocks or to start new ones. These data relate, of course, to the 
western portions of the Territory, only one experiment in sheep- 
raising having as yet been undertaken in the Yellowstone Valley. 
Its results show conclusively enough that at least equal success 



QQ2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

in that field of enterprise is attainable in Eastern as in Western 
Montana. 

"In the fall of 1876, while the valley was still occupied by the 
hostile Sioux under Sitting Bull, a man named Burgess drove a 
herd of 1,400 sheep, a cross of the Merino and Cotswold breeds, 
from California into Western Montana. He arrived at Miles 
City about the end of September, having consumed two seasons 
in the trip, and located on the east bank of the Tongue river, on 
the site of the present Miles City. In the following fall the flock 
was purchased by Mr. George M. Miles, the present owner, who 
moved it to a new range on the Tongue river about three miles 
farther up, with the intention of entering systematically into 
sheep-raising, the purpose of the original owner having been to 
take the flock to the Black Hills to be sold for mutton. After a 
second season Mr. Miles removed again to a new range on the 
Yellowstone river, about fourteen miles above the mouth of the 
Tongue, near which the flock yet remains. At the time of his 
purchase there were 1,001 sheep in the flock, Mr. Burgess having 
killed off a number for mutton. >^one died that season from dis- 
ease, and very few were killed by Indians. During their first 
winter in the valley they had no hay fed to them. A litde was 
fed to them during the heavy snows of 1877, and in the winter 
of 1878 they received almost none at all. During the first year 
there was little increase in the flock, and the second was not 
much better, the range being a poor one, and the lambs coming 
too late. Since then they have increased satisfactoril)', the lambs 
being healthy and strong. The increase in number has proven 
sufficient to pay the whole cost of care, leaving the crop of wool 
as net profit. During the first year the clipping averaged from 
seven to eight pounds per head. The crop was sent to Phila- 
delphia, where it realized good prices. In the second year the 
clip averaged seven pounds. The clipping of 1879 was shipped 
in July. It amounted to about one and a half tons in weight, 
and netted thirty-two cents per pound at the Eastern market. 
The herd's increase during the year was about eighty per cent. 
The wool is now consigned regularly to the Boston market, where 
it ranks with the best Territorial wool, and brings the highest 



SUCCESS IN SHEEP-FARMING. Og^ 

prices. The cost of shipment from the range above Miles City 
to Boston is ^1.75 per one hundred pounds. It should be added 
that sheep can be readily purchased in California for from $1.50 
to $2.50 per head. It costs little to drive them into the valley in 
two seasons, as the crop of wool almost defrays the expenses. 
The range on which they are placed in the Yellowstone Valley 
at present costs literally nothing, and the sheep are in steady 
demand in the local market at from ^3 to '^,5 per head. 

"The profits of sheep-raising are generally estimated at a 
higher figure than those of cattle-raising. The lowest calculation 
is based upon a net profit of from twenty-five to thirty-five per 
cent, on the whole investment. Occasionally larger returns re- 
ward the fortunate stockman, which are sometimes worthy of 
noting, although they must be regarded in the light of exceptional 
occurrences, the same as the wonderful yields of gold once in a 
while recorded respecting bonanza mines. Every miner, how- 
ever, hopes constantly to stumble upon a bonanza, and in similar 
manner every stock-raiser is entitled to hope to achieve as brilliant 
success as others in his line, even though he will be contented with 
much less. In illustration of the- possibilities connected with 
sheep-raising in Montana, Mr. White cites the experience of Judge 
Davenport, of the Sun River Valley. In July, 1875, he purchased 
1,000 ewes, which cost him in the neighborhood of ^3,000. 'These 
he put in charge of a young man, who was to take them on a 
range, care for them, pay all the expenses of the band, and to 
receive as his share one-half of the wool produced, and one-half 
of the increased flock. At the end of four years a settlement was 
to be made, and Judge Davenport was then to receive back 1,000 
of the best ewes which the band contained. The settlement was 
made last July. In the meantime Judge Davenport had received 
for his share of the proceeds of the wool ^6,500, and for his share 
of the increase ^8,000. The profits of his investment of $3,000 
for four years were, therefore, $14,500, or $3,625 or 121 1 per 
cent, a year. During the same year other men made only fifty 
or sixty per cent, on their sheep, and some who, from inexperi- 
ence or bad fortune, met with heavy losses, perhaps not more than 
twenty-five percent. ; but I have never heard of a single instance 
63 



QQ. OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

in which there has been an absolute loss in a period of, say, three 
or four years. One man, driving a large band of sheep from the 
south a year or two ago, was caught by the winter in an unfavor- 
able place, and lost one-half or two-thirds of his flock, but at the 
end of three years, when he came to balance his books, he found 
that the remnant of his flock had done so well that his profits had 
been about twenty-five per cent, a year on his original invest- 
ment.' " * 

On this subject of sheep-farming, Mr. Strahorn gives the follow- 
ing items of the eight months' experience of his Excellency, Hon. 
B. F. Potts, Governor of Montana : " Some time ago he purchased 
a ranch on the Dearborn river, fifty miles north of Helena. Last 
October he bought and placed upon it 4,000 sheep, at a cost 
averaging ^3 per head. He subsequently sold 400. Of the re- 
mainder 2,700 were ewes. During the months of April and May 
these gave birth to 2,900 lambs. Two hundred were lost by ex- 
posure in the severe snow-storm that visited the Territory that 
spring, to compensate, it would seem, for a very mild winter, but the 
number of twins equalled the loss, and the net product, as appears 
from the above statement, was 100 per cent, of the ewes. It is 
estimated that when a lamb is dropped it is worth ^2, and when 
three months old it is worth ^3. The profit on the increase may, 
therefore, be put in round numbers at ^5,000. The Governor 
has just completed his shearing. He sheared 3,600 sheep, and 
the average clip was six pounds per head. The wool is worth 
twenty-six cents in the Eastern market, and the cost of transpor- 
tation will scarcely exceed four cents. The proceeds of this clip 

* The increasing significance of the sheep-raising industry is attested to by the following par- 
agraph in the Philadelphia Northwest of February, 1880. The concluding sentence of the 
extract must be regarded as prophetic rather than siiictly accurate : 

" From as far west of the end of the ironed track of the Northern Pacific, in the Yellowstone 
Valley, as Bozeman, which is in the Rocky Mountains, and from the Musselshell Valley and 
the Judith Basin to the north, inquiries are already addressed to the General Manager of the 
road for through rates to New York on live sheep, dressed mutton, canned mutton and salted 
pelts. These rates are asked for on refrigerator cars, single and double deck cars, and for all 
rail to New York and part rail and part lake from Duluth. There is an element of romance in 
this sudden civilization of a region where, three years ago, Sitting Bull's young men would have 
ate up all the sheep and scalped all the shepherds that ventured on their hunting-grounds. But 
.the change is made. The Yellowstone Valley is possessed by shepherds and herdsmen." 



HORSE-FARMING IN MONTANA. ggr 

•-vIU therefore be about ^4,750. A return of nearly ^10,000 In 
less than one year, on an investment of ^12,000, is certainly a 
most seductive showinof." 

The production of a better class of horses, and also of hogs, is 
beginning to receive some attention. Horses are even more 
hardy than cattle or sheep ; they have the advantage of being 
able to paw away the deepest snows that may cover their pas- 
turage, and they never fail to take good care of themselves in the 
worst storms. The correspondent just quoted offers these prac- 
tical suggestions on this business : " What are wanted here are 
good draught horses, and the market for such would be limitless, 
at paying prices. Suppose a man, probably in connection with 
some other business, such as sheep-raising or raising grain, to buy 
fifty brood-mares (half-breed), which he can procure at ^30 
each, and one draught stallion, costing ^1,000. He will thus have 
invested <^2,500. He need be at no expense for feeding or 
stabling, except in the case of the stallion, and at very little ex- 
pense for herding, if he gives the business his personal attention. 
The average of colts is eighty per cent, of the mares, so that at 
the end of the first year he would have forty colts, worth ^20 
each, making ^800, a return of over thirty per cent, on his invest- 
ment. Carry this computation forward, supposing him to sell 
off his geldings when they were four years old to pay expenses 
and to buy additional stallions, retaining the mare colts for 
breeders, and it will be seen that in five years he will have a band 
worth at least ^10,000. Mr. Storey placed 200 mares on his 
ranch in the valley of the Yellowstone only a few years ago, and 
now has a herd of 1,200, worth an average of ^75 each, besides 
having sold more than enough to pay all expenses." There are 
about 50,000 horses in Montana, a large proportion of which are 
the regular " broncho " or mustang stock. However, there are 
several large bands of thoroughbreds, and fine breeding animals 
are by no means rare. 

In the absence of an abundance of corn, or a climate suitable 
for producing it extensively, a few farmers have been experiment- 
ing with peas as a substitute upon which to fatten hogs. Pork, 
by the way, is a rare commodity in all the northern country, and 



gQ6 0^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

commands very high prices. Mr. A. F. Nichols, of Gallatin 
county, sells from 12,000 to 20,000 pounds of pork annually, 
which has been produced on peas, and Bass Brothers, of Bitter 
Root Valley, market of bacon alone as high as 21,000 pounds per 
year. These gentlemen are of the opinion that peas make the 
best food for hogs, and they can produce more pork from an acre 
of peas than can be made from the same area in corn in Illinois. 
Pork in different forms sells at from twelve to twenty cents per 
pound in Montana towns, and hundreds of tons are still imported 
from distant States to supply the demand. Hogs for breeding 
purposes are very scarce at from ^12 to ^20 each. 

Manufactures. — Montana is too new a Territory and has too 
small a population to have any very extensive manufacturing es- 
tablishments. There are stamping, smelting and other reduction 
mills at Helena, Bozeman, Wickes, Butte City, Virginia City and 
other points in the Territory ; saw-mills and flouring-mills at sev- 
eral of the larger towns, and the usual run of small manufactories 
in most of these places. Probably twelve or fifteen million dollars 
would cover the products of all the manufacturing establishments 
yet in existence. 

Objects of Interest. — About one-tenth of the Yellowstone Na- 
tional Park is within the bounds of Montana; but as nearly 
seven-eighths of this great wonder of the world belongs to Wy- 
oming, we reserve our description of it for that Territory. But 
it is not the Yellowstone Park alone which attracts the attention 
of the tourist. The whole valley of the Madison river, as well as 
that of the Upper Yellowstone, is full of wonders, and the valley 
of the Upper Missouri and the northern portion of the valley of 
Clarke's fork of the Columbia river. In the Madison and the 
Yellowstone, canon succeeds canon, and wild, rocky waterfalls are 
too lofty to be run by any boat, and within such narrow bounds 
that there is no passage there for any human being, and they can 
only be viewed from above. One of these canons in the Madison 
is fifteen miles in length, and its walls are from 600 to 900 feet 
in height, while the water leaps over a succession of rapids and 
falls. No human being has ever passed through it. Not far off 
are beautiful crystal lakes, which attract great numbers in the 



RAILROADS IN MONTANA. ggy 

season. The geyser formation extends over all this region, and 
among the most remarkable examples of it are the Deer Lodge 
Mineral Springs, eighteen miles north of Deer Lodge, some of 
which are really geysers, while others have formed cones of their 
deposits thirty feet in height and fifty feet in diameter at the base, 
from the apex of which flows a large warm spring. This is sur- 
rounded by forty other springs, ranging in temperature from 1 1 5° 
to 150°. The canons and falls on the Upper Missouri are very 
beautiful and grand. We can only name " The Gate of the 
Mountains" and the *' Great Falls," eighteen miles north of 
Helena, "Atlantic Canon," " The Bear's Tooth," " The Mysterious 
Thunder," supposed to be caused by hidden geysers in the moun- 
tains, " The Devil's Slide" and "The Devil's Watch-Tower ; " 
and in the northwest, the Flathead Lake Region with its Twin 
Cascades. 

Raili'oads. — Up to January, 1880, there were no railroads in op- 
eration in Montana, but since that time the Utah and Northern Rail- 
road has been opened to Helena, with the intention of an extension 
westward or northwestward ; and the Northern Pacific Railway 
has entered the Territory from the east, and will reach the junction 
of Powder river with the Yellowstone by January, 1881, and Miles 
City and Fort Keogh by the early spring. The western or Pend 
d'Oreille Division of the same road will probably also enter the 
Territory by next ,spring, and make some progress southward in 
the valley of Clarke's fork of the Columbia river. The surveyed 
route of the Northern Pacific will traverse Western, Southwestern 
and Southern Central Montana, throwing out a branch to the 
National Yellowstone Park, following the Clarke's fork of Co- 
lumbia and the Yellowstone river from its source nearly to its 
junction with the Missouri river, leaving it at Glendive, opposite 
the mouth of Cabin creek. Both these roads are likely to do a 
large and profitable business from the beginning, and one which 
will be increased almost indefinitely. At present immigrants 
wishing to reach Virginia City, Helena, Butte City, or any of the 
places in the Clarke's Fork Valley, will find it for their advantage 
to take the Utah and Northern Railroad; and those who would pro- 
cure or who have procured homes in the valley of the Yellowstone, 



qq8 our western empire. 

the Northern Pacific, which will soon be running to Miles City. The 
only other available route is that up the Missouri river by steam- 
ers, and for several hundred miles up the Yellowstone. This 
journey should be made after April and before August. Very 
soon there will be access to the Territory from the west by way 
of the Pend d'Oreille and Clarke's Fork Divisions of the Northern 
Pacific. 

Indian Reservations and Population. -^\\^ Territory was re- 
garded as the best place to which to banish the Blackfeet, Crows, 
Assiniboines, Gros Ventres and Yanktonnais, after the terror in- 
spired among" the settlers by the terrible massacres in Minnesota 
in 1862-3, had made their longer stay in a new and rapidly grow- 
ing State intolerable and impossible, and so they were removed 
to immense reservations north of the Missouri river and south of 
the Yellowstone, in 1867 and 1868, in the expectation that there 
they would be able to remain without molestation. Little did 
the Indian Offtce then dream that within ten or twelve years this 
very region would be found to be the garden spot of American 
ao-riculture, and that mines of fabulous wealth would be discovered 
among the mountains which then seemed to be so forbidding. 
But so it was ; and when, a year or two later, the Flatheads, Pend 
d'Oreilles and Kootenais were in need of a home, one was as- 
signed to them also within the limits of Montana. The United 
States government was lavish in its gifts of land to these tribes 
— 34,156,800 acres, or ^^s of the whole area of the Territory, was 
made over to them, including nearly all the land north of, and 
more than one-half of the region south of the Yellowstone, ex- 
tending to the Wyoming border. The land north of the Mis- 
souri, though some of it unfit for cultivation, is for the most part 
o-ood grazing land, and the mountain slopes and river bottoms 
contain gold lodes and extensive placers ; but the region south 
of the Yellowstone is the garden of the Territory for productive- 
ness, and contains also extensive lodes of silver and gold, espe- 
cially on Clarke's fork of the Yellowstone, Rosebud creek, and 
the Upper Yellowstone Itself At and around the five agen- 
cies on these reservations, viz. : the Blackfeet Agency, Crow 
Agency, Flathead Agency, F^ort Peck Agency, and Fort Belknap 



INDIAN RESERVATIONS. 9^9 

Agency, there are congregated 21,670 Indians, of whom 3,470 
are Crow Indians, occupying the reservation south of the Yellow- 
stone ; 16,842 Blackfeet, Assinaboines and other Sioux bands, and 
1,338 Flatheads and other Pacific tribes. Of the whole number 
only 1,531, about seven per cent., can be called civilized, so far as 
the assumption of citizen's dress is concerned, and but 475 male 
Indians were engaged in civilized pursuits. The absurdity of 
giving such a vast tract to these vagrant and barbarous tribes 
will be appreciated if we notice that they are allowed over 1,700 
acres to every Indian, man, woman or child. Now that the buffalo 
is so rapidly disappearing that it has already ceased in nearly all 
parts of the continent to be the dependence of the Indian tribes 
for game and for its peltries, it is well worth while to inquire 
whether some occupation cannot be devised for the Indian which 
shall enable him to do something towards earning his own liveli- 
hood without occupying, or, rather, withholding from occupation 
by others, a Territory as large as the State of Illinois. We 
would not have the Indian wronged, but the lands of the earth 
are too precious to be held by those who cannot and will not 
cultivate or use them for human subsistence, and will not allow 
others to do so. 

Popiilatioji of Montana. — In 1870 the population of the Terri- 
tory was 39,895, of whom 18,306 were whites, 183 colored, 1,949 
Chinese, and 19,457 Indians, of whom all but 157 were members 
of the different tribes. Estimates were made at various times 
between 1870 and 1880, and with a tolerably near approximation 
to truth; thus, in 1876, the white population was estimated at 
23,000; in 1877, at 28,000; and in 1878, at 35,000, including the 
Chinese and the colored people. In 1880 the supervisor of the 
census reports the population (except Indians) as 39,157, and 
adding the number of Indians, according to the report of die In- 
dian Office for 1880 — 21,670— we have a total of 60,827, the 
white population having more than doubled, and the Indians 
having increased 2,213. The corrected census returns for 1880 
show that of the population not tribal Indians 28,180 were males, 
10,977 females, 27,642 natives, 11,515 foreigners, 35,648 whites, 
202 colored, 1,750 Indians and half-breeds, and 1,737 Chinese. 

The following^ table shows the assessment of Montana Terrl- 



lOOO 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



tory by counties for the years 1878- 
increase of taxable property: 



-79, with their respective 





Population 








Counties. 


1880. 


1879. 


1878. 


Increase. 


Beaverhead . . 


2,712 


$1,029,596 00 


$977,990 00 


$51,606 00 


Choteau . . 


3.058 


1,179,875 00 


596,722 00 


583.153 00 


Custer 


2,510 


350,000 CO 


329,231 02 


20,768 98 


Dawson 


180 








Deer Lodge 


. 8,876 


3,700,000 00 


2,341,268 00 


1.358,732 00 


Jefferson 


. 2,464 


843.683 95 


795.663 15 


48,020 80 


Gallatin . . 


3.643 


1,586,340 00 


1,386,340 00 


200,000 00 


Lewis and Clarke 


6,521 


3,028,320 00 


2,899,810 00 


128,510 00 


Madison 


• 3.916 


1.874,543 00 


1,790,462 00 


84,081 00 


Meagher 


. 2,744 


1,187,408 00 


867,999 00 


319,409 00 


Missoula . . 


■ 2,533 


735.507 00 


647,189 00 


88,318 00 


Totals . 


39.157 


$15,515,272 95 


$12,632,674 17 


$2,882,598 78 



The county of Dawson, organized we beHeve in 1880, is re- 
ported in the above table with Choteau county, of which it has 
been hitherto the eastern part; but the coming of the Northern 
Pacific into the Territory has called a considerable population into 
this region, and it will probably next year report an increased 
population and assessment. 

The principal toivns of Montana are : Helena, the capital of the 
Territory, and of Lewis and Clarke county also ; a town which 
originated in a placer mine, and was at first known by the not 
very euphonious name of " Last Chance Gulch." The town is 
not beautiful. Its location forbids that, but it has some good 
buildings, several churches and a population of more than 5,000. 
Virginia City is in the southern part of the Territory, on the Yel- 
lowstone, a little north of the Yellowstone National Park. It is 
also near the famous Alder Gulch. It has a population of nearly 
2,000. Butte City, forty or fifty miles south of Helena, is a pretty 
town, with some smelting works and a population of about 3,000. 
Bozeman is a flourishing town at the head of the Gallatin Valley, 
and is on the projected route of the Northern Pacific. It has 
about 1,500 inhabitants. Other towns, which are rapidly grow- 
ing, are : Bannock, Phillipsburg, Deer Lodge, Radersburg, Vestel, 
Missoula, Benton, and on the Yellowstone, Miles City and Glen- 
dive. By way of enlightening our readers as to the cost of living 
in Montana, we give the following price current of articles of 



PRICES CURRENT— AVERAGE WAGES. lOOI 

general use, furnished by a merchant of Miles City in April, 1880. 
The Yellowstone Division of the Northern Pacific will probably 
reach Miles City in March or April, 1881, and a few articles may 
then be lower. The Yellowstone is, however, navigable for 
steamboats for several months of the year. 

Flour, per cwt ^4 25 to $5 50 

Oats, per cwt 5 00 

Corn, per cwt 5 00 

Potatoes, per cwt 3 00 

Butter, choice, per lb. . , 50 

Eggs, per doz. 75 

Corn meal, per cwt 4 00 

Bacon, per cwt. .1000 

Breakfast Bacon, per cwt. . , 25 00 

Ham, per cwt. . 25 00 

Lard, per lb 20 

Beef, per lb 8 

Mutton, per lb 10 

Onions, per lb 8 ' 

Sugar, per lb. .......... . 13 to 16 

Coffee, per lb 25 to 35 

Beans, per lb 8 

Salt, per lb , 8 

Coal Oil, per gal 60 

Whiskey, per gal. 3 00 to 8 00 

Beer, per case 7 00 

Tobacco, per lb 90 to i 25 

Lumber, per M 45 00 to 100 00 

Shingles, per M 11 00 

White Lead, per cwt 5 50 

Nails, per cwt 12 50 

Iron, per lb 7 to 10 

AVERAGE WAGES IN THE EAST AND IN MONTANA IN JANUARY^ 1 879. 

Employment. In the East. In Montana. 

Bakers, per month and board . $25 00 %(>% 00 

Blacksmiths, per day 2 50 4 50 

Bookkeepers, per month 7000 125 00 

Bricklayers, per day 350 6 50 

Butchers, per month and board 24 00 50 00 

Brickraakers, " " 20 00 50 00 

Carpenters, per day 250 450 



I002 '^^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

First Cook, per month and board ^60 oo ^iio 00 

Second Cook, " " 30 00 55 00 

Cooks in families, " " 11 00 35 00 

Chambermaids, ** " 10 00 30 00 

Clerks, per month 5° 00 90 00 

Dressmakers, per month 25 00 70 00 

Dairymen, per month and board 25 00 45 00 

Engineers in mills, per day 2 00 3 50 

Farm hands, per month and board .... 15 00 42 50 

Harness-makers, per day ........ 2 00 4 50 

Hostlers, per month and board ....... 15 00 45 00 

Laundresses, " ''•...... 12 00 35 °o 

Laborers, " " ....... 15 00 35 00 

Lumbermen, " " 2800 55 00 

Machinists, per day 2 75 450 

Miners, " ......;... 2 25 3 50 

Millers, per month and board . i .... 25 00 65 00 

Millwrights, per day ...■.;....• 2 50 450 

Painters, per day .....;..•.. 2 25 4 00 

Printers, per week i .... 15 00 25 00 

Plasterers, per day . . . , . i i . . . 2 50 5 50 

School teachers, per month ....... 30 00 8000 

Servants, per month and board .;.... 11 00 35 00 

Shepherds, " " ...... 40 00 

Stone masons, per day .......... 3 00 6 00 

Teamsters, per month and board ;....■ 18 00 45 00 

Waiters " " . .... 16 00 55 00 

Education. — Our latest statistics of education are from Gover- 
nor Potts' report to the Secretary of the Interior in October, 1878. 
There has been considerable progress since that time. Graded 
schools had been established at Helena, Virginia City, Bozeman, 
Butte and Deer Lodge, and large, well-ventilated brick school- 
houses had been erected for them. The other educational sta- 
tistics were as follows : 

Number of school-houses 80 

Value of school-houses $67,700 

Whole school census (between ages 4 and 21 years) . . 4) 705 

Number of scholars enrolled in schools 2,927 

Number of teachers employed 104 

Salaries of teachers employed ;$36,2oo 

Salaries of superintendents ?4,5oo 



REL IGIO US DE NOMINA TIONS. 



1003 



Number of graded and high schools 6 

Number of private schools 10 

One collegiate institute in process of erection at Deer 

Lodge, estimated cost ;^i5,ooo 

Amount of county tax collected ^47>323 

Religious Denoynijiations. 



editic 



Number of Ciiur 

Probable value 

Other church property 

Membership 

Sunday-schools 

Officers and teachers 

Scholars of all ages 

Benevolent collections 

For ministerial support (annually). 
Number of ministers 



7 

^40,000 

5400 

384 

12 

78 



^17,000 

J8oo 

17s 

5 

40 

325 

300 

fo,30o 

5 



W 



3 

^11,000 

S2,i47 
183 

3 
23 

180 



^,400 
3 



a o 

E 
o 

•A 



5 

Jio.ooo 


6 

fas, 200 


125 


1^25,000 


5 


5 


120 





O 



50 

5 

30 

150 



25 

Ji 1-^,500 

15-8,347 

917 

35 

171 

1,373 

597 

;$i5,8oo 

31 



The above table also dates from 1878, and probably most of 
the items would be doubled in the autumn of 1880 by the influx 
of population and the efforts of home missionaries. We know 
that the Congregationalists, the Lutherans and the Baptists have 
now organizations, and we think church edifices, and probably 
some other denominations also. The state of morals is probably 
not worse than in other new territories, and perhaps better than 
some ; but there is less regard for the Sabbath than there should 
be, and infidel clubs abound, while the usual concomitants of new 
setdements, gambling and drinking saloons and brothels, are very 
numerous. This is particularly the case in most of the new set- 
tlements, the mining camp at Wickes being, however, an honor- 
able and conspicuous exception. 

After a time these mining towns acquire a better and more 
creditable population, and the rougher class go on to newer settle- 
ments, where the same scenes are re-enacted. The only remedy 
for this state of things is that moral, and especially Chrisdan 
people, who settle in these new towns and camps, should maintain 
their religious character, and put down, by vigorous and decided 
action. Sabbath-breaking, gambling and drinking, and though 
the struggle may be severe at first, they will find it not only 
pleasant but greatly advantageous to the permanent prosperity 



-QQ. OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of their settlements. Mr. Wickes has been successful in doing 
this at his large camp, and is now reaping the reward of his firm- 
ness for the right. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

NEBRASKA. 



Area and Extent — Boundaries — Comparative Area — Its Riverine Bound- 
aries — Surface of the Country — Sense in which it is a Prairie — Its 
Gradual Elevation to the Base of the Rocky Mountains — The Ne- 
braska "Bad Lands" — The Rivers of Nebraska — The Missouri and 
Niobrara — The North and South Platte and their Affluents — The 
Loup and its Forks — The Republican River — General Direction of 
these Rivers — Geology and Mineralogy — The Loess or Drift — Allu- 
vial Deposits — The Great Pre-historic Lake — Tertiary Formation — 
Carboniferous Strata — The Coal Measures — Lignite in the Tertiary 
— Not much Economic Value to the Coals of Nebraska — The Peat Beds 
OF the State — Soil and Vegetation — Fertility of the Loess — Trees of 
the State — Zoology — Climate and Meteorology — Table — Agricul- 
tural Productions — Crops OF 1877, 1878 and 1879 — Wild and Cultivated 
Fruits — Mr. E. A. Curley on the Wild Fruits — Grazing — The Live- 
stock OF THE State — Manufacturing Industry — Railroads — Population 
— Rapid Growth of the State — Indians — Financial Condition — Educa- 
tion — Lands for Immigrants — Government, School, University and 
Railroad Lands — Advice to Immigrants — Prices — Counties, Cities and 
Towns — Religious Denominations — Historical Data — Nebraska as a 
Home for Immigrants. 

Nebraska, one of the States of the central belt of "Our West- 
ern Empire," lying between the parallels of 40° and 43° north 
latitude, and between 95° 20' and 104° of west longitude from 
Greenwich. It is bounded on the north by Dakota ; on the east 
by the Missouri river, which separates it from Iowa and Mis- 
souri ; on the south by Kansas and Colorado, and on the west by 
Colorado and Wyoming. Its area, according to the United 
States Land Office, is 75,995 square miles, or 48,636,800 acres. 
Its greatest length from east to west is 412 miles, and its breadth 



SURFACE OF THE COUNTRY. IO05 

from north to south 208 miles. It is larger than all New Eng- 
land and New Jersey, and as large as Ohio and Indiana together. 
The Missouri river not only forms its entire eastern boundary, 
but in conjunction with the Niobrara, one of its larger tributaries, 
and the Keya Paha, an affluent of that stream, gives a riverine 
boundary to nearly one-half of its northern border. 

Su7^face of the Country — Gi'adual Descent from West to East — 
Rivers, Bluffs, Hills, Valleys. — The State is called prairie. So it 
is, in the sense of the word which means meadow ; but not in 
that secondary sense which implies a land of uniform flatness. 
In real truth, Nebraska is a part of the lowest eastern grass- 
clothed slope of the Rocky Mountains. The eye alone will make 
no observer aware of this fact. Nevertheless, from the eastern 
to the western boundary of Nebraska, there is a gradual and un- 
interrupted rise of the land of about seven feet to the mile in 
Eastern Nebraska, and from that to ten feet in the west; and thus 
it is that while the land on the eastern boundary is 910 feet 
above sea-level, on the western boundary it is about 5,000. The 
surface form of the State is, of course, made by the rivers. The 
eastern front of the country shows bold, wooded bluffs to the 
Missouri, their outlines being cut and scarped into fantastic and 
picturesque forms by the washing water. West of the Missouri 
bluffs, except on the table lands, there is no flat, but a land of 
many changing forms — now broad bottoms, bounded by low 
hills ; now picturesque bluffs, and, especially in the grazing re- 
o-Ion, ravines sometimes as ruor^fed as the orulches in the eold 
fields. In the northwestern part of the State, in the region lying 
between the sources of the Middle Loup fork and the Niobrara 
river, there are extensive sand hills, and those clay deposits, cut 
into the most fantastic forms by the erosion of the mountain 
streams. These are the " Nebraska Bad Lands," and are con- 
nected, both geologically and geographically, with the Dakota 
" Bad Lands," on and near the White Earth river, and between 
that river and the Big Cheyenne. 

These "Bad Lands" are uninhabitable, but they are very in- 
teresting for their fossils, of which we shall have more" to say 
under the Geology of Nebraska. 



IOo6 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Now and again a river flows full to the bank, from which the 
bottom — from a mile to four or more miles wide — spreads out 
on either hand ; but generally the streams run in deep beds, the 
high, steep banks and the narrow first bench being thickly 
clothed with timber. The general ascending lay of the land is 
broken from west to east by three main drainage channels. On 
the northern boundary of the State are the Niobrara and the 
Missouri rivers, of which latter the Niobrara is an affluent. 

The Niobrara has many tributaries, some of them of consider- 
able size ; and several of them, as their names imply, have many 
rapids and waterfalls.* The Platte, a winding, shallow, spreading 
stream, has the sources of both of its main streams, the North 
and South forks of the Platte, far up the main range or Great 
Divide of the Rocky Mountains in Central Colorado; the North 
fork also traversing a great extent of territory in Wyoming ; 
both forks cross Nebraska from west to east to their point of 
junction at North Platte. Before the division, the Platte river 
receives two large tributaries, the Loup Fork river, which, with 
its three branches, North, Middle and South, traverses a large 
territory, and the Elkhorn, which drains Northeastern Nebraska. 
On the south bank, neither the Platte nor the North Platte re- 
ceive any considerable streams. The South Platte receives on 
its north bank Lodge Pole creek, in the valley of which the Union 
Pacific road is constructed for 1 50 miles. From fifty to eighty miles 
south of the Platte, the Republican river, the largest tributary of 
the Kaw or Kansas river, havino- its sources in Eastern Colorado, 
traverses the southern and southwestern counties of the State, 
receiving three large affluents. Medicine Lake creek. White 
Man's fork and Rock creek, on its northern bank, and an infini- 
tude of small streams on both banks. Other smaller but consid- 
erable tributaries of the Kansas drain the southeast of the .State. 
The general direction and flow of all these rivers is to the south- 
east. In their gradual descent from the lofty plateau at the west 
of the State, the rivers and streams, in seeking the lowest level, 



* Eau qui Court — " the water that leaps " — Mini Chadusa, or Rapid creek, Antelope creek, 
the Rapid river, are a few of the names of these affluents. 



TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 1007 

have cut their way through the soft and easily eroded deposits, 
and have worn away their banks to such a degree as to give the 
appearance of high bluffs along their banks, when in reality no 
such bluffs exist ; but the stream has eroded for itself a channel 
at a lower level than that of the surrounding country. Such is 
the topography of Nebraska in barest outline ; and, with the map 
before him, the reader can fill in the details. He can imagine the 
great plain ascending to higher altitudes as the mountains are 
approached ; the rivers, west to east, making three great valleys, 
and two elevated divides separating the valleys ; and, finally, the 
smaller streams exhibiting the land as broken into an almost 
infinite number of gently undulating hills and valleys — with great 
table lands on the summits — the trend of which is southeast. 

Geology and Mineralogy. — The geological structure of the 
State is very simple. In the southeast a triangular tract, extend- 
inofwestas far as where the Little Blue river crosses the southern 
boundary of the State, and having the apex of the triangle at the 
point where the forty-second parallel of latitude intersects the 
Missouri river, is distinctly identified with the upper carboniferous 
formation. It ts covered to a depth of from thirty to ninety feet 
by a yellowish marl (the loess or surface deposit described by 
Professor Hayden), but the rocks below belong to the coal 
measures. There are thin strata of coal of good quality, but 
ranging in thickness from five to twenty-two inches — not suffi- 
ciently thick to pay for expensive mining, while clays, limestones 
and sandstones belonging to the carboniferous era make up the 
remaining thickness of the coal measures, which aggregate 120 
feet or more. The geologists believe this deposit to be the west- 
ern rim or margin of the sfreat coal basin of Missouri and Iowa, 
and think that on this border or rim the coal has been subjected 
to such pressure that it will be found too thin for profitable 
mining. West of these coal measures is a narrow belt of Permian 
rocks, and to this succeed the cretaceous deposits, having a 
breadth of seventy or eighty miles. West of this the whole sur- 
face rocks and soil of the State belong to the tertiary period. In 
the southwest the tertiary formation has large deposits of lignite 
of excellent quality, which will probably supply a large 'portion 



lOoS OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of the demand of the State for coal. Of the loess or yellowish 
marl which forms the superficial deposit over the greater part of 
the State, we may remark, that this deposit, which is quaternary 
rather than tertiary, is supposed to be the sediment deposited 
by the great lakes, one of them in Nebraska and Iowa being esti- 
mated as 500 miles long, and from fifty to two hundred miles wide, 
which covered this whole region after the close of the last glacial 
period. Into and through the greatest of these lakes the Mis- 
souri, then, as now, the muddiest of rivers, poured its vast flood 
of yellow waters. As the land gradually rose, this immense 
lake drained off its surplus water through the Missouri river, 
became a vast marsh, and eventually, as the rivers cut deeper 
and deeper through this loess deposit, the land became dry and 
solid. Of this loess, Professor Aughey, the State Geologist, 
says: 

" The loess deposit is in some respects one of the most remark- 
able in the world. Its value for agricultural purposes is not ex- 
ceeded anywhere. It prevails over at least three-fourths of the 
surface of Nebraska. It ranges in thickness from five to one 
hundred and fifty feet. Some sections of it in Dakota county 
measure over 200 feet. At North Platte, 300 miles west of 
Omaha, and on the south side of the river, some of the sections 
that I measured ranged in thickness from 125 to 150 feet. From 
Crete, on the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad, west to 
Kearney, on the Union Pacific Railroad, its thickness for ninety 
miles ranges from forty to ninety feet. South of Kearney, and 
for a great distance west, along the Union Pacific Railroad, as far 
as to the Republican, there is a great expanse of territory, covered 
by a great thickness of this deposit. I measured many sections 
in wells over this region, and seldom found it less than forty, and 
often more than sixty feet in thickness. Along the Republican, 
I traced the formation almost to the western line of the State, its 
thickness ranging from thirty to seventy feet. One section north 
of Kearney, on Wood river, showed a thickness of fifty feet. The 
same variation in thickness is found in the counties bordering on 
the Missouri. One peculiarity of this deposit is that it is almost 
perfectly homogeneous throughout, and of almost uniform color, 



THE LOESS DEPOSIT. lOOO 

however thick the deposit or far apart the specimens have been 
taken. I have compared many specimens taken 300 miles apart, 
and from the top and bottom of the deposits, and no difference 
could be detected by the eye or by chemical analysis. 

" The physical properties of the loess deposits are also remark- 
able. In the interior, away from Missouri, hundreds of miles of 
these loess deposits are almost level or gently rolling. Not un- 
frequendy a region will be reached where, fgr a few miles, the 
country is bluffy or hilly, and then as much almost endrely level, 
with intermediate forms. The bluffs that border the flood-plains 
of the Missouri, the Low^er Platte and some other streams, are 
sometimes gendy rounded off They often assume fantastic 
forms, as if carved by some curious generations of the past. But 
now they retain their forms so unchanged from year to year, 
affected neither by rain nor frost, that they must have been 
molded into their present oudines under circumstances of climate 
and level very different from that which now prevails. For all 
purposes of architecture this soil, even for the most massive 
structures, is perfecdy secure. On no other deposits, except the 
solid rocks, are there such excellent roads. From twelve to 
twenty-four hours after the heaviest rains, the roads are perfectly 
dry, and often appear, after being travelled a few days, like a 
vast floor formed from cement, and by the highest art of man. 
Yet the soil is very easily worked, yielding readily to the spade or 
the plow. Excavation is remarkably easy, and no pick or mat- 
tock is thought of for such purposes. It might be expected that 
such a soil would readily yield to atmospheric influences, but such 
is not the case. Wells in this deposit are frequently walled up 
only to a point above the water-line ; and on the remainder the 
spade-marks will be visible for years. These peculiarides of the 
loess deposits are chiefly owing to the fact that the carbonate of 
lime has entered into slight chemical combination with the finely 
comminuted silica. There is always more or less carbonic acid 
in the atmosphere which is brought down by the rains, and this 
dissolves the carbonate of lime, which then readily unites with 
the silica, but only to a slight extent, and not enough to destroy 
its porosity. Though much of the silica is microscopically minute, 
64 



lOIO OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

it has largely preserved its angular structure, and this of course 
aids the slight chemical union that takes place between it and the 
carbonate of lime. Had there been more lime and iron in this 
deposit, and had it been subjected to a greater and longer 
pressure from superincumbent waters, instead of a slightly chem- 
ically compacted soil, it would have resulted in a sandstone 
■formation incapable of cultivation. There is not enough clayey 
matter present to prevent the water from percolating through it 
as perfectly as through sand, though a great deal more slowly. 
This same peculiarity causes ponds and stagnant water to be rare 
within the limits of this deposit." 

In the northwestern part of the State, the region of the " Bad 
Lands," to which we have already referred, the loess is not a sur- 
face deposit. The hills, "Great Hills," as they are called on 
some of the maps, are either composed of loose-moving sand 
which is blown by the winds into round, conical hills with consid- 
erable regularity — hills sometimes covered scantily with tufts of 
grass, but oftener with the yuccas or Spanish needles or some of 
the custi ; or the fantastic forms of the clay and soft tertiary lime- 
stones, cut by the water-courses into the semblance of ruined 
cities, towers, temples and columns, and often covered with spark- 
ling alkaline crystals. This region of " Bad Lands " occupies, 
according to Professor Hayden, an area of about 20,000 square 
miles on both sides of the Niobrara river. There are many little 
lakes or ponds in this region, some salt, some alkaline, and some 
very pure and fresh. This whole tract abounds in fossils of the 
most remarkable character. While th^se lands are geologically 
connected with the " Bad Lands " on the White Earth river in 
Dakota, it is a very interesting fact that the fossils of the Dakota 
lands belong to an earlier period than those of the Nebraska 
lands, and that the two seem to have had hardly any animals 
common to both. These regions have been the favorite hunting- 
ground for fossils of Professors Leidy and O. C. Marsh. Of the 
Nebraska fossils Professor F. V. Hayden says : 

" If we pass for a moment southward into the valleys of the 
Niobrara and Loup fork, we shall find a fauna closely allied, yet 
entirely distinct from the one on White river, and plainly inter- 



FOSSILS OF NEBRASKA. 10 1 1 

mediate between that of the latter and of the present period ; one 
appears to have Hved during the middle or miocene tertiary pe- 
riod, and the other at a later time in what is called the pliocene 
In the later fauna were the remains of a number of species of 
extinct camels, one of which was of the size of the Arabian camel, 
a second about two-thirds as large, also a smaller one. The only- 
animals akin to the camels, at the present time in the western 
hemisphere, are the llama and its allies in South America. Not 
less interesting are the remains of a great variety of forms of the 
horse family, one of which was about as large as the ordinary 
domestic animal, and the smallest not more than two or two and a' 
half feet in height, with every intermediate grade in size. There was 
still another animal allied to the horse, about the size of a New- 
foundland dog, which was provided with three hoofs to each foot, 
thouofh the lateral hoofs were rudimental. Althouofh no horses 
were known to exist on this continent prior to its discovery by 
.Europeans, yet Dr. Leidy has shown that before the age of man 
this was emphatically the country of horses. Dr. Leidy has re- 
ported twenty-seven species of the horse family which are 
known to have lived on this continent prior to the advent of man 
— about three times as many as are now found living throughout 
the world. 

"Amonor the carnivorse were several foxes and wolves, one 
of which was larger than any now living ; three species of hyae- 
nodon — animals whose teeth indicate that they were of remark- 
ably rapacious habits ; also five animals of the cat tribe were 
found, one about the size of a small panther, and another as 
large as the largest wolf. Several of the skulls of the tiger-like 
animals exhibited the marks of terrible conflicts with the cotem- 
porary hyaenodons. 

"Among the rodents were a porcupine, small beaver, rabbit, 
mouse, etc. 

" The pachyderms, or thick-skinned animals, were quite numer- 
ous and of great interest, from the fact that none of them are 
living on this continent at the present time, and yet here we find 
the remains of several animals allied to the domestic hog, one 
about the size of this animal, another as large as the African 



IOI2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

hippopotamus, and a third not much larger than the domestic 
cat. 

" Five species of the rhinoceros roamed through these marshes, 
ranging from a small, hornless species, about the size of our black 
bear, to the largest, which was about the size of the existing 
unicorn of India. No animals of the kind now inhabit the western 
hemisphere. 

"Among the thick-skinned animals were the remains of a mas- 
todon and a large elephant, distinct from any others heretofore 
discovered in any part of the world. Dr. Leidy says that ' it is 
remarkable that among the remains of mammals and turtles there 
are none of crocodiles. Where were these creatures when the 
shores of the ancient Dakotan and Nebraskan waters teemed 
with such an abundant provision of savory ruminating hogs?' 
During the tertiary period Nebraska and Dakota were the homes 
of a race of animals more closely allied to those inhabiting Asia 
and Africa now, and from their character we may suppose that 
during that period the climate was considerably warmer than it 
is at present. The inference is also drawn that our world, which 
is usually called the new, is in reality the old world, older than 
the eastern hemisphere. 

" Ever since the commencement of creation, constant changes 
of form have been going on in our earth. Oceans and moun- 
tains have disappeared, and others have taken their place. Entire 
groups of animal and vegetable life have passed away, and new 
forms have come into existence through a series of years which 
no finite mind can number. To enable the mind to realize the 
physical condition of our planet during all these past ages is the 
highest end to be attained by the study of geological facts. It 
has been well said by an eloquent historian that he who calls the 
past back again into being enjoys a bliss like that of creating. 

" We may attempt to form some idea of the physical geography 
of this region at the time when these animals wandered over the 
country, and to speculate as to the manner in which their remains 
have been so beautifully preserved for our examination. We 
may suppose that here was a large fresh-water lake during the 
middle tertiary period ; that it began near the southeastern side 



THE FOSSIL MAMMALS OF NEBRASKA. \0\X 

of the Black Hills, not large at first nor deep, but as a marsh 
or mud-wallow for the gigantic pachyderms that lived at the time; 
that as time passed on it became deeper and expanded its limits 
until it covered the vast area which its sediments indicate. We 
cannot attempt to point out in detail all the changes through 
which we may suppose, from the facts given us, this lake has 
passed, during the thousands of years that elapsed from its be- 
ginning to its extinction, time long enough for two distinct faunae 
to have commenced their existence and passed away in succes- 
sion, not a single species passing from one into the other. Even 
that small fraction of geological time seems infinite to a finite 
mind. We believe that the great range of mountains that now 
lies to the west of this basin was not as lofty as now ; that doubt- 
less the treeless plains were covered with forests or grassy 
meadows, upon which the vast herds of gregarious ruminants 
cropped their food. Into this great lake on every side poured 
many little streams from broad valleys, fine ranging ground for 
the numerous varieties of creatures that existed at that time. 
Large numbers of fierce carnivorous beasts mingled with the 
multitudes of gregarious ruminants, constantly devouring them 
as food. As many of the bones, either through death by vio- 
lence or natural causes, were left in the valleys, they would be 
swept down by the first high waters into the lake, and enveloped 
in the sediments at the bottom. As the o-reorarious ruminants 
came down to the little streams, or by the shores of the lake to 
quench their thirst, they would be pounced upon by the flesh- 
loving hyaenodon, drepanodon or dinichthys. It was probably near 
this place also that these animals would meet in fierce conflicts, 
the evidences of which remain to the present time in the cavities 
which the skulls reveal ; one of these, of a huge cat, shows on 
either side the holes through the bony covering which had parti- 
ally healed before the animal perished ; and the cavities seem to 
correspond in form and position with the teeth of the largest 
hysenodon. 

"The remains of those animals which, from their very nature, 
could not have existed in great numbers, are not abundant 
in the fossil state, while those of the ruminants occur in the 



IOI4 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

I 

greatest abundance, and are widely diffused in the sediments, not ' 
only geographically, but vertically. The chances for the remains 
of a species seem to depend upon the number of individuals 
that existed. The remains of ruminants already obtained com- 
prise at least nine-tenths of the entire collection, while of one 
species portions of at least seven hundred individuals have been 
discovered. There is another interestinor feature in regfard to 
these remarkable fossils, and that is the beauty and perfection 
of their preservation ; the bones are so clean and white and the 
teeth so perfect, that when exposed upon the surface they pre- 
sent the appearance of having bleached only for a season. They 
could not have been transported from a great distance, neither 
could the waters have been swift and turbulent, for the bones 
seldom show any signs of having been water-worn, and the nice, 
sharp points and angles are as perfect as in life." 

Minerals. — ^The mineral wealth of the State consists largely of 
the two coal beds which we have described — the true coal in the 
southeast, which possesses but little economic value, and the lig- 
nite, which will probably be found profitable. Peat exists in im- 
mense beds in Central and Western Nebraska, and in the opinion 
of Mr. E. A. Curley, a competent judge in these matters,* in the 
best form and condition to be made available for fuel. At some 
time in the not distant future, these peat beds may prove more 
valuable than the thin seams of coal in the coal measures. Lime, 
sandstone, limestone, and marble for ornamental purposes, gyp- 
sum, and especially salt, are the other principal minerals. There 
are many salt basins in the central and western parts of the State. 
The most extensive is in Lancaster county, in a district of twelve 
by twenty-five miles, surrounding Lincoln, the capital of the 
State. The spring waters contain twenty-nine per cent, of salt, 
and the salt is manufactured by the solar evaporation process. 
The salt is said to be the purest in the world, having gSr^g per 
cent, of pure chloride of sodium. The sandstones, limestones, 
and marble or magnesian limestone, are all of excellent quality 
for building and ornamental purposes. 

* "Nebraska and its Resources." London, 1875. 



SOIL AND PRAIRIE VEGETATION. IO15 

Soil mid Vegetatio7i. — The soil of the uplands is largely com- 
posed of loess, and that of the river valleys of alluvium. The 
two deposits are similar in chemical elements, and they form a 
very rich and durable soil, exceedingly valuable for agricultural 
purposes, ranging in thickness from five to one hundred and fifty 
and even two hundred feet. Careful analyses of the soil show 
that in the loess over eighty per cent, of the formation is finely 
comminuted silica : so fine that its true character can only be de- 
tected under a microscope. About ten per cent, of its substance 
is made up of carbonates and phosphates of lime. There are 
some small amounts of alkaline matter, iron and alumina ; the 
result being a soil that can never be exhausted until every hill 
and valley which composes it is entirely worn away. Its finely 
comminuted silica grives it natural drainage in the hiohest deoree. 
When torrents of rain come, the water soon percolates the soil, 
which, in its lowest depths, retains it like a huge sponge. When 
droughty periods intervene, the moisture rises from below by 
capillary attraction, supplying nearly all the needs of vegetation in 
the dryest seasons. The richer surface soil overlies the sub-soil, 
and is from eighteen inches to three and four, and even six feet 
thick. It is organically the same as the sub-soil, but enriched 
with organic matter, the growth and decay of innumerable cen- 
turies — a garden soil, easily cultivated, and making the arable 
farm as a garden. 

The prairie, clothed only by natural processes, presents its own 
testimony to the riches of the State. Its whole expanse is cov- 
ered with grasses, there being not fewer than 1 50 species, and 
the most abundant, making the best pasture, showing green at 
the end of April, and affording feed until November. The blue 
joint grows everywhere except on low bottoms. Under ordinary 
conditions its growth is two and a half to four feet ; and on culti- 
vated grounds it is found from seven to ten feet high. Wild oats 
grow on the uplands, mixed with blue-joint. This grass is relished 
by cattle and is abundant. The buffalo grass, low in habit, is 
now found in the western half of the State. It disappears before 
cultivation, but it is nature's provision of food for grain-eating 
animals during winter, on the prairie, inasmuch as it retains its 



jQ,5 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

nutriment all the year round. Among other feed grasses are 
several varieties of bunch-grass ; and in the low lands a native 
blue-grass and the spangle-top, which latter makes excellent hay. 
The Nebraska prairie is not bare of trees — in fact, the native 
trees furnish a large list. The river bluffs are clothed with 
them, and the banks of the streams. There are two kinds of 
buckeye, two of maple, the box-elder, two of locust, four of ash, 
four of elm, four of hickory, eleven of oak, twelve of willow 
(eight species being shrubs), three of birch, three of poplar, hack- 
berry, iron wood, one sycamore, black walnut, two spruce firs, 
yellow pine, white cedar and red cedar. The shrubs include 
common juniper, linden, pawpaw, prickly ash, five sumacs, shrub 
trefoil, two species of red root, spindle-tree, buckthorn, six spe- 
cies of plum, six currants and gooseberries, five dogwoods, butter 
bush, buffalo berry, red and white mulberry, hazelnut and beaked 
hazelnut. Cedars are found on the islands of the Platte, and 
along the Loups and the Niobrara there is a goodly quantity of 
pine. But the point is here : this list of trees is proof that trees 
flourish on the prairie; and that as much timber as is needed for 
all uses can be raised on the farm. 

During the Indian period, when prairie fires annually swept 
over the country, the timber was confined to the banks of the 
streams; but since the era of civilization and cultivation has com- 
menced, the prairie fires are checked, and groves and forests 
have become possible on the prairie. 

Zoology. — Buffaloes are still found, though not plentiful, in the 
southwestern and northwestern parts of the State. The elk 
{Ccji'us Canadensis) is the noblest game animal of the plains; 
it sometimes weighs from 700 to 800 pounds, and its anders are 
mao-nificent. Its range is in the west from the south to the north, 
feeding on the high prairies, and frequenting also the ravines. 
The antelope [Anfilocapra Amencana),\n plentiful herds and fleet 
as the winds, is found everywhere west of Plum creek : and the 
white or long-tailed deer {Cervus Leucurns),2in6. the black-tailed 
(Cervus Macrotis) are denizens of the same region — the white- 
tailed being found over the whole State. In the far west and 
among the ravines, the big-horn sheep {^Ovis Montana) will now 



ZOOLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 10 17 

and agfain fall to the rifle. The time for huntino- is from the first 
of October to the end of December, the law protecting the ani- 
mals during the remainder of the year. The jack rabbit or 
prairie hare [Leporidce CampestiHs) is common. He is a strong 
and fleet animal, and is good game for coursing, and only to be 
run down by the strongest and fleetest greyhounds. The little 
gray rabbit is also common, and affords excellent shooting ; and 
away in the west, the sage rabbit. In the timber, the black bear 
and two species of lynx are found — rarely in the settled parts of 
the State, and more commonly on the frontier; and also in the 
same localities, the large white and gray wolf The coyote, or 
prairie wolf, is also worth hunting, the animal having all the cun- 
ning of the fox and more than the wit of the prairie foxes, of 
which there are three species, the red fox, the prairie fox and the 
kit fox. Some of the streams are still populous with beavers, 
minks and muskrats. The game birds of Nebraska are plentiful; 
and in the season aflbrd sport in abundance. The wild turkey is 
the noblest of them all. Civilization drives it away ; but in the 
wilder parts of the State, the bird is common enough, and where 
the woods are thickening in the river counties, its reappearance 
is beginning to be noted. The prairie chickens — the grouse of 
the prairie — are everywliere ; and away out on the frontier, the 
large sage hen. Quail are plentiful and readily shot ; and there 
are several plovers which are worth the powder and shot of the 
sportsman. In early spring and late fall, large flocks of wild 
geese cross the State, resting during the journey on the rivers, 
creeks and ponds. Mallards, teal, and many other species of wild 
duck, are plentiful during the same seasons. Of cranes there are 
four or five species — the sand-hill crane, the largest, being ac- 
counted an excellent table-bird. There are numerous hawks, 
and the bald-headed eagle is frequently seen in the sparsely set- 
tled districts. The streams are well stocked with the common 
kinds of fish, and in the northwest there is an abundance of trout 
in the streams. 

Climate and Meteorology. — Nebraska has a very temperate and 
healthful climate. The gradually increasing elevation from east 
to west secures good drainage everywhere, and though the winds 



jqj3 our western empire. 

which sweep across its prairies are strong, they are healthful. 
The climate is essentially a dry one, though the rainfall is suffi- 
cient and well distributed to secure the best results for the crops. 
The winters are not so rigorous as in the States and Territories 
farther north, though the temperature is occasionally low. The 
summers are long and warm, but the prairie breezes greatly 
modify and temper the extreme heat. The mean temperature 
during the winter months ranges from 22° to 30°; that of the 
spring from 48° to 50° ; that of the summer from 71° to 74"", and 
that of the autumn from 48° to 51°. A record of thirteen years 
at Plattsmouth gives the mean annual rainfall as 38,35 inches, of 
which 28.82 inches fell between April ist and October ist, and 
only 9.53 inches between October ist and April ist. Farther 
west the rainfall is somewhat less, but with very rare exceptions 
it is sufficient. The table on page 1019 gives the meteorology of 
six different points for periods of from two to five years, though 
none of them indicate either the temperature or rainfall of the 
extreme west or northwest, which is as yet not inhabited, and 
some portions of it hardly habitable. In the " Bad Lands," the 
summer's sun beats down with terrible intensity, the heat reach- 
ing 1 12° Fahrenheit in the shade ; and the winter's cold is, in its 
way, equally intense. 

Agricultural Productions. — Although Nebraska is essentially 
an agricultural State, and has a large amount of good and fertile 
land, a larger proportion, perhaps, than most of the States adja- 
cent to her, we have to complain that she has not made the most 
of her advantages, and in her accounts of her soil and produc- 
tions has dealt altogether too much in glittering generalities, to 
the exclusion of those statistics of actual crops which alone can 
determine the actual capabilities of her soil and lands for new 
comers who desire to cultivate them. 

We fear that there has been much slovenly farming on her 
rich and fertile lands ; for, so far as the scanty statistics enable 
us to determine, the average yield of the cereals has been much 
lower than it should have been on lands as admirably adapted 
to cereal culture as those of the loess beds, and that that yield 
per acre is diminishing instead of increasing. The numbers and 



METEOROLOGY OF NEBRASKA. 



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I020 O^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

quality of the live-stock are increasing, and give evidence that 
the grazing lands which are now rapidly filling up, will prove 
profitable to the stock-raiser. With greater care in her cultiva- 
tion, the average crop of wheat on her excellent wheat lands 
should be not less than twenty-five bushels to the acre instead 
of 13. 1 bushels, as it was in 1878, or fifteen bushels, as it was in 
1877. She has done better in corn, and as this crop is likely to 
be in demand for the fattening of her own live-stock, she will 
have strong inducements to do better yet. The quantity of land 
taxed or reported for taxation was, in 1879, a little more than 
14,000,000 acres, or more than one-fourth of the entire area of 
the State, and it was valued for the purposes of assessment at 
only ^3 per acre. This included, of course, a large amount of 
erazine land, and the assessment was hiQ^h enouijh for this class 
of land. The land under cultivation in 1879 probably exceeds 
slightly 4,000,000 acres, or about one-twelfth of the area of the 
State. The large amount taken up for farms in the last two or 
three years has not yet become subject to taxation. The tables 
on page 1021 show the amount of the principal crops and their 
value in 1877, 1878 and 1879, so far as these can be ascertained, 
and also the numbers and value of the live-stock in the State for 
the same years. 

There are, of course, other crops which are of considerable im- 
portance besides these, of which we regret that we have not full 
statistics ; among these we may name sorghum, which is a crop 
of constantly increasing magnitude, and for which the soil and 
climate is peculiarly adapted ; broom corn, which is largely culti- 
vated in some sections; flax, cultivated mainly for the seed, though 
the lint, even without bleaching, makes an excellent paper stock. 
The cultivation of the flax is increasing in the newer sections, as 
it has been found the best crop to put in after the new breaking. 
Alfalfa, the millets and the rice corn, or dhourra, are coming into 
favor, while the castor bean and other oil-producing plants pay 
well. 

Nebraska is probably destined to occupy a prominent place 
among the fruit-producing States. Its wild fruits are of excep- 
tional excellence, especially its plums, strawberries, blackberries, 



CROPS OF NEBRASKA. 



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1022 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



raspberries, buffalo berries, etc., and its wild grapes.* For a new 
State it has also made great progress in the cultivation of apples, 
pears, peaches, cherries, plums, quinces and the other fruits of a 
temperate climate. In cultivated grapes it has not yet made 
great progress. At the Centennial Exhibition the State had a 
collection of 163 varieties of apples, many of them of great ex- 
cellence, and a considerable number of pears. Both fruits received 
the first premium. 

But a large portion of Nebraska is and must continue to 
be, for many years to come, better adapted to grazing than to 
farming, and while it can hardly at the same cost maintain as 
large flocks and herds as Texas, Colorado, Wyoming or 
Montana, there is no question that stock-raising does and will 
prove very profitable, if rightly managed, in Nebraska. The 
amount of live-stock in these grazing States and Territories 
increases so rapidly every year that it is very difficult to keep 
pace with them, but although we cannot procure the statistics of 
the year 1880 as yet, a comparison of the live-stock of the State 
for 1877, 1878 and 1879 may give some idea of the rapidity of 
increase; for our statistics for 1877 and 1878 are compiled from 
the State Auditor's reports, and those of 1879 from the United 
States Agricultural report, the State report for that year not 
being yet published. 



Animals. 


1877. 


1878. 


1879. 


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Horses 


112,715 
10,602 
93,700 

238,200 
82,858 

318,764 


67.63 

92 -73 

26.96 

21.30 

2.77 

5.80 


$7,628,551' 

983,123 

2,526,122 

5,073,660^ 

229,517 

1,848,831 


157,619 

16,482 

127,600 

376,058 

■35,777 
617,600 


67-34 
8745 
24.27 

'9-45 
2.30 
3-03 


;Jio,6i4,o63 
1.441,361 
3,096,852 
7,314,328 
272,287 
1,841,828 


iSo,537 

17,150 

145,280 

458,147 
162,520 
701,750 


68. xo 
91.00 
26.00 
25.10 
2.95 
3.88 


)^I2, 296,570 
1,560,650 
3,777,280 
11,499,490 
479,434 
2,722,790 


Mules and asses 


Oxen and other cattle. . . . 










18,289,804; 




24,580,719 






32,336,214 

















* Mr. E. A. Curley, the accomplished correspondent of the London "/)>/</," published, in 
1875, a valuable work, largely illu.strated, entitled, " Nebraska, its Advantages, Resources and 
Drawbacks." In this work he has given engravings of many of these wild fruits, and particu- 
larly of the plums, strawberries, grapes and buffalo berries. In some of these fruits he thinks 
Nebraska surpasses any Western State. 



MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY. JO23 

As these are very low average prices, and the increase in the 
amount of stock in 1880 has been great beyond all former 
precedent, it is probable that a fair and just estimate of the 
value of the live-stock of the State at the end of 1880 would 
not be less than $50,000,000. 

Manufacturing Industry. — Nebraska has not engaged in 
manufacturing so largely as her extraordinary facilities warrant 
her in doing. With abundant water-power, and coal sufficient 
to produce all the steam-power she needs, and abundant 
material for manufactures of all kinds, as well as the best possible 
facilities of transportation, she should become a large manufactur- 
ing State; but at present her almost sole dependence is upon her 
agriculture. Omaha, Lincoln, Nebraska City, Plattsmouth, 
and other towns have some manufacturing establishments of 
importance. Omaha in particular has extensive smelting and 
refining works, and receives and reduces large quantities of the 
refractory ores from Montana, Idaho, Utah, and some from 
Colorado. Flour and feed, iron ware, railroad cars, carriages 
and wagons, boots and shoes, furniture, ready-made clothing, 
hats, distilled and fermented liquors are the leading articles of 
manufacture. In 1875, the annual products of manufacture in 
the State were estimated at $15,500,000. They now probably 
exceed $30,000,000. 

Railroads. — The railroad system of Nebraska traverses all 
parts of the State where there are inhabitants or products 
awaiting^ a market. South of the Platte river most of the roads 
are connected with the Burlington and Missouri Railroad in 
Nebraska. The main line of this railroad commences at 
Plattsmouth, on the Missouri river (where at this time a bridge 
is being constructed which will connect the Burlington and Mis- 
souri, in Nebraska, with the Chicago, Burlington and Ouincy in 
Iowa), with a branch from Omaha which joins the main line at 
Oreapolis, four miles west of Plattsmouth. The line then follows 
the course of the Platte river to the mouth of Salt creek, whence 
it proceeds over Salt Creek Valley through Lancaster county to 
Lincoln, the State capital ; and thence westward over the prairie 
through Lancaster, Saline, Fillmore, Clay, Adams and Kearney 



1024 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

counties to a junction with the Union Pacific road at Kearney, in 
Buffalo county. The Beatrice branch of the Burhngton and 
Missouri road starts from Crete, in Saline county, and runs south 
along- the valley of the Big Blue to Beatrice, in Gage county; 
and the same company, under the name of the Republican 
Valley Company, has built a line from Hastings, in Adams 
county, south over the prairie to the Republican Valley, and 
thence west along the valley to Naponee, on the west line of 
Franklin county, which road is now being pushed forward as rapidly 
as possible westward to Denver, in Colorado, and a contract for 
lOO miles west of Naponee has recently been made. It is also 
proposed to condnue this line eastward from the point where it 
strikes the Republican Valley south of Hastings, to Beatrice, in 
Gage county. The Nebraska Railroad has at present its initial 
point in Nemaha City, in Nemaha county, and runs north on the 
west bank of the Missouri river through Brownville, in Nemaha 
county, to Nebraska City, in Otoe county ; thence westward 
through Otoe and Lancaster counties to Lincoln; and 
thence through Seward, York, Hamilton and Merrick counties 
to Central City, where it connects with the Union Pacific, 
and the track is now surveyed north twenty miles to Fullerton, 
the centre and county-seat of Nance county. The Atchison 
and Nebraska Railroad starts at Atchison, in Kansas, and runs 
through Richardson, Pawnee, Johnson, Gage and Lancaster 
counties to Lincoln ; and from the capital city this company is 
now building a road, under the name of the Lincoln and North- 
western Railroad, through Lancaster, Saline, and Buder counties 
to Columbus, in Platte county, where it connects with the Union 
Pacific. The Omaha and Republican Valley Railroad, a branch 
from the Union Pacific, runs through Douglas, Saunders, Butler, 
and Polk counties to Osceola, the county-seat of the last-named 
county, and a branch is now building from Valparaiso, in 
Saunders county, to Lincoln. The St. Joseph and Denver Rail- 
road, which starts at St. Joseph in Missouri, runs westward 
through the north tier of counties in Kansas, and enters 
Nebraska in Jefferson county, passing through Thayer, Nuckolls, 
Adams and Hall counties to a junction with the Union Pacific at 



RAILROADS IN NEBRASKA. 102$ 

Grand Island ; and the company is now building a branch from 
Marysville, in Kansas, along- the valley of the Big Blue river to 
Beatrice, in Gage county. North of the Platte river the Union 
Pacific is the main line of railroad ; and, starting from Omaha, 
its track is along the Platte valley to the western line of the 
State, a distance of 475 miles ; and this company is now building 
a branch road from Jackson, in Platte county, northward through 
Platte and Madison counties, to Norfolk, in the last-named 
county, with a branch running to Albion, in Boone county. The 
Union Pacific is further building a branch from Grand Island 
to St. Paul, the county-seat of Howard county. The Omaha 
and Northwestern Railroad runs northwest through Douglas, 
Washington and Burt counties, the present terminus being at 
Oakland, in Burt county. The Sioux City and Pacific Railroad 
runs from Missouri Valley in Iowa, westward across the Missouri 
river through Washington county to Fremont, in Dodge county, 
where it connects with the Union Pacific ; and the Elkhorn 
Valley Railroad runs from Fremont up the valley of the 
Elkhorn river, through Dodge, Cuming, Stanton and Madison 
counties to Oakdale, in Antelope county, with a branch running 
from the main line to Norfolk, in Madison county, and Pierce, 
the county-seat of Pierce county. The Covington, Columbus 
and Black Hills Railroad runs from Covineton, which is im- 
mediately opposite Sioux City, in Iowa, through Dakota county, 
to Ponca, the county-seat of Dixon county ; and, the road having 
been sold in 1879 to the Sioux City and St. Paul Railroad, it is 
to be run farther west through the northern coundes of Nebraska. 
At the beginning of 1880 there were about 1,650 miles of 
railroad in operation in Nebraska. 

Population. — The growth of population in Nebraska has been 
very rapid, although such extraordinary efforts have not been made 
to attract population thither as in some of the new States adjacent. 
Having no mines or mineral wealth it has attracted for the most 
part the farming class, and its advantages have not been made as 
widely known as those of States having a large mining or 
manufacturing interest. The following table, prepared with great 
care, exhibits a steady and healthy growth which will compare 
65 



1026 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



very favorably with that of any of the States or Territories 
belonging to "Our Western Empire:" 





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4.494 


3,061 


1,433 
























i860 


28,841 


16,763 


12,081 


28,696 


82 


63t 


22,490 


6,351 


o.t.8 




8,671 


9,023 


9,907 




1870 


129,322* 


70,425 


52,568 


122,117 


789 


6,416 


92,245 


30,748 , I 


62 


326.45 


41,325 


! 35,677 


39,080 


36,169 


1874 
1876 
1878 
1879 
1880 


234.357* 
257.747* 
3.3.748'= 
386,410* 
456,812* 


121,757 

i"-5.'25 
.05,327 
2oi,:^55 
249,275 








6,329 
5,273 
4,710 
4,350 
4,642 






3 
3 
4 


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72,991 
92,161 

"4,73° 
123,411 


















39 
13 


99-3 








148,421 
185,055 
Z03.157 










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1 






449i8o5 


2,394 


355,042 


97,39o[6.oi 

1 


77.26 


! 124,869 


136,780 





Indians. — There are in the State four Indian Agencies, viz. : 
I. The Great Nemaha Agency, of the Iowa and the Sac and Fox 
Indians of the Missouri, having 251 Indians of these tribes, with a 
reservation of 24,014 acres, most of it arable, and partly situated 
in Kansas. These Indians are about to be removed to the Indian 
Territory. 2. The Omaha and Winnebago Agency, including 
1,429 Winnebagoes, 1,120 Omahas, and 36 Poncas — also liable to 
removal. Their reservation comprises 253,069 acres, of which 
240,000 acres are arable lands. 3. The Otoe Agency, including 
438 Otoes and Missouris,Jand occupying a reservation of 44,093 
acres, a part of it in Kansas, of which 40,000 acres are arable. 4. 
The Santee Agency, including 764 Santee Sioux and 103 Poncas 
in Nebraska, and 304 Santee Sioux in Flandreau, Dakota. The 
reservation, which is partly in Dakota, consists of 115,076 acres, 
of which 39,400 are arable lands. There are in all 4,350 tribal 
Indians, and their reserved lands amount to 436,252 acres, of 
which 341,400 acres are arable lands, and 11,645 acres, or one- 
thirtieth of the whole, are actually cultivated by somebody, 
though 580 acres are occupied by intruders. About 9,620 acres 
are cultivated by Indians. 

T\\e Jinancial con6\XAon of Nebraska is good. The State has 
no debt except to its own school fund, on which the interest is 



*Including Tribal Indians. f Tribal Indians not included. J 216 of these now in Indian Territory. 



EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS. 1027 

paid promptly, and though taxation is low and the valuation 
(aside from many exemptions) is only about ZZVz per cent, on 
the true value, yet the taxes bring in sufficient revenue to leave 
a considerable annual surplus. The assessed valuation on which 
taxes are paid (aside from exemptions) was, in 1878, the last 
auditor's report published, about ^83,000,000. The true valua- 
tion, including property now exempt, is not less than $340,- 
000,000. 

Edtccation, — Of the State school fund about $2,500,000 are 
now available. The total amount of this fund will eventually be 
about $19,000,000 or $20,000,000. The receipts of the tempo- 
rary school fund for the two years ending November 30, 1878, 
amounted to $529,176. The following statistics from the State 
Superintendent of Public Schools give many particulars of in- 
terest in regard to the public schools for the year ending April 
7,1879: 

Number of districts 2,856 

Number of school-houses 2,489 

Children between the ages of five and twenty-one 123,411 

Average number of children in each district . . 30 

Average number of days taught by each teacher . 87 

Average number of days of school in each district 107 

Number of districts in which schools are graded . 62 

Number of teachers employed in all graded schools 284 
Number of districts having six months or more 

school 1 ,242 

Number of districts that had no school .... 173 

Average square feet of blackboard surface ... 35 

Number of houses with no blackboard .... 269 
Number of houses furnished with patent desks and 

seats 1,574 

Number of new school-houses built during year . 191 

Number of teachers' institutes held 63 

Aggregate attendance upon institutes .... 2,344 

Number of districts furnishing free text-books . . 137 

STATISTICS OF PUPILS AND TEACHERS. 

Children between the ages of five and twenty-one, 

males 64,179 

Children between the ages of five and twenty-one, 

females 59j232 

Total 123,411 



,Q28 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Children enrolled in the schools 73>956 

Number of qualified teachers employed, males . . i)6o7 

Number of qualified teachers employed, females . 2,221 
Aggregate number of days taught by males . . 125,332 
Aggregate number of days taught by females . 173,669 

Total 299,001 

Average wages per month, males $33 25 

Average wages per month, females 29 55 

STATISTICS OF SCHOOL PROPERTY. 

Value of school-houses ^1,622,355 18 

Value of school sites 175,48360 

Value of books and apparatus 54,82649 

Total value of all school property 1,852,665 27 

Average number of mills levied for school purposes 13 

Amount apportioned by county superintendents . 224,60565 

Money in hands of county treasurers April 7, 1879 160,201 24 

Aside from these public schools, there are high schools of ex- 
cellent character at Omaha and other larofe towns in the State; a 
normal school at Peru with nearly 300 pupils; a prosperous State 
university at Lincoln, the capital of the State, endowed with 
1 30,000 acres of land, and to which the State makes an appro 
priation of about ^25,000 annually ; an institute for the deaf and 
dumb at Omaha, and for the blind at Nebraska City. 

There are also colleges under denominational control ; Doane 
College at Crete, Saline county; The Bishop Talbott or Nebraska 
College, at Nebraska City ; Creighton College, at Omaha, and a 
Methodist Episcopal College recently opened at York, in York 
county. 

Lands for Immigrants. — There are millions of acres of govern- 
ment lands yet unsold in Nebraska, which may be obtained either 
by purchase, pre-emption or under the Homestead, Timber-Cul- 
ture or Desert Land Acts ; but these are mostly in the more 
western portion of the State, and largely beyond the junction of 
the North and South forks of the Platte river. As we have shown, 
the rainfall is not so abundant as farther east, and the land must 
be thoroughly broken before it will yield good crops, but eventu- 
ally, either with or without irrigation, these lands will be some 
of the most valuable in the State. It is best for the immigrant 



LANDS FOR IMMIGRANTS. IO29 

who purposes to cultivate his lands, and not to devote them to 
grazing, not to go beyond the frontier line of progress in the 
purchase of these lands, as the expense of irrigation and of tree- 
planting for a single farm is very heavy ; but where a town or 
colony engage in it together, the expense is much lighter. This 
frontier line is moving west at the rate of about ten or fifteen 
miles a year. There are very desirable lands, to the amount of 
about 2,500,000 acres, held by the State for school and university 
purposes. . They are situated in every county of the State, and 
information in regard to them may be obtained by writing to 
F. M. Davis, State Commissioner of Public Lands and Buildings, 
at Lincoln, Nebraska. The minimum price at which these lands 
are sold is ^7 per acre, on twenty years' time, at six per cent, 
interest ; and leases are on appraised values. During the years 
1877 and 1878 the lands soldwere 26,819 acres, and leased 100,- 
918; and the sales and leases during 1879 and 1880 doubled 
upon these figures. 

For detailed information about the Union Pacific Railroad Com- 
pany's lands, written or personal application should be made to 
the Land Commissioner, U. P. R. R., Omaha, Nebraska. This 
company owns 3,000,000 acres of fertile lands in Central and 
Western Nebraska, which are sold for cash, or on a credit often 
years, at six per cent, interest, with gradual payments of principal 
and interest. The prices range from ^2 to ^10 per acre, on ten 
years' credit, "according to quality, location, timber and nearness 
to market ; " and a deduction of ten per cent, from credit prices 
is made to cash purchasers. 

For detailed information about the Burlington and Missouri 
River Railroad lands, address or apply to the Land Commis- 
sioner, B. & M. R. R., Lincoln, Nebraska. This company has 
remaining of its land grant of more than 2,000,000 acres, about 
1,000,000 acres south of the Platte river, in the rich southeastern 
section, and in the northeastern section north of the Platte. The 
northeastern lands, of which there are about 650,000 acres, range 
from ^i to $6 per acre, on ten years' time, with discount from 
these prices on six years' and two years' credit, and for cash. The 
balance of the Burlingrton and Missouri lands in Southeastern 



J 030 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Nebraska are sold at from ^^3 to ^10, on ten years' credit, with dis- 
counts off for cash or shorter time of credit. 

The following instructions and advice to emigrants to Nebraska 
are of great importance, and should be carefully read and fol- 
lowed : 

Persons with families should not come West entirely destitute 
of means to brave the hardships of pioneer life. Many have done 
' so and have succeeded, and in a few years have been numbered 
among the most influential and well-to-do citizens of the State ; 
but it more frequently leads to disappointment, homesickness and 
discontent. A capital of $200 or $300, after the land is secured, 
with which to commence operations, would be of very great ad- 
vantage. An expenditure of $50 will complete a cabin in which 
a family can be comfortably sheltered. A neat one-story frame 
house, with from two to four rooms, can be built at a cost of from 
$200 to ^600. Good stabling for stock can be constructed with 
but little expense, by the use of a few posts and poles covered 
with straw or hay. 

Settlers coming West, and having a long distance to travel, 
should dispose of their farming implements and heavy or bulky 
furniture. Bedsteads, tables, chairs, mattresses, crockery, stoves, 
etc., etc., stock, teams, wagons, tools of all kinds, and farming 
miplements, better adapted to this country than those left behind, 
can be purchased here at reasonable rates, frequently at less than 
would be the cost of transportation. Clothing, bedding, table 
linen, books, pictures, and other small articles, may be brought 
with advantage. It is also well to bring choice, graded stock, 
such as horses, cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, etc. 

Prices at the West, as in the older States, are regulated by the 
supply and demand. As a general rule, groceries, dry goods 
and articles of domestic use that can be dispensed with, are 
dearer, and the common necessaries — meats, flour, grain, pota- 
toes, etc. — are cheaper than in the Eastern States. The following 
may be taken as average prices, April i, 1879, and there has 
been very little variation since : 



PRICES OF NEEDFUL ARTICLES. 



103 1 



Work cattle, per yoke $75 00 to $125 00 

Horses and mules, per pair 100 00 to 220 60 

Driving horses, each 75 00 to 200 00 

Farm wagons 70 00 to 90 CX) 

Spring wagons 70 00 to 125 00 

Harnos, double set 30 00 to 40 00 



LIVE STOCK. 

Yearlings ^lO 00 to $\'^ 00 

Two-year-olds 20 00 to 30 00 

Three-year-olds 25 00 to 40 00 

Cows 20 CX) to 50 00 

Calves 5 00 to 10 00 

Sheep 25010 400 

Hogs, per pound 03 to 03)^ 

Beef cattle, per pound .... 03 to 04 



AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. 

Threshing machines i^soo 00 to ;{57oo 00 

Harvesters 150 00 to 200 00 

Mowers 75 00 to 90 00 

Drills and seeders 40 00 to 80 00 

Corn planters 35 00 to 55 00 

Hand planters i 00 to 2 50 

Corn shellers 8 00 to 85 00 

Corn stock cutters 40 00 to 60 00 

Cultivators 20 00 to 25 00 

Cane mills 55 00 

Feed cutters 6 00 to 25 00 

Sulky rakes 25 00 to 30 00 

Revolving rakes 5 00 to 8 00 

Harrows 8 00 to 10 00 

Breaking plows 20 00 to 25 00 

Stirring plows 10 00 to 20 00 

Gang plows 75 00 

Sulky plows 45 00 to 5500 

Headers 175 00 to 28000 

Wind Mills 90 00 to 150 00 

Pump and brass cylinder. . 15 00 

One-inch pipe, per foot.. . 20 to 30 



LUMBER AND BUILDING MATERIAL. 

Flooring.dres^ed .md matched, 

per M. IS20 00 to $30 00 

Siding, per M 14 00 to 18 CO 

Ceiling, ^-in., beaded, per M 18 00 to 25 CO 

Common boards, per M 16 00 to 18 00 

Joists, scantling, etc., 18 feet 

and under, per M 

Fencing, per M 16 00 to 

Shingles, A., sawed, per M. . 1 25 to 

Shingles, No. i , per M 

Laths, per M 

4-panel doors I 25 to 

Brick, per M 8 00 to 

Lime, per barrel 



17 00 

18 00 
275 
2 00 
2 75 
2 00 

10 00 
I 25 



HOUSEHOLD FURNITURE. 



Bedsteads ;jS2 00 to $4 00 

Mattresses 2 00 to 4 00 

Tables I 75 to 7 co 

Chairs, per dozen 4 75 to 10 c^o 

Rocking chairs 75 to 4 co 

•Looking glasses 25 to 4 cxj 

Kitchen safes 3 50 to 10 00 

Bureaus, with glass 9 50 to 16 co 



Carpenters, per day $2 00 to $3 00 

Masons, per day 3 00 to 4 00 

Painters, per day 2 50 to 3 CO 

Blacksmiths, per day 2 50 to 3 00 

Carriage-makers, per day.. . . 2 50 to 3 00 

Day-laborers, per day I 50 to 2 00 

Shoemakers, per week 15 00 to 20 00 

Farmhands, per month, in- 
cluding board 15 00 to 20 00 

Clerks, per annum 500 00 to 1,500 00 

Teachers, per annum 300 00 to 2,000 00 



Counties mid Towns. — There were in 1879 sixty-eight organ- 
ized and four unorganized counties in the State. The extraor- 
dinary influx of population in 1879 ^^^ 1880 will undoubtedly 
lead to the organization of other counties by the legislature 
at its biennial session in 1881. Of the cities and towns, Omaha 
has 30,518 inhabitants, and is an important railroad cen- 
tre. Lincoln, the capital, has 13,004 inhabitants. The other 



1032 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

important towns are: Nebraska City, with nearly 10,000 inhab- 
itants, Plattsmoiith, Brownville, Fremont and Peru, which range 
between 2,500 and 5,000 inhabitants. Kearney, Crete, Rulo, Be- 
atrice, Tecumseh, Tekama, North Platte, West Point, Falls City 
and Grand Island are growing towns. 

Religious Denominations. — In 1874 Nebraska had 514 organ- 
izations of the different religious denominations, 279 church 
edifices, 365 clergymen or preachers, 22,749 communicants, and 
an adherent population of about 125,000, or, possibly, 140,000. 
Its church property was estimated at ^665,000. In the six years 
which have since passed, it has more than doubled its population, 
and its religious growth has kept pace with the advance in popu- 
lation. The Methodist Episcopal Church takes the lead in the 
number of churches, ministers and communicants, but is closely 
followed by the Baptists, the United Brethren in Christ, the Pres- 
byterians, the Lutherans and the Congregationalists. After these, 
though in smaller numbers, come the Protestant Episcopal Church, 
the Roman Catholics, the Disciples, the Evangelical Association, 
and several smaller denominations. 

Historical Data. — Nebraska was originally a part of the great 
Louisiana Territory, and subsequently of Missouri Territory. As 
early as 1844, Senator Douglas introduced a bill for the estab- 
lishment of a Nebraska Territory, which was to include Kansas, 
Dakota, Wyoming, and so much of Colorado and Montana as 
then belonged to us, but the bill failed. Ten years later (in 
1854), Nebraska was organized as a Territory, including Dakota, 
Montana, most of Wyoming and Northeastern Colorado. In 
1861 it was stripped of most of these, and in 1867 was admitted 
as a State with a population considerably under 100,000. On 
the completion of the Union Pacific Railroad, which had its eastern 
terminus at Omaha, its population began to increase, but its most 
rapid growth has been during the last five years. From its 
location and its abundance of good and fertile lands. It seems 
destined to become a favorite resort for farming immigrants, and 
will undoubtedly attract a large body of intelligent agriculturists 
from both Europe and America. Some very successful experi- 
ments in the way of colonies of Immigrants have been made here, 
and more are likely to follow In the near future. 



BOUNDARIES AND TOPOGRAPHY. 103? 



CHAPTER XV. 

Its Boundaries, Extent and Area — Its Topography and Surface — Moun- 
tains, Lakes and Rivers — Its Climate and Meteorology — Geology and 
Mineralogy — Minerals — Gold and Silver — Other Metals and Miner- 
als — Permanency of its Mines — Their Great Depth — Mining Industry 
— The Counties containing Mines considered in Detail — The Product 
of the Precious Metals in Nevada since their First Discovery there — 
The Sutro Tunnel — Its Purpose and Object — Its First Success less 

THAN was expected — ItS PROBABLE FuTURE TrIUMPH ZOOLOGV— AGRICUL- 
TURAL Productions — Adaptation of considerable Sections to Grazing — 
Extent of Arable, Grazing, Timbered and Mineral Lands — Tables of 
Agricultural Products and Live-stock — Manufacturing Industry — 
Railroads — Valuation — Population — Indian Reservations — Counties 
AND Cities — Religious Denominations — Historical Data — Conclusion. 

Nevada, sometimes called the Silver State, is the central State 
of the seven lying- west of the Rocky Mountains, and may be 
said in a general way to be bounded by Oregon and Idaho, Utah 
and Arizona, and California. Its shape is irregular, and can per- 
haps be best defined by the official statement of its boundary, 
made in the act of Congress setding its present boundary. This 
statement is as follows: "Commencing at the northwest corner 
of Utah Territory, and the southern line of Idaho, at the 37th 
degree of longitude west from Washington (and 114 deorees 
west from Greenwich), and in latitude forty-two degrees north, 
and running west along the southern line of Idaho and Oregon 
to longitude forty-three degrees west from Washington (and 1 20 
degrees west from Greenwich) ; thence south, along the eastern 
line of California, to latitude thirty-nine degrees north, which 
falls in the southeastern part of Lake Tahoe; thence southeasterly 
to the intersection of the Colorado river, in latitude thirty-five 
degrees north, and opposite Fort Mojave ; thence north and east- 
erly up the centre of the Colorado river to the intersection of the 
thirtv-seventh degree of longitude west from Washington (and 



I034 <^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the 1 14th degree west from Greenwich), and the prolongation of 
the western line of Utah Territory ; thence north, along the west- 
ern line of Arizona and Utah, to the place of beginning ; contain- 
ing 71,737,741 acres, or 112,090 square miles." 

The boundaries of the State have been changed once or twice, 
but the actual area above given is that of the United States Land 
Office, and that laid down in the act of Congress enlarging its 
boundaries. The area as given in the almanacs varies from 
81,539 square miles (30,551 square miles below the fact) to 104,- 
125 (7,965 square miles too small) ; but the actual area is that 
given above. The greatest length of the State from north to south 
is about 490 miles; its greatest breadth about 300 miles. 

Topography and Surface. — Nevada is almost wholly within the 
limits of the great interior American Basin, which includes also 
nearly three-fifths of Utah. This basin is bounded on the east 
by the Wahsatch range, a continuation of the Bitter Root and 
Wind River Mountains of Idaho and Wyoming, extending to and 
along the northwestern bank of the Colorado river, and on the 
west by the Sierra Nevada. The two chains meet in Southeastern 
California, and are connected at the north by spurs running from 
east to west. Within the basin all streams are either lost in 
" sinks " or discharge their waters into fresh or salt water lakes 
within the basin. A small tract in Northern Nevada is outside 
of the basin, and is drained by the Owyhee river, an affluent of 
the Lewis fork or Snake river, one of the constituent streams of 
the Columbia river. In the extreme south two or three small 
tributaries of the Colorado, as the Virgin river. Muddy river and 
Las Vegas creek, have cut their way through the mountain bar- 
riers of the basin, and discharge their waters into the Colorado. 
The Humboldt, the Little Humboldt, th^- Reese, the Carson, the 
Amargosa and many smaller streams, either sink through the 
alkaline sands and disappear from sight, or fall into deep de- 
pressions apparendy made by the giving way of the roof of some 
cavern, or fall into some one of the marshes or the numerous 
lakes, salt and fresh, which are found all over the State. 

The area of the Great Basin is traversed from north to south 
by numerous parallel ranges of mountains, having an altitude of 



LAKES AND RIVERS OF NEVADA. 10^ c 

about 9,000 feet. These are separated by fertile valleys, which 
are watered by streams flowing from the mountains and having 
their supply from the melting snows. These streams afford 
facilities for irrigation, without which, in most cases, the cultiva- 
tion of the soil is impossible. But a very large part of the State 
consists of a lofty table-land, with mountain summits rising to an 
altitude of about 9,000 or 9,500 feet, and broken mainly by the deep 
ravines or canons, caused by the erosion of mountain torrents. 
The long valleys between have an elevation of from 4,000 to 
6,000 feet. 

Lakes and Rivei^s. — The principal lakes are Tahoe, Pyramid, 
Walker, Carson, Washoe and Humboldt. Tahoe has an eleva- 
tion above the sea-level of about 6,000 feet. It is about 1,500 
feet in depth. It is situated in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, 
fourteen miles from Carson City. The western line of the State 
divides it about the centre. The water is very clear and cool, 
and remarkable for its specific lightness. The bodies of persons 
drowned in Lake Tahoe never rise to the surface. It is twenty- 
two miles in length by fourteen in width. 

Pyramid lake is thirty-five miles long, and from ten to fifteen 
in width. Its elevation above sea-level is about 4,000 feet. It is 
situated in the southwestern portion of Humboldt county. It is 
.surrounded by mountains, which rise to the height of about 3,000 
feet. It has been sounded, and found in places 3,600 feet deep. 
It gets its name from a rock which rises 600 feet above the sur- 
face of the water in the shape of a pyramid. There is an island 
near the eastern side which contains about 600 acres of land, upon 
which rattlesnakes and wild goats abound. It has no outlet, and 
is fed by the Truckee river and other mountain streams. 

Washoe lake is situated in Washoe county. Its waters are 
shallow and alkaline. It covers about six square miles. It is 
surrounded by mountains; on the west are the Sierras, from 
which it is chiefly fed by numerous small streams which flow out 
into the valley sink, and then rise again in the lake. 

Walker lake is about twenty-five miles long and ten miles in 
width. Its area has been considerably increased of late years, so 
that the old stage road, formerly about five miles from its shores, 



1036 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

is now under water. It Is situated in Mason valley, Esmeralda 
county. Its elevation above sea-level is about 4,000 feet, and its 
waters are fresh and clear. 

Humboldt lake, more commonly called the Sink of Humboldt, 
is twenty miles in length and ten miles in width. Its waters are 
brackish and strongly impregnated with salt and soda. It is sit- 
uated near the line between Humboldt and Churchill counties, 
and has an aldtude above sea-level of 4,100 feet. It is about the 
lowest point in the Great Basin. The waters from the east and 
west meet here. 

The Carson lakes are situated near the centre of Churchill 
county. They are about twenty miles apart, and spread out over 
a vast area of low ground, so that their dimensions vary greatly 
in proportion to the dryness of the season, and the amount of the 
snow-fall on the Sierras. In wet seasons they are connected by 
a slough with Humboldt lake ; and the waters, like that of the 
latter lake, are impure, and contain a large per cent, of alkali and 
salt. 

With the exception of the Colorado, none of the rivers of Nevada 
are navigable. The Colorado forms part of the southern boundary 
of the State. Its average width is one-half mile. The averag-e 
c urrent at ordinary low stages, where no contraction or special 
cbstruction exists, is about three and one-half miles per hour, 
IVhen it passes over rapids and through narrow canons, the cur- 
rent is more than twice as rapid, so that it is difficult for steam- 
boats to stem it. 

The Truckee river forms an outlet for Lake Tahoe to empty 
its waters Into Pyramid lake. Two-thirds of its entire course is 
in Washoe county. It affords many excellent sites for mills, but 
its waters are chiefly used in irrigating the fertile lands of Washoe 
county. During the past few years many ditches have been con- 
structed for irrigating purposes, and still there is a large supply 
of water left. 

The Carson river heads in the Sierra Nevada Mountains and 
flows through Douglas, Ormsby and Lyon counties. Although 
not so large as the Walker, its waters have been made much 
more useful. Numerous large quartz mills have been erected 



LAKES AND RIVERS OF NEVADA. IO37 

on its banks, which are run by water-power. It irrigates thou- 
sands of acres of fertile lands, and also furnishes the means for 
the transportation of thousands of cords of wood from the moun- 
tains to the markets. 

The Walker river also has its source in the Sierras; it flows 
through Esmeralda county, and empties its waters into Walker 
lake. It is only used for irrigation, being situated too far away 
from the mines to be made available for milling purposes. 

The Humboldt river flows from the east. It has its source in 
Utah, and, after winding through a succession of mountains for 
a distance of about 300 miles, it empties its waters into Hum- 
boldt lake. 

The Owyhee river has its source in the mountains which sur- 
round Independence valley. It flows north into the Snake and 
Columbia rivers, and finally empties its waters into the Pacific. 
It is the only river which rises within the borders of the State 
that has an outlet to the ocean. Reese river heads in the moun- 
tains to the southeast of lone. It flows north, and sinks before 
reaching the Humboldt. 

In all of these lakes and streams are found several varieties of 
food fish, chiefly different species of trout. In all of the mountain 
streams and in the head waters of the rivers already described, 
brook trout abound, while in the lakes and those streams which 
empty into them are found silver trout. In Lake Tahoe a very 
large variety of trout is found, some of which have been caught 
which weighed thirty pounds each. In the Owyhee river are 
found salmon and salmon trout. Through the eflbrts of the Fish 
Commissioner appointed at the last session of the Legislature, 
Carson, Walker and Humboldt lakes and the Truckee river have 
been stocked with Schuylkill catfish and Sacramento perch. A 
fish hatchery has been established in Carson, and 200,000 Mc- 
Cloud river salmon are ready for distribution in the different 
lakes and streams in the State. 

In the eastern counties considerable game is found, as prairie 
chickens, grouse and quail. In the mountains and upland valleys 
are often seen mountain sheep and antelope. The otter and 
beaver are sometimes found. The grizzly bear, cougar, wild cat, 



10^8 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

lynx, wolf, cinnamon and black bears, coyotes, and generally the 
beasts of prey found in California, are also inhabitants of Ne- 
vada, though not as abundant as in some other States. 

Climate. — The climate of Nevada, owing to the diversities of 
surface, variations of altitude and other causes, irrespective of 
the differences of latitude, varies greatly in different localities. 
The changes of the season are very irregular, and pass into each 
other without notice. Generally the extremes of temperature 
are not great. Within the Great Basin, during the summer 
months, the thermometer seldom rises above 95° Fahrenheit; 
nor does it often fall below zero in winter, except upon the moun- 
tains and in the most elevated and exposed valleys. At Carson 
City, where the elevation above sea-level is 4,630 feet, the annual 
mean temperature is about 52°, the annual maximum 68°, and 
the annual minimum 34°. At this point heavy winds from the 
southwest prevail. During the year 1876 there were 316 windy 
days, 217 cloudy, and 49 rainy. The fall of rain and snow for 
the same year was 17.73 inches. The nights are always cool in 
summer in all parts of the State. This marked peculiarity of 
climate is due to the cooling effects of the many ranges of snow- 
covered mountains. The atmosphere is exceedingly dry. There 
are never any fogs. The moisture of the clouds is condensed 
on the mountain-tops, so that the fall of rain in the valleys is very 
limited. The carcasses of dead animals dry up with but little 
offensive putrefaction, leaving the bones and hides mummified. 
In tlie eastern portion of the State cloud-bursts are of frequent 
occurrence from about the first of July to the middfe of Septem- 
ber. The climate is healthful. No country in the world is more 
free from infectious diseases. Epidemics are never known. 
Earthquake shocks are sometimes felt, but rarely severe enough 
to do any damage. 

The Signal Service Bureau has but two stations in Nevada,, 
and those have been maintained less than three years. They are 
Pioche, in Lincoln county, in Southeastern Nevada, and Winne- 
mucca, on the Central Pacific Railroad, in Humboldt county, 
Northwestern Nevada. We give the report of these for the 
year 1878, which, as supplementary to the above notes of the 



MINERALS AND METALS OF NEVADA. jq^q 

climate of Carson City, give a tolerable idea of the climate of the 
State. (See page 1040.) 

Geology and Mineralogy. — It has been demonstrated by the 
geological explorations on the fortieth parallel, that the Nevada 
ranges of mountains belong to the same system of upheavals 
which took place during the Jurassic period. These immense 
mountain masses are composed of sedimentary strata, granite and 
kindred formations and volcanic rocks. The stratified beds com- 
prise the largest portion, and extend from the Azoic age up to 
the time of upheaval. The rock formations embrace nearly every 
species of sedimentary or eruptive products existing, from the 
earliest to the most recent period. In the mountains which skirt 
upon the Sierras, the eruptive rocks prevail; while farther east 
are found the metamorphic and sedimentary formations. Metal- 
liferous deposits and veins exist in all the mountain ranges, the 
most productive of which still continues to be the Comstock lode. 

The valleys, in general, correspond with the mountain ranges. 
They are sometimes short, being intersected by the low moun- 
tains, which in many places link together the parallel ranges, 
running north and south, but usually they are long and narrow. 
With but slight elevations, several openings are found, extending 
from the Humboldt river to the Colorado, the southern limit of 
the State. Many of the valleys are dry and unfit for cultivation; 
some are covered with alkali and sand, while others are scarcely 
less productive than the most fertile valleys of California. All 
have been mainly filled by the products of erosion. 

Minej'als. — Of the productions of Nevada, silver and gold are 
beyond comparison the most important. Scarcely twenty years 
have elapsed since this State was inhabited only by the red man, 
and a few Mormon settlers in Carson Valley; and yet during this 
time the enormous sum of ^400,000,000 in silver and gold have 
been produced from the Nevada mines. More than two-thirds 
of this yield has been since the year 1871. The most productive 
year was 1877, ^'^^ bullion shipments amounting to ^51,368,917. 
The yield for 1878 was ^35,181,949, a falling off from the year 
previous of ^16,398,341. From these figures it maybe seen that 
these two years have been a period of unexampled prosperity 



I040 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



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MINERALS AND METALS OF NEVADA. IO41 

in the history of the State, and that the labor of the miner has 
met with merited reward. From the experience of the past, 
coupled with the condition and indications of the various mining 
districts at present, it may readily be inferred that Nevada's re- 
sources in silver and gold are practically without limit; and that 
the supply is still so great that a long time must elapse before it 
can be exhausted. So fruitful, indeed, has been the yield that 
the last decade forms a new era in the history of the precious 
metals in America ; and the new discoveries being made in every 
direction promise excellent results in the near future. 

Although silver and gold are the chief products of the State, 
there are other mineral resources which are of no mean impor- 
tance. The lead product of Eastern Nevada has increased so 
rapidly during the past two years, that Eureka now stands at the 
head of the lead-producing districts in the United States. Tybo, 
too, is making rapid strides in the way of advancement. The 
product of these two districts falls but little short of that of Mis- 
souri, Iowa and Illinois combined. 

The deposits of borax in Churchill and Esmeralda counties ane 
sufficient to supply the demands of the world, but being situated 
so far away from the markets, the expense of transportation and 
the reduced price of the article have placed a limit upon its pro- 
duction. Fish lake, Columbus and Teal's Marsh have an almost 
inexhaustible supply, and their thousands of acres must some day 
be profitable to the owners. 

The salt deposits are beyond computation. In Humboldt, 
Churchill, Esmeralda, Lander, White Pine and Lincoln counties 
there are beds of salt covering thousands of acres and of un- 
known depths. The waters of North Soda lake, in Churchill 
county, 270 feet in depth, and covering an area of 400 acres, con- 
tain about thirty-three per cent, of soda. Sulphur is found in 
immense deposits in Humboldt county, and in a comparatively 
pure state. Antimony in paying quantities is found in a dozen 
districts, and mines rich in copper are being worked in Lander 
and White Pine counties. Cinnabar, occurring in brilliant red 
crystals, and also in amorphous masses, is found in Washoe and 
Nye counties. Gypsum, plumbago, manganese, cobalt, arsenic, 

66 



IQ^2 ^^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

magnesia, alum, nickel, nitre, iron of good quality, coal In small 
quantities, isinglass — such are some of the mineral products of 
Nevada, which will, in the future, produce some revenue to the 
people and State. 

As was to be expected, the great falling off in the yield of the 
mines in the years 1879 and 1880 has raised the question whether 
they are approaching exhaustion, or whether there is to be a still 
more prosperous future for them. All past analogies in silver 
mining, both In Europe and America, forbid the idea of their ex- 
haustion ; the only real question is whether means can be devised 
to make the mining of low grade ores profitable when they are 
brought. from a depth of 3,000 or 3,200 feet below the surface, 
where constant pumping of the very hot water from these great 
depths is required, and the temperature of the lower levels is 
156° Fahrenheit, and the men can only work twenty minutes and 
rest twenty in four-hour shifts. If these lower levels yield silver 
ores assaying seventy-five to one hundred ounces to the ton, the 
working, even under these disadvantageous conditions, may be 
fairly profitable ; but where the yield is only from fourteen to 
twenty-two ounces, as is too often the case, the margin is clearly 
too narrow to permit any considerable profit, and must in most 
cases result in an eventual loss. 

On this question of the permanency of the mineral production 
from the mines now opened, the able and accomplished State 
Mineralogist, after a historical review of all the great silver mines 
of Europe and America, exhibiting their periods of decadence 
and revival, concludes his essay as follows: 

"The history of all these European and American mines has 
been the same. They were discovered early ; they have had 
their times of depression and times of extraordinary production ; 
they have had their bonanzas and their barren levels ; they have 
been abandoned at one time and energetically worked at another, 
but throughout all the ages they have continued to be productive 
to the present time, and without doubt will still continue to play 
an important part in the mining industries of the world In the 
future. One thousand years ago the Austrian miner descended 
the same shaft which the living descend to-day; for centuries to 



MIX/XG PRODUCTIOX OF COUNTIES. IO43' 

come, the huge piles of waste rock will grow higher and more 
rugged on the Saxon plains. Empires have risen and fallen ; 
rulers have passed from history since the mines of Mexico and 
South America began to be worked ; twenty centuries have not 
exhausted the mineral wealth of Spain. Reasoning from these 
facts, it is safe to conclude that the mines of Nevada are far from 
being worked out. When the character of our mines is com- 
pared with those of other countries, the product is found to be 
small, and considering the extent of territory as yet undeveloped, 
the amount of prospecting done has not been great. But when 
a larger population shall have permanently settled here ; when 
men shall be satisfied with smaller gains, and capital shall be 
more interested in the work, then grander and more remunera- 
tive results may be expected than any which have yet been ob- 
tained. The new level opened by the Sutro Tunnel insures the 
working of the Comstock lode for an indefinite period in the 
future, and although the results have not thus far equalled expec- 
tations, yet there is sufificient encouragement to continued perse- 
verance in this greatest enterprise of modern mining, and that 
perseverance cannot long fail to reap an ample reward." 

Mining Industry. — Twelve of the fourteen counties of Nevada 
have or have had mines of considerable importance. We will 
review them briefly in alphabetical order, showing the number of 
the mines and the product from them in 1877 and 1878, the latest 
detailed report we have been able to obtain : 

Elko county had, in 1877, seven mines, and in addition an estab- 
lishment where the tailings of the Leopard mine were worked 
over, yielding in that year ^24,799. The entire yield of these 
mines in 1877 was ^1,075.968.86. In 1878 but two mines of the 
seven were worked, but three new ones had been opened, and 
the yield for three-quarters of the year was ^941,918.94, indicating 
for the entire year a considerably larger yield from the five mines 
than from the whole seven the previous year, although four of 
the five had only been worked for six months. The total yield 
of Elko county from 1871 to 1878, inclusive, was about ^5,- 

(X)0,000. 

Esmeralda county had, in 1877, twenty-four mines and mining' 



jQ. . OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

establishments, a part of which were merely from the sale or 
transfer of mines. These yielded that year $1,508,491.69, more 
than four-fifths being the production of a single mine — the North- 
ern Belle. In 1878 the number of mines in operation had been 
reduced to sixteen. The Northern Belle was still the leading 
mine, but its production had fallen off largely, being only $236,- 
'i^^'\, for three quarters of the year against $1,250,757 the previous 
year. The total production of all the mines for three quarters 
of 1878 was $469,775. The total production of Esmeralda county 
from 1 87 1 to October ist, 1878, was about $5,400,000. 

Eureka county is one of the most prominent mining counties 
of the State. It had in 1877 between seventy-five and eighty 
mines, some of them of great extent and productiveness, among 
them the Eureka Consolidated, the K. K. Consolidated, the 
Richmond and the Richmond Consolidated. These four mines 
yielded, in 1877, somewhat more than $3,500,000 out of a total 
of $3,898,878.65 for the whole county. Of this large amount 
the Eureka Consolidated produced about one-half. In 1878 the 
number of mines had been reduced to fifty-two, though including 
eleven or twelve new mines. The Richmond was merged in 
the Richmond Consolidated, and this and the Eureka Consolidated 
produced eight-ninths of the whole amount raised in the county. 
This amount for the three quarters to October i, 1878, was 
$4,503,268, of which Eureka Consolidated produced $2, 295, 344 and 
Richmond Consolidated $1,722,689. The only other mine which 
reported a moderately large yield was the K. K. Consolidated, 
which produced $165,532. No mines reported from Eureka 
county till 1873, but between that year and October, 1878, the 
total product was, in round numbers, $18,700,000. 

Humboldt county has never been extensively engaged in mining. 
In 1877 it reported but three mines, and in 1878 but two. The 
Rye Patch is the largest. The production of 1877 was $307,224, 
and for the three quarters of 1878, $176403. The total pro- 
duction of this county from 187 1 till October, 1878, was about 
$2,600,000. 

Lander county had, in 1877, eighteen or twenty mines, only 
one of which — the Manhattan mine — produced largely. The total 



MINING PRODUCTION OF COUNTIES. IO4S 

production of the county was $595,829, of which the Manhattan 
mine yielded ^411,066. In 1878 there were nineteen mines, of 
which nine or ten were new. The production for three quarters of 
the year was $500,782, of which $372,085 was from the Manhattan. 
The entire production of Lander county from 1871 to October, 
1878, was $9,380,000, the product of the earlier years being much 
greater than of the later ones. 

Lmcohi county had, in 1877, twenty-six mines, yielding $556,- 
095 ; the largest being the Raymond and Ely, which with its tail- 
ings produced $329,816, or nearly three-fifths of the whole; 
the Meadow Valley and the Alps, which together yielded 
$159,162. In 1878 there were but hineteen mines in operation, 
of which eight were new ; these yielded in the three quarters of 
1878 reported, $460,5 24, of which $120,605 were produced by the 
Raymond and Ely, and $79,000 by the Meadow Valley, while the 
Day, Techatticup and Alps showed much promise for the future. 
The total amount of bullion produced by Lincoln county from 
1 87 1 to October, 1878, was about $18,250,000, the earlier, years 
having been much more productive than the later ones. 

Lyon county had, in 1877, ten or a dozen mines and mills, none 
of them yielding a very large amount. The total for the year 
was $406,017. In 1878 there were nine mills and mines, most 
of them mills, much of the ore from the Comstock lodes being re- 
duced in this county. The Sutro Tunnel has its entrance in this 
county. The production for the three quarters of 1878 was 
$471,643, of which $269,394 was reported by the Lyon Mill and 
Mining Company and the Woodworth Mill. The total produc- 
tion of Lyon county from 1871 to October, 1878, was about $4,- 
255,000. 

Nye county had, in 1877, twenty-two or twenty-three mines, 
yielding in all $842,584, of which two mines, the Q. G. and,^ 
Bunker Hill and the Tybo Consolidated, yielded $642,504, or 
more than three-fourths. In 1878 there were but seven mines 
in operadon, producing for the three quarters $770,088, of which 
the Tybo Consolidated yielded $447,780, and the Alexander 
Mining Company $1 14,100. The Illinois produced $80,345. The 
total product of the mines of Nye county from 1871 to October, 
1878, was $5,527,000. 



jQ.g OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Ormsby county had no record as a mining county until 1878, 
and then rather for its mills, which reduced ores from other coun- 
ties, than for any mines of its own. Its product in the three 
quarters of 1878 reported was $53,666, all gleaned from the 
tailings of one mill. 

Storey county is the great mining county of Nevada, the mines 
of the Comstock lode being wholly within its bounds. Twelve 
of these were in operation in 1877, the largest being the Cali- 
fornia, Consolidated Virginia, Justice, Chollar-Potosi, Belcher 
and Ophir. The product of the twelve mines in 1877 was %l']r 
062,252, of which the California yielded $18,913,843, a little 
more than one-half; the Consolidated Virginia, $13,725,751, or 
more than one-third, and the Jusdce, $2,339,057. The tailings 
from these mines yielded $770,716 in that year. In 1878 only 
nine of the mines were operated, and for the three quarters of 
that year the production had fallen off to $17,989,636, of which 
$7,590,658 was from the Consolidated Virginia, and $8,242,177 
from the California, or $15,832,835 from the two — fifteen-seven- 
teenths of the whole. The tailings amounted to $576,109. The 
total production for the year was $21,295,030, and that of 1879 
only $8,830,562, a material falling off. The total production of 
Storey county in seven and three-quarter years, 1871 to October, 
1878, was $186,853,849, and the total product since the discovery 
of the Comstock lode about $310,000,000. 

Washoe coimty, once the seat of a large number of valuable 
silver mines, has reported no mining products since 1874, and 
only $148,464 in the three years, 1872, 1873 and 1874. There 
is, however, a prospect that its mines may again be put in opera- 
tion, and that with new processes and prudent and successful 
management, it will again yield liberal returns. 

White Pine county. — This was one of the counties which was 
regarded as containing some remarkable bonanzas, and in 1869 
and 1870 was spoken of as likely to rival Storey county. Its 
yield of the precious metals at first was very fair, but for some 
years past has been steadily declining. From the first discovery 
of silver there, early in 1868, to 1880, the entire production has 
been, in round numbers, $9,700,000, but it was nearly double in 



MINING PRODUCTION OF COUNTIES. 1047 

1868, 1869, 1870 and 1871 what it has been in any year since. 
In 1877, with seventeen mines in operation, it produced only 
$408,492. In 1878, in the first three quarters of the year, eleven 
mines produced $446,454, of which $375,699 came from two 
mines, the Star and the Paymaster. There were in Nevada at 
the close of 1878, 153 mines in operation, and probably more 
than twice that number on which work was suspended tempo- 
rarily and possibly permanently. The production of gold and 
silver in the State for that year was $35,181,949. For the year 
1879 it had fallen off to $21,997,714, and the indications are that 
in 1880 there has not been any material recovery. The produc- 
tion of gold and silver in the State since 1852 considerably ex- 
ceeds $430,000,000 — a vast result to be accomplished by so small 
a population. 

The Sutro Tunnel, though its entrance is in Lyon county, was 
constructed to drain the mines on the Comstock lode. It is over 
four miles in length, and follows the ramifications of the principal 
mines, which it will drain to the depth of about 2,000 feet, and 
the deepest mines will only have to pump their surplus water 
from 1,000 to 1,200 feet to have it drawn off by this channel. 
The tunnel also contains railroad tracks to facilitate the removal 
of ores from the mines. Its cost was about $6,000,000. The 
Tunnel Company own some mines on this lode. While its suc- 
cess has not thus far been so great as was hoped, it must event- 
ually greatly enhance the value of the mining property connected 
with the Comstock lode. 

Zoology. — The wild animals of Nevada are those of California, 
except those which find their homes in the sea or along the shores 
of the Pacific. The grizzly bear is the monarch of the forest, and 
the black and the Mexican bear are sufficiently numerous; the 
cougar or panther, the wild cat, the gray wolf and the whole 
marten tribe, the lynx, skunk and raccoon are abundant. Of 
game animals, the elk, two species of deer, and possibly the 
moose, though that animal is very rare. Rocky Mountain sheep 
or big horn ; rabbits, squirrels, the sewellel, the gopher and other 
rodents are so numerous as to give annoyance. Birds of prey, 
song birds and game birds are plentiful. Reptiles are of the 



1048 O^'"^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

same genera and species as in California. Trout and salmon 
trout are found in the larger lakes, but the smaller lakes are too 
alkaline for fish. Southern Nevada has few animals. 

Agricultural Productions. — While Nevada is essentially a 
mining State, and contains but a comparatively small proportion 
of arable land, she can, by the aid of irrigation, raise a sufficient 
quantity of cereals, root crops, etc., to supply her small popula- 
tion, and by turning attention to stock-raising soon export many 
thousand head of cattle. 

The soil of the State is generally a loam, most fertile where 
the underlying rock is limestone, but nearly everywhere suffi- 
ciently so to reward the labors of the husbandman, where water 
can be obtained for the purposes of irrigation. The immense 
stretches of barren wastes so often seen are only so because of 
the want of moistening showers of rain, and streams sufficiently 
numerous to supply the demands for agriculture. As a large 
proportion of the land is much better adapted to grazing than to 
tillage, much attention has been given to the raising of live-stock, 
and the horses, cattle, sheep and goats bred here are of excellent 
quality. The winter feed, consisting of bunch-grass and white 
sage, furnishes the best of sustenance for stock, so that, with rare 
exceptions, is any provision made or stores of fodder laid up for 
winter use. During the summer months the pasturage in the 
vicinity of springs, brooks and creeks on mountain sides and in 
the canons supplies the feed, but when winter comes, the herds 
and flocks feed miles away from water in the valleys. The north- 
ern and eastern sections of the State are the best adapted for 
grazing. Many of the loftiest mountains are covered with a spe- 
cies of bunch-grass peculiar to those localities. The table-lands 
and dry valleys in many places are covered with the white sage, 
which makes the best of winter feed for stock. When growing in 
the spring and summer, this sage is bitter and not eaten, but 
when the frosts of fall and winter come it is tender, sweet and 
nutritious, and better liked by stock than other kinds of feed. So 
extensive has the business of stock-raising become that now the 
supply far exceeds the wants of the population, and thousands of 
steers and beef cattle are yearly shipped by railroad to the markets 



VARIED PRODUCTS OF SOUTHERN VALLEYS. 1049 

of California. The aoricultural lands of the State are small in 
proportion to the area, though in all of the valleys where are 
found streams of water large tracts of land are brought under 
cultivation, and the crops produced are very superior in character. 
The best of these arable lands are found in Carson, Eagle, Mason, 
Washoe, Truckee, Humboldt, Reese River, Owyhee, Lamoille, 
Ruby, Steptoe, Spring, White River, Snake, Panaca, Pahranagat, 
Paradise, Muddy and Los Vegas Valleys. There are hundreds 
of other smaller valleys, and in many of them the soil is quite as 
productive, though less water is found; and there is no land in 
the State but what is benefited, for agriculture, by irrigation. In 
the northern and central valleys all the grains, vegetables, and 
fruits of a temperate climate are cultivated with success. In the 
southern valleys the proportion of fertile land is much less than 
in other sections of the State, except about springs and streams 
of water. The country is chiefly a desert. The scarcity of water 
is a noticeable feature, but where there is sufficient for irrigation, 
as in the Muddy and Las Vegas Valleys, the farmer is abundantly 
rewarded for his labor. Fruit trees, embracing nearly every va- 
riety known in both temperate and tropical climates, are culti- 
vated. Growing here side by side are seen the olive and the 
plum, orange and apple, lemon and peach, fig and apricot, pome- 
granate and pear, and the walnut and pepper. Grapes also grow 
to perfection. The vineyards produce as perfectly ripened and 
delicious grapes as the most favored localities in California and 
France. Cotton and sorghum have been cultivated quite ex- 
tensively ; one acre of land yielding as much as a thousand 
pounds of the former. Melons, squashes and beans also grow 
abundantly, as well as corn and all the smaller grains. Some of 
the hardier vegetables, as potatoes, do not thrive so well. Two 
crops are raised yearly on the same land. It is first sown in 
small grains, as wheat, barley, rye and oats, which are harvested 
about the first of June. It is then planted in corn, beans, pota- 
toes, beets, cabbage, onions, squashes, melons and all other vari- 
eties of garden vegetables. The mezquit bushes, which grow in 
some of these southern valleys, furnish a very nutritious bean, 
which all animals feed upon as soon as the grasses die in the fall. 



J050 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Stock keep as fat upon this feed during the winter months as 
though fed upon hay and grain. 

The tables on page 105 1 give the latest reports yet published of 
the crops and live-stock of Nevada — the returns of 1877 "^"^^ 1878. 
The Legislature has only biennial sessions, and the reports of the 
assessors and auditor are only made biennially. The amount of 
arable land enclosed or reported as in farms, was, in 1877, 152,- 
810 acres, and in 1878, 158,097 acres; only one four-hundred-and- 
fifty-fourth part of the area of the State ; and of this small terri- 
tory — less than seven townships — only 75,743 acres in 1877, and 
76,358, or not quite one-half, was under cultivation. It should be 
said, however, that there is no official record of the lands used 
for grazing purposes, and that a moderate portion of these is 
also under cultivation.* 

Manufacturing Industry. — The fluctuations in the population 
and the mining industry of Nevada make it exceedingly difficult 
to determine the amount of manufacturing in the State at any 
given period. The annual product of Its manufacturing establish- 
ments in 1873 was reported at ^15,870,839. We doubt whether it 
is as much as that now, though at some periods during the 
decade the amount may have been twice as much. 

There were in 1878 fifteen grist or flouring mills reported in 
the State, which were said to have produced 5,000 barrels of 
flour (all from Washoe county, though only one mill was reported 
from that county, the other fourteen being situated in other 
counties, and the same mill ground 1,500 bushels of corn, all 



* The State Surveyor-General in 1879 makes the following approximate estimate of the area 
of available lands in Nevada. It is, of course, only an approximation, and may eventually 
prove to be some millions of acres out of the way : 

Approximate area of agricultural land 1,067,653 acres. 

" " " grazing land 9,708,060 acres. 

" " «< timbered land 1,901,410 acres. 

Mineral lands 1,261,600 acres. 

Total of available lands now known 13.938,723 acres. 

This is a little less than one-fifth of the entire area of the State ; but it must not tie hnstily 
concluded that four-fifths of Nevada is a desert. There is undoubtedly a larger amount of una- 
vailable land in the State than in any other State of " Our Western Empire ; " but there will 
eventually be found to be thirty or forty million acres which can be made valuable. 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS AND LIVESTOCK. 
Agricultural Productions. 



105 1 



Kind of crop. 



Wheat, bushels 

Barley, " 

Oats, " 

Rye, " 

Corn, " 

Buckwheat," 

Peas, " 

Beans, " 

Potatoes, " 

Cabbage, tons 

Hav, " 

Hops, " 

Beets, " 

Turnips, " 

Butter, pounds 

Cheese, " 

Wool, " 

Grape vines, number. 

Wine, gallons 

Honey, pounds 



1877. 1878. 



Acres. 



Acres. 



8,444 

23>42I 

7.233 
109 

449 
II 
24 
46 

4,602 
114 

90.915 



8,268 
24,267 

6,739 
166 

4,235 

13 
18 

43 

3,575 

117 

91,344 

2>2 



1877. 



Bushels, 
tons or 
pounds. 



104,603 

546,774 
181,288 

3,035 
10,696 

157 

505 

1,052 

345,900 

459 

105,727 

150 
206 
212 

326,015 
33,900 

577,216 

82,959 

2,010 

15,875 



1878. 



Bushels, 
tons or 
pounds. 



130,999 
544,059 
98,300* 
3,060* 

11,945 

165 

445 

1,035 

382,397 

421.5 
107,698 

150 
196 
206 

337,925 

36,900 

626,807 

102,450 

2,115 
16,680 



Live-Stock. 



Animals. 



Horses 

Mules 

Asses 

Milch cows 

Oxen and other cattle 

Bulls 

Sheep and lambs 

Angora and Cashmere goats 

Hogs 

Chickens 

Turkeys 

Geese 

Ducks 

Hives of bees 



Total values. 



1877. 1878. 



Number. Number. 



29,562 
3'782 

173 

46,879 

98,849 

1,068 

198,911 

4,246 

5,537 

54,170 

5'i27 

1,522 

3'997 
1,053 



31,496 
7,646 

175 

50,951 

173,840 

1,032 

211,173 

6,698 

6,080 

56,820 

5,040 

1,510 

4,483 

1,190 



1877. 



Value. 



51,478,000.00 

247,154.00 

12,110.00 

1,078,217.00 

1,878, 131.00 

64,080.00 

397,822.00 

42,460.00 

16,61 1. 00 

21,668.00 

7,690.00 

1,369.80 

2,998.00 

10,530.00 



1878. 



Value. 



i, 307, 970.80 



$1,572,480.00 

499,666.00 

12,250.00 

1,171,873.00 

3,476,800.00 

61,920.00 

443,463.00 

73,678.00 

19,760.00 

28,410.00 

7,560.00 

i,359-oo 

3,362.25 

11,900.00 



^394,49I•25 



* Assessor's report, evidently incomplete. 



IOC2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

that was reported, and 50,000 bushels of barley) ; 55,000 bushels 
of barley were ground in other counties. This was a falling off 
from the production of the previous year, but this may be due to 
the fact that the assessors in most of the counties neglected to 
report. There were twenty-seven saw mills reported ; a part of 
these sawed 27,490,000 feet of lumber, and made 100,000 
shingles. There were eight planing and framing mills. There 
were 119 quartz stamp mills in operation, six less than the 
previous year, and they crushed 659,534 tons of quartz, almost 
300,000 tons less than the year before ; there were thirty-four 
smelting furnaces, which smelted 154,651 tons of ore, about 
70,000 tons more than the previous year. Seven pan mills worked 
over 83,563 tons of tailings. Six borax mills were operated, but 
how much they produced is not told. The other manufactures 
are not reported, and we have no key to the value of the 
production of these. There were seventeen mining ditches in 
operation, having a total length of fifty-seven miles, and eight of 
them used 4S4 miner's inches of water daily. There were 407 
irrigating ditches, having a total length of 1,491 miles, and 
irrigating 128,004 acres of land. There were also six wood 
flumes, fifty-three miles in length, and 75,000 cords of wood were 
flumed through them. 

Railroads. — The entire number of railroads in the State was 
fifteen in 1878. The total length at the close of 1879 was about 
685 miles. 

Valuation. — The assessed valuation of real and personal 
estate in 1878 In the State, with one county (Elko) missing, were 
^26,018,392, about ^1,400,000 less than that of the previous year. 
These amounts were absurdly below the real valuation. Either 
one of the four or five bonanza kings of the State could 
probably show an inventory exceeding this amount, and the 
property of the Central Pacific Railroad in the State alone is 
probably worth considerably more than the entire assessed 
valuation of all real property In the State. 

Population. — Nevada is not a State of large population, and 
since 1870, the number of its inhabitants has fluctuated remark- 
ably. When admitted into the Union as a State, its population 



POPULATION OF NEVADA. 



1053 



was far below the usual requirement, and indeed has never yet 
attained to it. The almost exclusive devotion of the inhabitants 
to mining enterprises, and the fact that many of these were 
managed by foreign companies, and the employes were very 
few of them citizens, has aidibd in keeping the population at a 
low figure. The following table gives the particulars of the 
population so far as they are attainable : 



i860 
1870 
1875 
1877 
1878 
1880 



1^ 



6.857 
58,734* 
60,540* 
64,164* 
64.334* 
69,065* 



6,137 
32,359t 
37.54it 



720 

IO,II2f 

i4.999t 






6,812 45 
38,959 3,509! 
43,127 4,413^ 



53.574 5,9 



i 

c 


I 

1 


c 
1 


5 


16,243 
8,000 

7,000 

6,750 
6,800 


4,793 
23,690 


2,064 

i8,8oi 


0.06 
0.41 
0.66 
0.51 
0.52 
0.44 










36,623 


25,642 



519-67 
17.11 
10.03 

00.06 
7-35 



500 
6,950 
8,785 
9,465 
9,521 
8,274 



ho u 







N 


<1S 


4;' 


?l 


bJ 




< 


ui 


t* 


■o 






'Z, 


^ 


> 


S* 





•a 

c 



5,149 5,699 

24,762 I 26,920 
I 29,780 

30.8135 

3',494fl 



Indian Reservations. — The Indian reservations amount tG* 
897,815 acres, but only a very small part of this consists of 
arable lands. 

Coimties and Cities. — There are fourteen organized counties \\\ 
Nevada, viz.: Churchill, Douglas, Elko, Esmeralda, Eureka, 
Humboldt, Lander, Lincoln, Lyon, Nye, Ormsby, Storey, Washoe 
and White Pine ; of these Storey county, in which is situated the 
Comstock lode, is much the largest; of the others only Eureka 
and Ormsby exceed 5,000 inhabitants. The principal cities 
and towns are Virginia City, which has 13,705 inhabitants; 
Gold Hill and Hamilton, mining towns, with 4,000 or 5,000 each; 
Carson City, the capital, with about 4,000; Treasure City, Elko, 
Reno and Pioche, with from 1,500 to 2,000 each. 

Education. — The State has a moderate school fund from the 
sale of school lands, and the provision for public school education 
is very good. Her fund will increase with the growth of the 



♦Including tribal Indians, f Excluding tribal Indians, f Includes 3,152 Chinese. § Includes 3,919 Chinese. 
\ The number of registered voters in 1877 was 17,761, and in 1878 17,166, showing that a large number of those 
of voting age were aliens. 



1054 ^^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

State. In the cities and towns, the schools are well maintained. 
Among the' scattered population of the newer mining districts 
and the grazing lands there is more difficulty. The only 
institution for higher education is the State University, which has 
not yet organized anything beyond its preparatory department. ' 
Religious Denominations. — In 1874 there were in Nevada, as 
reported, forty-four church organizations of all denominations, 
thirty-two church edifices, thirty-seven clergymen, priests or 
ministers, 1,132 communicants, 10,300 adherent population, and 
^301,450 of church property. Of these the Roman Catholics 
claimed thirteen church organizations, though but seven church 
edifices and six priests. They numbered all the adherents of 
their church as Catholic population, and reported them as 5,000. 
Their church edifices were the best buildincrs of the kind 
in the State, and were valued at ^134,000, probably considerably 
less than their actual worth. The Methodists came next with 
eleven church organizations, ten church edifices, twelve ministers, 
496 communicants, 2,500 adherent population, and church 
property reported at ^76,250. There were nine Protestant 
Episcopal Churches, six church edifices, nine clergymen, and 269 
communicants, with ^48,000 of church property. Next in order 
came Presbyterians, with five churches, three church edifices, 
three ministers, 169 members, and ^21,200 of church property. 
The only other denominations reported were the Baptists, with 
three churches, three church edifices, three ministers, and 
^16,000 of church property ; and the Congregationalists, with one 
church, one church edifice, and one minister, with twelve 
members, and ^6,000 of church property. Nevada could hardly 
be called a very religious commonwealth, when less than one- 
fifth of its population were even adherents to any form of 
religion, and only one-fiftieth were actual communicants. The 
condition of things is not much better now. At that date the 
Mormons had begun to plant their communities, and teach their 
doctrines in the mining districts, and now, six years later, they 
claim to have the control there, and we fear their claim is 
just. This faith, which is also an authority or empire, is the sum 
of all abominations, and we cannot look at its spread without 



HISTORICAL DATA AND CONCLUSION, Iqci; 

horror and disgust. The prevalence of polygamy, blasphemy, 
lust and murder in a State like Nevada, would portend its 
ruin were its mines a thousand-fold richer than they are. 

Historical Data. — Nevada is a part of the region acquired 
from Mexico by the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo in February, 
1848. It was at first a part of California Territory, and on the 
admission of that State into the Union, was made a part of Utah 
Territory. It was set off as the Territory of Nevada, in March, 
1 861, but had not then so large an area as it has now. A part 
of its present boundaries on the east were fixed in 1862 ; it was 
admitted into the Union as a State in 1864, and received some 
further accessions of territory in 1866. It furnished its quota of 
soldiers to the civil war, and sent material aid to the Sanitary 
Commission to the extent of ^51,000. 

Conclusion. — Nevada does not offer a very promising field for 
immigration. Its great mining operations are in the hands of 
wealthy capitalists, and are not at the present time very promis- 
ing ; there are probably new lodes and new placers which may 
prove very rich ; but only capitalists will be able to hold or work 
them. Grazing, especially with herds of cattle, might prove 
better, but it requires a large capital, and Wyoming, Montana, 
Oregon, Washington Territory, and perhaps California, are so 
much better adapted to grazing as to leave but small induce- 
ments to the stock-grower to start here. Farming in some of 
the fertile valleys, or market gardening, would be more feasible, 
for, with irrigation, crops can be raised, which will find a good and 
ready market at home. But the lack of any patriotic State 
feeling, and the prevalence of Mormonism throughout the State, 
make it a State to which immigration is not desirable. 



IQ^5 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

l^EW MEXICO. 

Topography — Boundaries Tenlarged by the Gadsden Treaty) — Extent 
AND Area — Mountains — Rivers and Lakes — Climate — Variety in Tem- 
perature — Mr. Z. L. White on the. Summer Climate of the Territory — 
New Mexico as a Health Resort ^Meteorology and Rainfall of vari- 
ous Points in the Territory — Geology and Mineralogy — Mineral 
Wealth of the Territory — Gold and Silver — Other Metals and Min- 
erals — Turquoise — Hot Springs — Coal — Bituminous, Lignite and True 
Anthracite — Coal found in New Mexico of the best Quality and in 
Inexhaustible Quantities — Arable Lands — Their Quantity and Qualit's 
— Native Agriculture — Grazing Lands — New Mexico best Adapted t(» 
Sheep-farming — Number of Sheep — Crops of 1879 — Mining Industry — 
Governor Wallace on the Mining Districts — The Gold and Silveu 
Production — Objects of Interest — The Canons and Terrible Darj; 
Valleys and Caves of the Territory — The Seven Cities of Cibola- 
Evidences of Volcanic Action — Buried Cities — Abo and its Ruins- 
The Indian Skeleton overwhelmed by Volcanic Ashes — The Vas'I 
Crater — Rock Cities — The Pueblo Pottery — How it was and is Mad" 
— The Zuni Blankets — Manufactures — Railroads — Great Developmeni 
OF Railways — Population — T-Af le — Chief-Justice Prince on the Three 
Civilizations Found There — The Indian Tribes — The Pueblos — The 
Apaches — The Navajoes — Counties and Principal Towns — Education — 
Religion and Morals — Historical Data — Conclusion. 

New Mexico is a central Territory of the southern tier of 
States and Territories of "Our Western Empire." It is a portion 
of the territory ceded by Mexico by the treaty of Guadalupe- 
Hidalgo, in February, 1848, and, previous to the cession, had 
been a State of that republic. It was created a Territory by Act 
of Congress, September 9th, 1850, but the Territorial government 
was not organized till March i, 1851. 

The Territory extends from 103° to 109° of west longitude 
from Greenwich, and from 31° 20' to 2,^° north latitude. It is 
bounded by Colorado on the north, by Texas and the Indian 
Territory on the east, Texas and Old Mexico on the south, and 
Arizona on the west. It is almost a perfect square, a small tract 
projecting into Mexico, which was acquired by the Gadsden 



TOPOGRAPHY OF NEW MEXICO. jO^^ 

treaty, in the southwest, being the only departure from complete- 
ness in its proportions. This tract contains some noted mineral 
springs, but otherwise is not at present known to be of much 
value. The greatest length of the Territory from north to south 
is 390 miles, and its greatest breadth from east to west 341 miles. 
Its area is 121,201 square miles, or 77,568,640 acres. 

Mountain Chains. — The 'mountains enter the Territory from 
Colorado in two ranges, the eastern, lying wholly east of the Rio 
Grande, being a continuation of the Sangre de Cristo, or Park 
range, of Colorado, and continuing below the 37th parallel under 
the name of the Raton Mountains. The whole range is high, and 
numerous elevated summits and lofty peaks, as well as continuous 
ridges of great height, are found in its course; but these termi- 
nate abrupdy a short distance below Santa Fe, and only an ele- 
vated and somewhat broken plateau remains of this range from 
that point to the Texan boundary'. The other range, which 
seems to be a condniiation of tlte San Juan and Uncompahgre 
Mountains of Colorado, consists of many detached mountains of 
lower altitude, with passes between t'lem of only 5,000 or 6,000 
feet in height. They are known in New Mexico as the Sierra 
Madre, and form the connecting link between the lofty and rugged 
mountains of Western Colorado and tlte equally lofty Sierra 
Madre of the Republic > T Mexico. The various groups of these 
detached mountains with ihe valleys between them fill up almost 
the endre region west of the Rio Grcinde. Though the eastern 
mountains are much the highest, yet here, as in Southern Colo- 
rado, the western and lower mountains form the water-shed be- 
tween the waters flowing to the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 
There are a chain of hills of moderate elevation alone the eastern 
bank of the Rio Pecos, which form the boundary on the west side 
of the vast Llano Estacado, or Staked Plain. 

Topogf^aphy. — The face of the country is diversified by moun- 
tains, valleys, plains, and high kvel plateaux or mesas ; similarity 
of climate, character and resources, pertaining to a large portion 
of the country, excepting in the highest ranges and lowest valleys. 
In portions of the Territory the surface is much broken and dis- 
rupted by chains of mountains, preserving a general direction of 
67 



jQfg ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

north and south. Intervening, there are large areas of table 
lands, bisected by many large and small valleys of unsurpassed 
fertility, and susceptible of the highest state of cultivation. The 
valleys have a mean altitude above the sea of 4,500 feet, and the 
mountains on either side of the Rio Grande del Norte and Rio 
Pecos of 6,000 to 8,000 feet. In the more northerly portions of 
the Territory they rise to 10,000 and 12,000 feet. 

Rivers and Lakes. — The rivers of New Mexico contribute to 
both the Atlantic and Pacific slopes. The eastern is watered and 
drained by the Canadian and its tributaries into the Mississippi, 
and the Rio Grande del Norte and its tributaries into the Gulf 
of Mexico. The western slope is watered and drained by the 
Colorado of the West and Rio Gila, and their tributaries, into the 
Gulf of California. The Rio Grande del Norte takes its rise in 
the high mountains, north of the boundary line of New Mexico, 
where it is fed by numerous springs and the meltings of the an- 
nual snows, and augmented by tributaries, watering and draining 
a vast area of some of the finest farming and grazing lands on 
the continent. It flows south through the western division of the 
Territor)', a broad, beautiful river enriching with its turbid water 
a valley more than 400 miles long and many miles in breadth — 
one of the most wonderful for fertility and beauty in the world. 
The Rio Pecos, on the eastern slope of the principal mountains, 
has its source in the mountains near Santa Fe, watering and 
draining, through its numerous tributaries, an Immense district 
of country, and flowing through its eastern division into Texas, 
through a valley only second in importance to that of the Rio 
Grande del Norte, with which it forms a junction below the 
southern boundary. The Canadian river flows to the east, and 
through its affluents waters and drains the entire northeastern 
part of the country. The Rio San Juan, formed by the Rio Pie- 
dra, Rio Los Pinos, Rio Florida, Rio de Los Animas, Rio Navajo, 
Rio de La Plata and other smaller streams, constitutes one of the 
piost beautiful rivers in the West, watering and draining all the 
southwestern slope of the San Juan Mountains. In the south- 
west the Rio Mimbres, Agate creek, Bear creek, and the San 
Francisco river, together with the head waters of the Rio Gila, 
water and drain the region. ' 



THE NEW MEXICAN CLIMATE. IO50 

East of these, and flowing, from either side of a system of 
detached mountains, occupying nearly the longitudinal centre 
of the Territory, and extending through its entire length from 
north to south, terminating in the Guadalupe Mountains on 
the borders of Texas, are a large number of small rivers and 
creeks, supplying a large area of table lands and valleys, as well 
as a portion of the Terraces of the Rio Grande and Rio Pecos 
with pure living water. Besides these, almost every mountain 
and hill is supplied with numerous springs of sparkling cold 
water ; also, there are many good springs found in the low de- 
pressions and valleys many miles distant from the mountains. 
Thus, it will be seen that the water supply is far more ample 
than the casual observer or stranger would infer from an exami- 
nation of maps drafted years ago, or a supposition derived from 
vague reports of the arid climate and light rainfalls. 

Climate. — There is great diversity of climate, owing to differ- 
ences in latitude and altitude between different portions of the 
country. Almost any degree of temperature may be attained by 
change of locality, there being a wide range of extremes in tem- 
perature. In the lower plateaux, the summer days are w^arm, but 
not debilitating, because the atmosphere is so dry that perspira- 
tion is rapidly absorbed. The nights are always cool and 
bracing. The climate throughout the Territory is so mild and 
equable, combining dryness and purity, particularly so on the 
plateaux of mean elevation, that many persons afflicted with pul- 
monary and other diseases of a like character, have tested its 
salubrity with marked benefit, and in many cases permanent 
cure. Those who have lived in this delightful climate for a few 
years believe it to be the healthiest location in the United States. 

Mr. Zimri L. White, the able correspondent of the New York 
Tribune, writing from the Territory in September, 1880, says : 

" The summer climate of the northern part of the Territory is 
delightful. At Santa Fe, which has an altitude of about 7,000 
feet, the nights are always so cool that heavy blankets upon the 
beds are comfortable, and the heat at midday, although sometimes 
great, is never oppressive. Americans here dress in heavy 
woollen fabrics, both for outside and underwear, at all seasons 



Io6o ^^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of the year. I am told that the wifiters are mild and sunny, with 
comparatively little snow. The low altitudes in the central and 
southern portions of the Territory are very hot and dry, but on 
account of the absence of moisture in the atmosphere and the ex- 
ceedingly rapid evaporation, the apparent intensity of the heat is 
much reduced. The temperature in the mountains is always and 
everywhere delightful. 

New Mexico as a Health Resort. — New Mexico has a deservedly 
high reputation as a sanitary resort in pulmonary diseases, and 
that its real character and the diseases which are benefited by a 
residence there may be better understood, we present the fol- 
lowing testimony from eminent physicians and others long resi- 
dent in the Territory. 

Lewis Kennan, M. D., an eminent physician of Silver City, New 
Mexico, twenty-seven years resident in the Territory, says: "It 
is certain that even when the lungs were irreparably diseased, 
very much benefit has resulted. Invalids have come here with 
the system falling into tubercular ruin, and their lives have been as- 
tonishingly prolonged by the dry, bracing atmosphere. The most 
amazing results, however, are produced in warding off the ap- 
proaches of phthisis, and I am sure there are but few cases which, 
if sent here before the malady is well advanced, would fail to be 
arrested. Where hardening has occurred or even considerable 
cavities have been detected in the lungs, relief altogether sur- 
prising has taken place. The lowest death rate from tubercular 
disease in America is found in New Mexico, notwithstanding the 
large number of cases of that disease who resort thither for heal- 
ing. The census of 1870 gives twenty-five per cent, as the death 
rate from this disease in New England, fourteen in Minnesota, 
from five to six in the different Southern States, and three per 
cent, in New Mexico. I have never known a case of bronchitis 
or asthma in the Territory that was not greatly improved or 
altoeether cured. For rheumatism and diseases of the heart 
with or without a rheumatic origin, I would not recommend this 
climate. Valvular difficulty in that organ is invariably made 
worse." 

" The most wonderful effect of this climate," says an eminent 



NEIV MEXICO AS A HEALTH RESORT. 



IO61 



physician, " is seen in those cases of general debility of all the 
functions of body and mind, the used-up condition. People come 
here in a state of languor, having little hope of life and often little 
desire to live, and the relief is so speedy as to seem miraculous. 
For weak and broken-down children there is nothing like it on 
the face of the earth ; with them the law of the survival of the 
strongest seems not to prevail here. I have no doubt that when 
the means of access to this country are more easy, and it is in 
consequence better known, it will rival or supersede Florida, 
Madeira, Nice, or the much vaunted paradise of Mentone as a 
sanitarium. The country is far distant from either ocean ; it is 
absolutely free from all causes of disease," Distinguished trav- 
ellers who have visited the health resorts of all other countries 
say : "The climate of New Mexico is very salubrious and bracing ; 
in fact it is unsurpassed by that of any other Territory or State." 
The following tables prepared from the Signal Service Reports, 
give the particulars of the rainfall and temperature at different 
towns in the Territory, and also at El Paso, Texas, which is on 
the Rio Grande, just at the southeastern point of the Gadsden 
Purchase, 

Rainfall in New Mexico i?i 1878 and 1879. 



Year and Months. 


ALBUQUERQUE. 
Latitude 35° 2'. 
Longitude-- 106° 40'. 
Altitude 5,026 feet. 


FORT CRAIG. 

Latitude 33° 42'. 
Longitude 107° 8'. 
Altitude about 5,000 feet. 


LA MESILLA. 

Latitude 32^^' 17'. 
Longitude 106^^ 48'. 
Altitude about 3,800 feet. 


SANTA Yt. 

Latitude 35° 41'. 
Longitude 106° 10'. 
Altitude 6,851 feet. 


SILVER CITY. 
Latitude 32° 48'. 
Longitude 108° 15'. 
Altitude 6,896 feet. 


EL PASO, TEXAS. 
Latitude 31° 46'. 
Longitude 106° 32'. 
Altitude about 3,500 feet. 


The Year 


inches. 

0.47 
0.26 
0.02 
0.02 
0.03 


inches. 
2.96 

0.65 
0.30 
0.00 
0.12 
0.00 
0.08 

0.01 
1. 41 
0.08 
0.00 
0.18 
0.13 


inches. 
6.52 

1.20 
0.62 
0.31 
0.03 
0.00 
0.03 

2.06 
0.61 
0.21 
0.09 
1.29 
0.07 


inches. 
15-79 

0.77 
0.23 
0.15 

0.48 

0-37 
0.51 

3.20 
5-!2 
1.03 
0.00 

3->5 
0.78 

1 


inches. 
20.77 

2.7S 
1. 12 
0.32 
0.01 
0.00 
0.08 

3-92 
7.70 
0.27 
0.00 
3.80 
0.77 


inches. 
8.99 

1-57 
0.83 
0.18 
0.07 
0.00 
O.oS 

1-25 

2-55 
0.66 
1.02 
0.67 
0.1 1 


1879. 
January 


February 


1 March 


, April 


May 


June 


1878. 
July 




August 


. . . 


September 




Ocioiier 


0.00 
1.83 
0.07 


November 


December . . 





io62 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 





1879. 

January 

February 

Marrh 


3 


1 ^ 


year 

1878. 

July 

August 

September 




Year 

AND 

Months. 


Latitude 35° 41'. 
SANTA f6. Longitude 106° 10'. 
Altitude 6,851 feet. 


o. o> *. *. t 

OS oa oo 
4^ ^ vb ui (. 


n Chi ^b 


00 
«b 4^ 


en 0, .^ V 

00 00 
i -^ i. 








Mean 
Temperature. 

Wa.ximum 
Temperature. 


^0 
M 


•(• 


" 


J Ul OS «. 


a< 




5? 


00 so so SO 
00 .-J us V) 





% \ 


u 


' ^ 1 i 





» 


» 


00 


M 


s i 





Minimum 
Temperature. 


Ot 


Ji O Ln vj ^ 

O «-• ^ 00 CO t 


o> 


OS OS 


"" 6^ 


8 





Range of 
Temperature. 


p 




1 !«i <o y! >o 

J ^q ON .*. 4k 


OS M 


vj 00 so 


•a 


Mean 
Humidity. 


to M t3 to M tg K) 
"O vO "O vO NO o *o 
OO 00 -^ GO -^J -vj -^ 

^ ^ O W M 


s§ sg 


SO SO so 

CO so vb a> 

so Is! - I>J 

OS 00 -. OS 


5' 


Mean 
Barometer. 


^} nH" ^ 


00 


^ OJ 


>J 


4W 


JS 

OS 


OS 
OS 


r 


^ 


s 





Mean 
Temperature. 



50 
H 


> 

P 
> f r 

i ° " '■ 


8 




D 


2= 


CD On 


OS 


S ^ 


SO 















Maximum 
Temperature. 


'^ 




s 


-4 


- 1 


OS 


* 


(0 




ji 


8^ 


1 





Mi"imum 
Temperature. 


12 


S 


3n 
0\. L 


o\ 


g -s 





On 


oo 





4^ 

■si 











Range of 
Temperature. 


o\ 


o> 




-** 


;fe ?; 






8^ 


OS 

bo 


00 


(0 


u. 





Mean 
Temperature. 

Maximum 
Temperature. 


r 

< 

> r f 
E § S 

s- s 1- 

_Os n OJ 
^ "o 
2; J to 


VO 


00 




<? 


? §= 


^ 








so 




so 


SO 
OS 


so 
OS 





Ji. 


t 




M 


00 M 


^ 







S 


00 


OS 


- 





Minimum 
Temperature. 


-i 


o 




v> 


S' ■S' 


■3 




OS 




- 


OS 





^ 





Range of 
Temperature. 


5" 


*. 


? 


o> 


0. ij> 
61 


•5 


■^ 


•9 


a 


g" 


00 


8^ 





Mean 
Temperature. 


H W 

M r 

> > 

p 

> r r 

— OS) 

r i. " 
0- " "^ 

J. ° 

i J*? 


i 





O 
00 


OO 


00 ^ 


Os 


*<1 
4" 


•o 


so 



NO 


SO 
00 








Maximum 
Temperature. 


% 


^ 


<:i 


55 


" 5o 


y 


t 


'0 


^ 


s? 


•3 


S 





Minimum 
Temperature. 


tk 


*■ 


o> 


^ 


"5 bi 


OS 


4- 


!S 


so 


00 


00 


^ 





Range of 
Temperature. 



MINERAL WEALTH OF NEW MEXICO. 1063 

Geology and Mineralogy. — The surface rocks of the great pla- . 
teau, which comprises so large a portion of the Territory, belong 
to the cretaceous period, except those in the southwest and west, 
which are a part of the plateau of the Sierra Madre, and are en- 
tirely of the eozoic period. The summits of the Rocky Moun- 
tain system, as well as those of the Sierra Madre, are also eozoic, 
but the peaks are capped with metamorphic rocks, chiefly porphy- 
ry, trap and basalt. Besides these exceptions, there are three con- 
siderable tracts which are volcanic, and covered with lava, which 
is, apparendy, only a few centuries old ; the first of these tracts is 
in the Zuni Mountains, between the Rio Puerco and the Rio 
San Jose, including Mount Taylor ; the second is east of and 
parallel to the Rio Grande ; it is nearly 140 miles in length ; the 
third is near the northern boundary of the Territory, along the 
west bank of the Rio Grande and extending to the Rio Chama. 
The tract east of the Rio Grande is called Mai Pais (" bad coun- 
try "), and besides the lava, has a broad expanse of volcanic sand, 
alternating with salt marshes. 

The valleys of the Rio Pecos and of the Canadian river and its 
branches are triassic or Jurassic, and at some points are under- 
laid with coal at such depths as to be accessible. The valley of 
the Rio Grande above the thirty-fifth parallel is tertiary: below 
that parallel it partakes of the general character of the plateau, 
and is cretaceous. The foot-hills of the eastern slope of the Gua- 
dalupe Mountains are triassic. There are two considerable tracts 
of tertiary in the northeastern pordon of the Territory, the larger 
of the two lying between the head-waters of the Cimmaron and 
the north fork of the Canadian rivers, and the smaller between 
two of the afiluents of the Canadian. 

Mineral Wealth. — The geological formations of New Mexico 
form an extremely interesting study, as well on account of 
their peculiarities as of the vast quantities of minerals, especially 
the precious metals, which are contained in some of them. The 
syenitic rocks of the mountains which traverse the central plat- 
eau between the Pecos and the Rio Grande, and the carbonifer- 
ous limestones found on the flanks and sometimes on the rido-es 
of these mountains, are both traversed by mineral-bearing lodes. 



J 0^4 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

In the sandstone formation beds of lignite and bituminous coal 
from three to five feet in thickness are foand, alternating with 
layers of iron ore of good quality and fire-clay. In the Old Pla- 
cer Mountains and elsewhere, mines of anthracite of a superior 
quality have been opened. Marls, gypsum, and other valuable 
earths are abundant and easy of access, but little has been done 
to develop the deposits. Zinc, manganese, quicksilver and some 
minor minerals occur. In the Placer mountains, and at several 
other points, especially near Pinos Altos and Embudo, iron is 
worked. Lead is found in the Pinos Altos mines, in the Organ 
mountains, and at other points. Copper is even more abundant, 
and some of the mines yield large results. The chief deposits 
worked are those of the Manzano, Magollon, and Magdalena 
mountains. 

Turquoise of rare beauty has been found in the Cerillos Moun- 
tains, about twenty miles southwest of Santa Fe, and mines of it 
were worked with great profit before the Indian revolt in 1680. 
The finest turquoise in Europe, one of the jewels of the Spanish 
crown, was obtained in these mountains more than two centuries 

ago. 

Hot springs and other mineral springs of great medicinal virtue, 
abound in New Mexico. Governor Wallace says that excellent 
hot springs have been discovered at Fernandez, in Taos county ; 
at Las Vegas, San Miguel county; at Ojo Caliente, in Rio Arriba 
county; near Jemez, in Bernalillo county; near Fort McRae, So- 
corro county ; Fort Selden, Dona Ana county ; and at Mimbres, 
in Grant county. Those at Jemez are probably unexcelled in 
the world. At Las Vegas elaborate preparations are in progress 
for the care and entertainment of guests and invalids. Any and 
all these springs are equal in curative qualities, if not superior, to 
those in Arkansas. They have certainly the attraction of an 
unsurpassed climate. 

In this connection mention may be made of the soda springs, 
of which there are several. One, east of Isleta eighteen or twenty 
miles, is particularly worthy of notice as yielding seltzer quite 
equal to the best imported article. 

But the chief mineral wealth of this rich Territory is contained 



THE ANTHRACITE COAL OF NEW MEXICO. 1065 

in its gold and silver mines, some of which have been worked 
since remote times. The earliest Spanish discoverers found such 
convincing- proofs of the richness of the gold and silver deposits 
that they gave to the country its present name from the resem- 
blance to the mineral regions of old Mexico. Throughout the 
periods of the Spanish and Mexican occupancy the precious 
metals were worked, and even with the rude appliances and de- 
sultory methods of those peoples, wonderful results were obtained. 
Capital, abundant water power and railroad communication, are 
the three desiderata for the successful development of the rich 
mines of this country, which are believed to rival the most pro- 
ductive deposits known. The chief gold fields now operated are 
those of Colfax, Grant, Santa Fe and Bernalillo counties, and of 
the Carrizo, Sierra Blanca, Patos, Jicarilla and Magdalena Moun- 
tains, but these are only a few of the many regions in which gold 
is known to exist. So far little more than the placers have been 
I'.ouched, while the great resources of the quartz lodes still await 
the advent of machinery, capital, and, above all, well-directed 
labor. The silver mines of Pinos Altos, the Cerillos, Sandia and 
Magdalena Mountains, formerly so productive, have been worked 
in a perfunctory way, but without any organized system of pro- 
cedure, and the production is now small. A few words should 
be said in regard to the coal deposits of New Mexico. The 
greater part of the coal deposits throughout "Our Western Em- 
pire" are bituminous, and even where they are called anthracites, 
they are generally only a little harder or denser veins of the bitu- 
minous coal, and at most can be regarded as only semi-anthracites. 
Some geologists have boldly declared that there was no anthracite 
west of the Mississippi river, and have predicted that nothing of 
the kind would ever be discovered there ; but they are certainly 
in error. Whether the so-called anthracites of Southwestern 
Colorado, of Texas, of Arizona and of Utah, will prove to be 
true anthracites, maybe a question until we have more and more 
careful and thorough analyses of them ; but that there is anthracite 
coal in Northwest Washington Territory, and that it is abundant 
in New Mexico, seems to be proved beyond the possibility of a 
doubt. The only locality where it has thus far been found is 



jq56 our western empire. 

among the foot-hills of the Placer Mountains, about thirty miles 
south-southwest of Santa Fe. The formation is tertiary, but it 
has been subjected at various times to volcanic action, as the 
lava and metamorphic rocks plainly indicate. Mr. Z. L. White 
examined these coal deposits very carefully in August, 1880, and 
though previously faithless in regard to the existence of anthra- 
cite anywhere in this region, became fully satisfied that it was 
anthracite, and of the very best quality. The mines already 
opened are on the "Ortiz Grant," and the coals in this, of which 
there are twenty-seven veins, ranging from a few inches to more 
than six feet in thickness, are easily accessible. The coal was 
probably originally a lignite of excellent quality of the tertiary, 
but by volcanic action was changed into anthracite. Mr. White 
fortifies his opinion by the definition of true anthracite given in 
the best treadses on coal, and by three analyses made by the geol- 
ogists of Lieutenant Wheeler's expedition in 1875, by R. D. Owen 
and E. T. Cox in 1865, and by Professor J. L. Leconte in 1868, 
and in a fourth column gives the analysis of the Pennsylvania 
anthracites from " Dana's Mineralogy." The economic impor- 
tance of this anthracite coal to the whole West, it being very near 
the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad, must be our apology 
for devoting so much space to it. 

ANALYSES. 

Constituents, ^V. O. & C. Lee. Penna. Coal. 

Water 2.10 3.50 2.90 

Gas 6.63 4.50 3.18 3.84 

Fixed Carbon .... 86,22 87.00 88.91 87.45 

Ash 5.05 5.00 5.21 7.37 

Totals . . . 100.00 100.00 100.00 98.66 

"True anthracite has a specific gravity of 1.4 to 1.7 ; its hard- 
ness is 2 to 2.5 ; and it contains 85 to 93 per cent, of fixed carbon ; 
and voladle matter, after drying, 3 to 6 per cent. It is amorphous, 
of conchoidal fracture, brittle, has a sub-metallic lustre, iron black 
to grayish and brownish black color, and when pulverized forms 
a black powder. It ignites with difficulty and at a high tempera- 
ture, but when ignited produces an intense heat. This is an exact 
description of the coal in the Ordz mines." 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. I067 

Agricultural Productions. — There are in New Mexico from 
18,000,000 to 20,000,000 acres of arable lands, or at least that 
much can be brought under successful cultivation, when a judi- 
cious system of Irrigating canals and reservoirs shall have been 
constructed. More than three-fourths of all the waters of the 
Territory run to waste at present. The country is admirably 
supplied with hundreds of natural basins on the elevated plateaux, 
where the water of all or nearly all the streams could be stored 
by means of canals and ditches. The water supplies would com- 
mence accumulating during the early fall, and continue through 
the winter, spring and early summer rises or freshets, from the 
melting snow in the high mountains. In this way immense reser- 
voirs could be accumulated, ample for all purposes. 

The soil of the valleys throughout the Territory is a rich sandy 
loam, composed of the disintegrated matter of the older rocks 
and volcanic ashes. It is light and porous and of surprising fer- 
tility. Corn, wheat, oats and barley grow well in all parts of the 
Territory ; corn is a staple product. The cereals do best in the 
northern districts and elevated plateaux ; corn, vegetables and all 
kinds of fruit do best in the valleys ; corn, in the rich bottoms, 
along the principal streams, if well cultivated, may be made to 
yield over eighty bushels per acre ; wheat on the uplands often 
yields over fifty bushels per acre, and in portions of the Rio 
Grande Valley averages twenty-hve bushels under the rudest and 
most imperfect culture.* Farm lands in the Taos Valley and 

* Mr. White says of the native agriculture : 

" The Mexican and Indian methods of harvesting their grain are very primitive, similar, in- 
deed, to those of Eastern countries in Bible times. The wheat is cut by hand with a sickle, and 
taken, unbound, in carts to the threshing-floor. This consists of a round plat of level ground in 
an elevated place, fifty, one hundred, or two hundred feet in diameter, as the farm is a large or 
small one, the surface of which is pounded or trodden as hard as a cement floor. Around the 
edges of this, tall poles are set in the ground five or six feet apart, forming a circle. The un- 
threshed grain is piled up loosely in the centre, and, when everything is ready, a thin layer is 
raked down between the central pile of grain and the circle of poles, and then a flock of goats 
or sheep, or sometimes of burros, or ponies, is driven around over the grain until it has all been 
beaten out of the heads by their feet. The straw is then thrown outside of the circle of poles, 
and the wheat pushed up toward the centre. Another lot of the unthreshed grain is then raked 
down, and the operation repeated until the whole is threshed. I was forcibly reminded of the 
Scriptural injunction which forbade the Hebrews to muzzle the ox that trod out the grain. The 
winnowing is also done in the Biblical way. After the wheat has been separated from the 
straw, it is gathered up into a heap, and when a biisk breeze arises it is thrown into the air ia 



iq53 our western empire. 

in the vicinity of Santa Fe have been under cultivation over 2CK) 
years, and in all that time not one ounce of fertilizing material 
has been used to enrich them; yet there is no perceptible dimi- 
nution in crops. The valley of the Rio Grande del Norte, for 
400 miles in length, averaging five miles in breadth, can all be 
irrio-ated with the turbid water of the stream from which its 
name is derived. This stream, like the Nile, is the sole reliance 
of the farmer; the water Is turbid with sediment, one-fifth of its 
weight at high water. At such times, each irrigation is equal, if 
not superior, to a coat of the richest fertilizer. El-Paso Valley 
has been cultivated in this way over 265 years. 

The valley of the Rio Grande del Norte is admirably adapted 
to grape culture : there is probably no part of the wojdd where 
all the conditions of soil, humidity and temperature are united to 
produce this delicious fruit In greater perfection. The frosts of 
winter are just severe enough to destroy insects without injuring 
die vines, and the rains seldom fall at the season when the plant is 
flowering, or when the fruit Is coming into maturity, and liable to 
rot from exposure to moisture; as a result, the fruit, when ripe, 
has a thin skin, scarcely any pulp, and is devoid of the musky 
taste usual with American grapes. Grapes do well also on the 
lower valley of the Pecos, and in many other parts of the 
Territory. 

Mr. White says of the grape culture: "Grapes constitute one 
of the principal crops of the Rio Grande Valley. The commonest 
variety is the Muscat, from which a very good wine is made. 
The vineyards look like plantations of currant bushes, the vines 

the teeth of the wind, which blows away the chaff while the wheat falls by itself on the clean 
floor. At a distance the flying chaff looks like steam escaping by successive puffs from the ex- 
haust pipe of an engine. 

" The Mexicans and some of the Indians are beginning to adopt modem farming implements, 
and in a few years iron ploughs will probably have replaced the wooden ones that have been in 
use here for centuries, and which are exactly like those with which the Egyptians cultivated 
the valley of the Nile in the time of Moses. I saw one of these ploughs, but as this is not the 
season when the ground is broken up, I have had no opportunity to observe its use. It consisted 
simply of a crooked stick, upon the point of which an iron point was fastened by means of raw- 
hide thongs. The Pueblo Indian carts are also curiosities. Not a scrap of iron is used in their 
manufacture. The wheels are discs made of boards, with a clumsy wooden hub on the outside. 
The tire is of raw-hide, and the body of the cart is constructed of poles rudely framed 
logether " 



VEGETABLES IN NEW MEXICO. IO69 

being planted in rectangular order, and trained in the form of 
shrubs. The fruit is delicious, like that of California, and I have 
no doubt that the wine crop of the valley will, before many 
years, become one of the largest and most profitable in the 
Territory. Archbishop Lamy, who is a native of France, and 
who, during the almost third of a century of his residence here, 
has travelled thousands of miles every year among the Mexican 
and Indian population of New Mexico, told me that no part of 
California is better adapted for the culture of grapes and the 
manufacture of wine than the Rio Grande Valley. The natives 
tread out the juice of the grapes with their feet, as did the 
slaves in the great vineyards of classic times. 

"The orchards of the valley are remarkably thrifty and prolific, 
and the fruit is large and fair. I never saw apple trees that 
were apparently so free from disease. The bark was as bright 
as though the trunks of the trees had been washed in lye. The 
peach and plum trees are large and full of fruit. The orchards 
do not appear to have been planted with much regularity, but 
the trees seem to have been stuck down by the side of the 
acequias, wherever they were certain to have plenty of water." 

Cabbages grow finely, often weighing from thirty to sixty 
pounds each. Onions also grow very large, weighing from one 
to two pounds each ; those raised in the Raton Mountains are 
said to possess the finest flavor. Irish potatoes are grown in 
the northern districts, where they yield enormously. Sweet 
potatoes are raised in the Mesilla Valley, and at Fort Stanton, on 
the Rio Bonito and Ruidoso, in Lincoln county. 

Beets, radishes, turnips, parsnips and carrots grow well every- 
where. Beans, peas and tobacco are also grown successfully ; 
beans to the native population are what the potato is to the Irish. 
Apples do well in almost all parts of the country. Peaches, pears 
and apricots do well from Bernalillo down ; also on the Pecos 
from Anton Chico down ; melons of all kinds grow to large 
proportions, and of the most delicious flavor. 

Not more than one-tenth of the valleys of the Rio Grande or 
Pecos are occupied or cultivated. The same may be said of an 
hundred other valleys and terraces along the large streams, and 



I07O OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

especially so of the higher plateaux. The most extensive settle- 
ments are confined to the valleys of the principal streams. 
Those of the Rio Grande, Pecos, and Mora contain the majority, 
the balance being located in the small valleys and isolated 
districts, in and near the mountains, where their pursuits are 
divided between agriculture and stock-raising. 

The only forage crop of the grasses that has been attempted 
here is "Alfalfa," the Chilian or California clover; when 
cultivated it yields an enormous crop. It grows well throughout 
the Territory, and in the southern districts often yields three 
crops per annum. In a country where there is such a profusion 
of nutritious grasses, as are indigenous to the mesas and 
mountain slopes, it is not necessary to cultivate forage crops, 
except for the sustenance of farm animals, and those in use 
in the towns. Thousands of tons of grama grass are cut 
annually to supply the demands of military posts and stage 
stations. 

As a sample of what can be done in the valley of the Rio 
Grande, it is only necessary to refer to the beautiful Mesilla 
Valley ; it is seventy miles long, and embraces 280 square 
miles, or 179,200 acres, or 560 farms of 320 acres each. It is 
one of the richest and most delightful valleys in the world. 
There are farmers who settled in this valley only fifteen years 
ago, without one dollar to start with, who to-day are worth from 
^50,000 to ^60,000, and every dollar of it made from the 
products of the soil. It is the rival of any portion of California 
in the raising of all kinds of fruit, and as to grapes it is not sur- 
passed by any district in the world. In the coldest season the 
thermometer never falls lower than 15° above zero. Snow is 
scarcely ever seen. It is a district that needs only to be seen to 
be appreciated. 

The most valuable timber in New Mexico is the pine, — its 
growth principally confined to the mountain districts and high 
rolling lands. Pitch, yellow and spruce varieties grow to a large 
size, and make excellent lumber. Cottonwood, walnut, locust, 
box-alder and sugfar tree fringe the streams and canons of the 
mountains. Also live oak of small size, and a peculiar species 



SHEEP-FARMING IN NEW MEXICO. IO71 

of cedar, called here "juniper." It grows on the upland, and to 
large size, throughout the southern half of the Territory. The 
nut-pine, or pinon, is abundant, and makes good charcoal and 
fire-wood. The timber supply is ample for all purposes. 

Stock-Raising. — Though not as arid as Arizona, good water, 
even in the mountains, is very scarce. On the plains and mesas 
and in the valleys, running water is seldom seen, and when it is 
found, it is so strongly charged with alkali as not to be drinkable. 
It is not an uncommon thing to travel thirty or forty miles with- 
out seeing a spring or a drop of water in the river courses 
Cattle, horses and sheep on the ranges often habitually go twc 
or three days without water. About twice a week they get 
around to some spot where the bed-rock of a stream rises to the 
surface bringing the water with it, remain in the vicinity over 
night, and then wander off perhaps twenty-five miles, returning 
again about the third day. 

Cattle and sheep-raising is carried on very successfully over 
large areas in New Mexico, and although the grama grass is so 
thin that it will not support as many animals to a thousand acres 
as the bunch grass of the more northern Territories, it furnishes 
a wonderfully nutritious food, and the country is by no means 
fully stocked. There is great room for improvement in the 
grade of all kinds of stock, but even now the business of 
grazing is a remarkably profitable one. The markets of Kansas 
and Colorado are easily accessible to New Mexican stock-men, 
and this has given a great impetus to the business. 

While there are considerable tracts in which catde will do well, 
and the raising of beeves for the market may yet become a very 
profitable industry in New Mexico, yet for the present and 
probably for many years to come it will be pre-eminently the 
country for sheep-farming. The number of sheep in the 
Territory is probably not less than two millions, of which half a 
million or more are owned by the Navajoes, an Indian tribe 
occupying its western and northwestern portions. 

The Hon. J. Francisco Chaves, late a delegate in Congress 
from New Mexico, in a letter to General Brisbin, the author of 
"The Beef Bonanza," written the past summer, says of sheep- 
farming in New Mexico: 



J 07 2 O^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

" Without having the data before me, and only judging from 
what I know of the Territory and of the large sheep-owners in it, 
I am satisfied that I do not overestimate the number in stating 
them at 1,500,000 head of ewes. The climate is exceedingly 
temperate and salubrious ; no diseases, much less those 
affecting the skin or hoofs, being known. Sheep in our Territory 
are herded and grazed from one portion of the Territory to 
another during the same year, thus adopting what may be termed 
the mio-ratory plan. The climate is dry and the soil is gravelly, 
producing the most nutritious grasses and shrubs. Of the 
former the grama and bunch grass, of which there are two 
or three different varieties, and the latter the various kinds of 
sage, which make the best and most nutritious of browsing, and 
a laro-e amount of underbrush and seed grass in the mountains. 
Were it net for the insecurity of life and property caused by the 
wild, marauding tribes of Indians, especially the Navajoes, but a 
few years would elapse before New Mexico's hills and plains 
would be literally covered with fleecy flocks. It is but a fewyears 
back, andactually within my own personal recollecdon, when nearly 
1,000,000 sheep were actually driven to market to southern 
Mexico from our Territory. At that time sheep were worth 
but twenty-five cents per head, and all those engaged in the 
business made money. That prosperity in the history of New 
Mexico was superinduced by twelve years of unintermitted 
peace with the Navajoes. A sheep-raiser in New Mexico can 
safely calculate on an increase of eighty per cent, at least. A 
sheep-raiser in New Mexico, notwithstanding the coarse quality 
of wool of the present flock, can herd his sheep and make a 
profit from the product of his wool, and have all the increase of 
his stock in addidon thereto. I have no hesitation in saying that 
New Mexico can fairly compete with Australia, South Africa 
and South America, in the production of cheap wool. These 
statements may appear to you somewhat exaggerated, but I 
assure you, on the contrary, that they are within the limits of 
reasonable bounds. I was born and raised in New Mexico, my 
friends and relations hav2 always owned sheep, and I myself 
have to a large extent been an owner of that kind of property, 
and therefore speak from personal experience." 



SHEEP-FARMING IN NEW MEXICO. IO73 

Sheep, and especially ewes, are largely sold from New Mexico 
to other States and Territories to form the basis of flocks there. 
They are sold at a low price, from $1.50 to ^2 each. They 
are small, and yield only from one and a half to three pounds of 
a coarse wool, which will bring usually only from eighteen to 
twenty-two cents a pound. By breeding them with pure Merino, 
Cotswold, Leicester or Lincoln bucks, the size is soon increased, 
and the quality of the wool is gready improved. As yet but little 
attention is paid in New Mexico to improving the breeds, and 
hence the wool crop there is not nearly as valuable as it might 
easily be made. The immigrants who are (ioming into the coun- 
try in such numbers are giving more attention to improving their 
stock. There is reason to believe that sheep-farming will soon 
become a profitable and extensive industry in the Territory; but, 
like everything else which is to be made profitable, the sheep- 
farmer must give it his close personal attention. Beginning with 
a capital of about $5,000, and giving strict attention to his busi- 
ness, improving his flocks as rapidly as possible, the wool-grower 
may in ten years find himself v»^orth from $60,000 to $75,000, and 
with constantly increasing profits from that time forward. Hon. 
Henry M. Atkinson, Surveyor-General of New Mexico, in his re- 
port dated August 27, 1879, gives the following summary of the 
agricultural and pastoral condition of the Territory. We think 
his estimate of the number of sheep must be exaggerated, or it 
is possibly a misprint ; but we give it as stated. The number is 
undoubtedly larger than has been supposed, but this estimate 
makes New Mexico exceed both California and Texas In the 
number of its flocks: 

" The crops of last year were good throughout the Territory, 
and a largely Increased acreage was sown over that of any previ- 
ous year In Its history ; and with the rapid Influx of population, 
new and previously unexplored and uninhabited sections are 
being settled and subjected to cultivation. 

•* The native wine product in the valley of the Rio Grande, in 
this Territory alone, is reliably esdmated at 240,000 gallons the 
past year, and In a few years that stream will be properly desig- 
nated as the Rhine of America. Large crops of corn, wheat; 

68 



I074 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

apples, peaches, apricots, pears and other fruits were raised during 
the year. 

" The business of stock-raising is most successfully and profit- 
ably engaged in, as no feeding is required during the winter 
season, the stock subsisting entirely upon the rich and nutritious 
grasses so abundant in the Territory. It is estimated that there 
are 500,000 head of cattle and 10,000,000 sheep in New. 
Mexico." 

Mining Industry. — We have given under the head q{ mineral 
wealth full particulars, so far as known, concerning the presence 
of the precious and^ther metals in the Territory; but we add, 
on the authority of Governor Wallace and Z. L. White, Esq., a 
few particulars in regard to the mining districts and mines in 
actual operation. Governor Wallace says of the silver mining 
districts: "The best known districts at this time are the Bremen 
mines, near Silver City; the Shakspeare mines, in Grant county; 
the Sandia district, in Bernalillo county ; the Socorro district, in 
Socorro county; the Cerillos, twenty-two miles southwest of 
Santa Fe. The San Juan country, in the north part of the Ter- 
ritory, and the Nogal, Capitan, Sierras Blancas, and Iccarilla 
Mountains, in Lincoln county, are all attracting a great deal of 
attention." 

The gold districts are : The Moreno mines, on Ute creek, 
Colfax county. One mine proprietor carries water to his claims 
near Elizabethtown, by ditch and flumes forty-two miles. At 
PitiQs Altos extensive work (quartz mining) is going on with 
good returns. In this district, gold, silver, copper, zinc, lead and 
plumbago are all obtainable. 

The old placers (Spanish placeres) are situated twenty-six miles 
southwest, or, rather, south-southwest, from Santa Fe, In these 
placers there are also quartz lodes which are believed to be very 
valuable. The Ortiz mine grant, described by Mr. Z. L. White, 
occupies a portion of this district, and is now preparing to work 
some of these placers, and bringing water from the Galisteo river 
by extensive hydraulic structures, to work them successfully. 

The new placers are ten miles south of the old placers. The 
San Pedro mine and the Canon del Agua property, with which 



GOLD AND SILVER MINES IN NEW MEXICO. 1075 

General Grant's name has been connected, and in which we be- 
lieve one of his sons is a director, is in this region, and covers 
40,000 acres, including 2,600 acres of the new placers, and nu- 
merous veins of gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc in sufficient 
quantities to warrant extensive mining operations. For these 
mines and placers there are now building extensive dams and 
reservoirs, guaranteed to deliver at least 6,336,000 gallons of 
water daily. Both these districts are easily accessible by way of 
the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, and their products 
can be sent to market at small cost. 

Silver City, in the Mesilla Valley, in Grant county, is one of 
the best mining districts in New Mexico. The Sierra Diablo 
range at the northeast, and the Burro Mountains, southwest of 
the town, have many leads of gold, silver and copper. These 
mines produce largely every year. The Animas Peak district, in 
Dona Ana county, is one recently discovered and of great pro- 
mise. Hillsborough, on the line of Dona Ana and Grant coun- 
ties, is another new discovery. The Jicarilla gulches, between 
the mountains of the same name, in Lincoln county, are very rich, 
and need only an abundance of water to take rank with the best 
producing placers of California and Montana. The same may 
be said of the gold gulches in the Nogal Mountains, and of the 
placers near Fort Stanton, in the same county. The new placers, 
already mentioned, are in Bernalillo county; but aside from these 
rich veins of gold and silver have been discovered in the Sandia 
and Manzana Mountains (the latter partly in Valencia county), 
and in or near Albuquerque, all in Bernalillo county ; in the Zuni 
Mountains, in the western part of Valencia county ; in the Mada- 
lena Mountains, in Socorro county, where some rich silver lodes 
have been traced ; in the western part of Rio Arriba county, in 
the valleys and gulches of the Chusca Mountains; in Taos county, 
both around the head waters of the affluents of the San Juan in 
the west, and in the vicinity of Taos, on the main Rocky Moun- 
tain range; and in Colfax county, in the Moreno district, and else- 
where. There can be lltde doubt that gold or silver, or both, 
will be found in Mora and San Miguel counties, on the eastern 
slopes of the Rocky Mountains, if not elsewhere. If these dis- 



J 0^6 O^'R WESTERN EMPIRE. 

coveries are made, every county of New Mexico will have its 
mining districts of the precious metals. The gold and silver pro- 
duction of the Territory is much less than it should be, and far 
below what it will be, now that capital, railroads and water con- 
tribute to its rapid development. From ^3,000,000 to ^5,000,000 
has been the maximum yield for the past twenty or twenty-five 
^ears. 

Objects of Interest in the Territory. — These are of various 
kinds, archaeological, ethnological, fossil, volcanic, and the re- 
sults of glacial and erosive action of water. All that portion of 
New Mexico lying west of the Rocky Mountains belongs to the 
great valley between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Ne- 
vada, which extends from Idaho and the eastern part of Oregon 
and Washington Territory through Utah and Nevada, Western 
Colorado, Western New Mexico and Arizona into Mexico, and 
terminates alongf the eastern shore of the Gulf of California. It 
is a land of lofty mesas, deep and rugged canons, precipitous 
mountains, and hot, dry plateaux ; a land of frequent drought, 
and of terrible volcanic action in the past, and perhaps the not 
distant past. There are deep valleys, where no water capable of 
sustaining life is to be had, but where alkaline and sulphurous 
vapors rise continually, and lofty, perpendicular walls of por- 
phyry and trachyte forbid escape, yet to remain there for any 
considerable time Is certain death. Of such as these are the Death 
Valley, in Southeastern California, the yornada del Muerto of 
New Mexico, and the Mai Pais of the same Territory ; while evi- 
dences of the destruction of former inhabitants by sudden volcanic 
eruptions, more fatal and extensive than that of Herculaneum 
and Pompeii, is not wanting. One of the most remarkable of 
these overwhelmed cities is that of Abo, in the Manzana Moun- 
tains, about a hundred miles south of Santa Fe, in Valencia 
county, eighteen miles east of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa 
Fe Railway, and perhaps twenty miles from the Rio Grande. It 
was discovered by Messrs. H. J. Patterson and J. H. Mackley 
during the summer of 1880. Messrs. Patterson and Mackley 
are citizens of St, Louis, who have been exploring New Mexico 
for mining properties for some months past. The following are 
the principal points in their narrative: 



ABO, THE LAVA-BURNED CITY. JO77 

Manzana Mountains mean Apple Mountains. There is a 
noble spring of water called the Abo spring, which is shaded by 
two immense cottonwood trees on each side. There are no in- 
habitants in the vicinity, but everywhere there are evidences of 
the former existence of a dense population. There are seen the 
ruins of a large church or temple, covering one acre of ground. 
Mr. Patterson paced it off, and found it to be seventy paces 
square. The walls that remain are sixty feet high. The roof has 
long since caved in, and the interior of the enclosure is filled with 
debris. The thickness of the wall at the base is about ten feet. 
Mr. Patterson brought away a piece of one of the timbers that 
protruded from the walls. It is of what is called in that country 
the pinon tree, a species of pine, and is as sound as when taken 
from the tree. There are on one side of the piece of timber some 
rude figures, one of the All-Seeing eye, representing probably 
the sun. Other figures are deeply indented in the wood, as if 
made by anything but a sharp-edged tool, Mr. Patterson says 
that he found stone hammers, but nothing in the shape of sharp- 
edged or steel tools. There are small furrows seen in the wood, 
as if plowed out with a stone gouge. The building evidently 
belonged to a style of architecture anterior to the adobe and 
dried brick period. Mr. Patterson inclines to the opinion that 
the locality was the site of one of the seven cities of Cibola, men- 
tioned by the Spanish chroniclers, the author of which traversed 
the country after the conquest of Mexico, among which were the 
cities of Camelone, Grand Cavra, Santa Cruz, Puerto de Abo, the 
Abo and the old Pecos, and another situated a few miles west of 
Abo in the lava beds. Mr. Patterson asserts that the old city in 
question was never until quite recently explored by white men. 

Another specimen brought by these gentlemen is a human 
skull, evidently that of a young female, as shown by the teeth, 
which was exhumed about half a mile from the church. Skulls 
are quite plentiful among the old ruins in the vicinity. About 
five miles from the Abo Springs they have discovered some 
ancient silver diggings. They were brought to light in this 
wise : some three months ago a gentleman named Livingston, 
who was engaged in mining operations at the White Oaks, lost 



jQ-g OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

some stock and went in search of it in the neighborhood of the 
Manzana Mountains. While here a Mexican handed him a 
piece of ore for examination, which he stated he had found in 
the hills of the vicinity, but the exact locality he declined to 
indicate. Mr. Livingston, on his return to White Oaks, 
showed the specimen to some friends in camp, among whom 
were Messrs. Patterson and Davidson. They left White Oaks 
with a complete outfit to explore the Manzana range, and were 
amply rewarded in the discoveries made. Right below the old 
mines they found twenty-two old smelters, and there were acres 
covered with the slag, some specimens of which Mr. Patterson 
brings with him. The smelters were built of adobe, or sun-dried 
bricks, and were elevated some twenty or thirty feet above the 
surface of the ground. 

In digging down they found the remains of charcoal, which 
was used for fuel by the old smelters. There were also seen 
the remains of an aqueduct, in which water was conveyed from 
a spring three- fourths of a mile distant to a dam which diverted 
the water into the smelting works. 

About five acres were found covered with slag, which Mr. 
Patterson has taken up for a mill site. From the old furnaces a 
trail was found, after considerable exploration, leading directly 
from the smelting works to the mine in the mountains, which 
here rise in peaks to a height of 10,000 feet. The ancient trail 
pursues a zigzag course, having a length of some five miles, 
while, in an air line, the distance Is not much exceeding one 
mile. Everything was transported in those old mining days on 
men's shoulders to and from the mountains. There are now 
trees of the " pinon " growing on the trail larger than a man's 
body, showing the antiquity of the path. Mr. Patterson said he 
was two weeks in discovering the mines after finding the smelt- 
ing works. The trail was five feet wide and protected by rocks 
on one side near precipitous places. Limbs were seen some 
thirty feet high on trees that had been cut when the trees were 
small and the limbs near the ground. The cutting was haggled, 
and evidently not made with sharp tools. 

The mines were found filled with old timber. The explorers 



CONCEALED MINES AND THE SKELETON CHAMBER. 1079 

could not imagine for what purpose the timber was used, because 
the walls of the mine are quartzite, and, therefore, it was unneces- 
sary to protect the sides from tumbling in by timber supports. 
They, therefore, made up their minds that the mine was covered 
up with timber to conceal it. The timber had rotted and fallen 
in from the top, choking up the passage. Thirteen of the party 
worked nearly two weeks in clearing out the mine, removing 
the timber, stagnant water and old leaves. They found the mine 
seventy feet deep, with several horizontal drifts from the main 
shaft. The rock is found to be very rich, as appears from the 
specimens brought here. 

An old miner named Baxter found. In digging down, a chamber 
about ten feet square, having on one side a fireplace, across 
which hung a crane having a clay hook, and at the end of the 
hook was a bone. On the opposite side of the fireplace was 
found the skeleton of a man in a sitting position, who was 
evidently watching the bone roasting for his meal, when he and 
his habitation were overwhelmed in ruin by a sudden discharge 
of lava from the mountain. There are lava beds near there 
extending about fifty miles, and Mr. Patterson is of the belief 
that the entire population In some former period must have 
been suddenly extirpated by a great volcanic eruption. He 
thinks at one time the crater of these mountains was sixty miles 
long and from fifteen to twenty miles across, an eruption from 
which would destroy every living thing within a hundred miles. 
The only idea we can form of its destructive influence is by the 
ruins seen on every hand. In that dry atmosphere, where it 
rains only between the months of June and July, wood and 
animal remains are long preserved, and that so little is pre- 
served of this ancient people gives us a good idea of the ruin 
that ensued. 

All over Western New Mexico are ruins of former cities, 
inhabited once perhaps by the same races who reared similar 
cities in Arizona and Southwest Colorado, and closely resembling 
them in structure and plan. Some of these are massive stone 
fortresses of great extent, and would now be impregnable against 
everything except modern artillery. Among these, two are 



jQgQ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

especially worthy of notice as beingr well known to travellers. 
One is the extensive stone fortifications at the eastern base of 
the Sierra Pajarito, on the southern border of Lincoln county; 
the other the large and massive ruins in Socorro county, east of 
the Mesa Jumanes, known as ''La Gran Quiviray These ruins 
are large enough for a large city, and Mr. S. W. Cozzens, who 
visited them in 1859, says that the city must have had not less 
than 60,000 inhabitants. The ruins extended for miles, and 
showed that while it had undoubtedly been a large city before 
the advent of the Spaniards in 1540, it had been captured by 
them, as the ruins of two large stone churches, over which the 
arms of Spain were carved, fully denronstrated. There were 
also extensive ruins of an ancient temple like the Casas Grandes 
on the Gila, which we have noticed under Arizona. The Acequia 
or aqueduct, which had brought water for this city, was traced 
fourteen miles into the mountains to a very large spring. It was 
built of stone and laid in cement, and was an admirable piece of 
eno-ineerine work. There were traces also of silver mines which 
had been worked for a long time, but with very imperfect tools. 
The city was undoubtedly one of the " seven great cities of Cibola." 
About eighty or ninety miles south of La Gran Qttivira, on the 
plain east of the Organ Mountains, in Dona Ana county, is one 
of those rock cities, carved by the winds and waters into the 
semblance of a city with its massive wall, its churches, cathedrals, 
castles and towers, ..its broad streets and its numerous dwellings, 
all carved out of a soft white sandstone, and so perfect an imita- 
tion as to deceive any one at a little distance. Near this are 
salt lakes, the salt of which is very pure, and extensive fields of 
gypsum, some of it in the crystallized form of selenite, which 
was used instead of glass for lighting the best dwellings of these 
ancient cities. In the ''Mai Pais'' or Bad country, in Socorro 
county, east of the Rio Grande, are vast deposits of fossils as 
remarkable as those of Colorado, Nebraska or Montana. 

In 1879 the Smithsonian Institution sent a small party of 
ethnologists into New Mexico for the purpose of exploring the 
ancient Pueblo ruins of the valleys of the Rio San Juan and the 
Rio Grande del Norte, and of making extensive collections of 



THE POTTERY OF THE PUEBLOS. IO81 

antiquities and objects of aboriginal interest for the National 
Museum at Washington. The party, while in the vicinity, visited 
the ancient town of Zuni, where they have succeeded in gather- 
ing together upward of two thousand specimens of modern 
pottery, stone implements, images, costumes, etc. Scattered 
through the valley of the Rio Grande del Norte are nineteen 
Pueblo villages, which were in existence long before the dis- 
covery of America ; and the inhabitants to this day preserve 
their old traditions and arts comparatively uninfluenced by the 
innovations of civilization. 

The pottery manufactured in the town of Zufii is exceedingly 
interesting, and is almost identical with the very ancient ware 
which is found amonof the stone ruins which abound throughout 
that section. Attention has been called to this ware by Lieu- 
tenant A. W. Whipple, in the third volume of the Pacific Railroad 
Reports, and more recently by Professor F. V. Hayden, in his 
last annual report of the United States Geological Survey of the 
Territories (1876). In the latter are figured several fine water 
vessels in the forms of owls, hawks, ducks and domesticated 
fowls. The collection made by the Smithsonian party includes 
many animal forms and hundreds of specimens of almost every 
conceivable shape, scarcely any two of them being similar. It 
is, without exception, the finest and most complete collection of 
modern Pueblo ware in existence. The methods of manufactur- 
ing this pottery are exceedingly interesting, and a study of them 
throws much light on the ancient Pueblo art, which produced the 
most superior aboriginal ware yet discovered within the limits 
of the United States. The clay is procured from the neighbor- 
ing mesas, and the vessels are moulded entirely by hand. 
When an unusually fine piece is being made, the clay is wet and 
smoothed by the lips of the potter, who then sets the vessel aside 
to dry. The paint is put on by a brush, and then burned in an 
oven surrounded with dry manure. 

In the Pueblo of Laguna pottery is made in a similar manner. 
A private collection, just received in Philadelphia from there, 
contains a number of vessels In imitation of ducks, settinof hens, 
etc. Such objects, while ornamental, are designed for use also, 



jqS2 our WES7ERN EMPIRE. 

and are employed in carrying water on journeys. A common 
ornament on tliis ware is a painted representation of the elk or 
deer, in which a passage invariably extends from the mouth to 
the heart, which latter is of triangular form. The tenahas, or 
earthen basins, are used as receptacles for meal, corn, water, or 
other substances which constitute the food of the natives. One 
very old vessel is covered with representations of snakes, a rare 
fio-ure in the ornamentation of Pueblo ware, since the priests or 
medicine men no longer permit the people to employ the sun or 
serpent symbols, but monopolize them in their incantations and 
stately ceremonies. Tenahas are made of all sizes, from an 
inch in diameter to those that will hold from twenty to thirty 
gallons. Each large vessel has a concave bottom, like a cham- 
pagne-botde, for steadying it on the head in carrying water from 
the well. 

The clay used in the manufacture of the Laguna pottery is of 
a dark slate color and exceedingly compact, oftentimes approach- 
ing soft rock in texture. This is taken from seams or veins in 
the mesa walls. The Indians soak this clay in water for two or 
three days, when it becomes perfecdy plasdc. It is then kneaded 
with the feet of the workmen on a large flat stone, and all the 
hard lumps are taken out carefully. After the vessels are 
moulded into form they are left to dry, and then covered with a 
ground work of white paint. Over this are painted fanciful 
devices in red, orange and black. The lustre of the ware is im- 
parted by polishing the paint, before baking, with an exceedingly 
smooth stone like an ordinary seashore pebble. The brown or 
black pigment is made from a black stone somewhat resembling 
hematite. This is ground fine, mixed with water, and violently 
agitated for some time. It is then poured from one vessel to 
another to remove all grit, and is applied to the surface of the 
vessel to be ornamented, as common paint, with a stick. This 
paint alone would rub off, but to prevent this it is mixed with the 
residue of two plants or weeds boiled together for a long time 
until it becomes of the required consistency, after which it is al- 
lowed to cool ; it then becomes perfectly hard. The clay 
employed for the red color is of a yellowish tint, but on being 



MANUFACTURES OF NEW MEXICO. I083 

baked changes to a brilliant red. The process of burning or 
baking consists in first placing the vessels on stones, around which 
is packed a quantity of dry barnyard manure, which is considered 
the best fuel. The vessel is covered completely with this sub- 
stance, so as to exclude the air, and a very hot fire of two or 
three hours' duration is produced. During the process of burn- 
ing the vessels are closely watched, and no portion of them is 
permitted to become exposed to the atmosphere. 

The pottery of Laguna, and in fact of most of the other Pueblo 
villages, is almost entirely made by the women, who expend 
much of their leisure time in mouldinor and decorating- the ware. 
The particular interest which attaches to the Pueblo pottery is in 
the fact that these people of New Mexico and the Moquis of 
Arizona are the only aboriginal tribes in the United States that 
still practise their old arts, unchanged by the influences of civili- 
zation, 

Ma7iufactures. — Very little is done in the way of manufactures, 
thousfh the Pueblo Indians and the Mexicans are both ingenious : 
and with very imperfect and rude tools will produce remarkable 
results. The jewelry produced from native gold and silver is of 
remarkably artistic designs, as is the native pottery. The serapes 
and blankets made from the coarse wool of the Mexican sheep 
or the hair of the goat are of excellent quality, and so dense that 
water cannot percolate through them. The saddles, stirrups and 
horse fixtures generally are of excellent quality, and the better 
sorts have a good deal of bullion, and a rude, barbaric splendor 
about them. Beyond these articles there is very little which can 
be called manufactures. The rude bateas, or wooden bowls, 
which were their substitute for the pan and the rocker of the 
placer miner, and the arastras, great boulders, bound to the arms 
of the central capstan, with which they ground their quartz rock 
to powder, constituted their sole mining apparatus ;. they had 
even forgotten how to construct the rude adobe smelters, which 
the Indians used three centuries ago. But with railroads and 
railroad towns all over the Territory, there will come in manu- 
factures, and builders, architects, machinists and engineers will be 
found in great numbers through the Territory. 



iq8^ our western- empire. 

Railroads. — The Territory, so long completely Isolated, and 
which one year ago had not a mile of railroad within its borders, 
is now in a fair way to have its full share of railroad communica- 
tion, not through the enterprise of its citizens, but because it is 
on the highway to Mexico and Southern California. The Atchi- 
son, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, which entered the Territory 
from Colorado by way of the Raton Pass about the beginning of 
1880, ran its lines southwest to Las Vegas, and thence nearly due 
west to the Rio Grande, throwing out a branch to Santa Fe, and 
extending its line down the Rio Grande, expected to reach Me- 
sllla by January, 18S1, and El Paso, Texas, by the spring of that 
year. The Southern Pacific, controlled by the Central Pacific 
Railway, which had crossed Southern California and bridged the 
Rio Colorado of the West at Yuma in 1879, traversed Arizona, 
reaching Tucson in the spring of 1880, and crossing Western 
New Mexico in the summer, will unite with the Atchison road at 
Fort Thorne, on the Rio Grande, by January, 1881, and thence 
proceeding down the Rio Grande to El Paso will probably make 
its terminus at Galveston a year later. Meanwhile the Atchison, 
Topeka and Santa Fe, having purchased the charter of the At- 
lantic and Pacific, and controlling the St. Louis and San Fran- 
cisco Railway, have commenced and are actively pushing a rail- 
way west from Albuquerque through the Zuni country, across 
Arizona, on or near the thirt^^-fifth parallel, and crossing the Rio 
Colorado at " the Needles" by a bridge 400 feet above the river, 
will reach the Pacific at San Diego and Santa Barbara by the 
end of 1 88 1. Another branch, following substantially the line 
of the Southern Pacific to Tucson, Arizona, will turn southward 
at that point, and reach Guaymas, Mexico, on the California gulf, 
probably before 1882. 

Still another line is projected, and from its connection with the 
Mexican lines recently authorized, may very soon be built, viz. : 
the line of the Denver and Rio Grande, which, starting either 
from Alamosa or Animas City, Colorado, will proceed nearly due 
south to the Mexican line, to connect there with a road from the 
City of Mexico. There may eventually be a railway down the 
valley of the Pecos, connecting with some of the Texas railroads; 



POPULATION OF NEW MEXICO. IO85 

but at present there are no railways projected through Eastern 
or Southeastern New Mexico. Those already completed or in 
course of construction give ready access to the great mining and 
stock-raising districts, and ensure the rapid development of the 
Territory. 

Population. — The Territory has a larger native population than 
any other of the Territories of " Our Western Empire." This 
native population at the time the United States government ac- 
quired the country consisted of about three-fourths Mexicans, or 
Hispano-Americans, and one-fourth Pueblo and other Indians, 
with a very few Germans, French and Americans. Its population 
has doubled in thirty years, and to this original element have 
been added a considerable number of Irish, Germans, Belgians, 
French, Spanish and Americans. The following table shows the 
population, so far as it has been ascertained, and such other par- 
ticulars as are attainable by the census enumerators : 



Census Year. 



1850.. 
i860.. 
1870.. 

i879l[ 
1880*. 



H cu 



85,547 
107,516 
111,303 
148,750 
141,882 



31,742! 
49,09 If 

47,i38t 
53,155 



29,805! 
44,425} 
44,739t 
48,595 



o u 



W 



61,525 
82,924 

90,393 
124,920 
118,430 



22 

85 
172 

330 

417 



24,000 

24.507 
20,738 
23,500 
23.452t 



59,261 

86.793^ 
86,254 

94,370 



Census Year. 



1850.. 
i860.. 
1870.. 

i879l[ 
1880*. 



2,286 

6,723? 
5,620 

30,550 






0.30 
0.36 
0.76 
1.23 
1-35 



5 1 -94 
19.02 

3363 
27.47 



25,089 

32,785? 
52,220 

67,233 
69,487 



<co 



^_ o 

07 



22,774 
32,796 
29,312 
31,270 
39,117 









12,698 

21,371 
20,070 



O D, 



13,920 
25.483 
23,332 



<J 



10,87111 

23.781 

22,442 



* Including tribal Indians. + Sex of Indians not given. J Indian office report. g Exclusive of tribal Indians. 
{ Pueblo Indians, not allowed' to vote, though reckoned as citizens. If Governor Wallace's estimate, evidently ex- 
cessive. 



I086 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

It should be said, however, that the previous enumerations have 
been very Imperfect, because the canvassers were supposed to be 
unfriendly conspirators against the Inhabitants, Indian and Mex- 
ican, and were purposely avoided or misinformed. We have in- 
cluded In these enumerations the Indian population, both Pueblos 
and tribal Indians, so far as It could be ascertai''ed, though in 1850 
and i860 the number of the latter could only be conjectured. 

Chief-Justice Prince, In an address delivered in Brooklyn in the 
winter of 1880, said of this population: 

" There is great Interest as to this population, there being 
three entirely distinct civilizations and three distinct epochs of 
history represented. In New Mexico are found the only remains 
of the aborigines of the people of America. They are living in 
the same kind of houses, and to all Intents and purposes existing 
as they did 300 years ago. Such are the Pueblo Indians. Side 
by side with these are the Spaniards and American civilization In 
its broader type especially. The aborigines or Pueblo Indians 
numbered in 1879 9,013 souls, all told, and occupied nineteen vil- 
lages. There are evidences of large Indian cities, not a single 
Inhabitant of which remains, and villages have been deserted In 
the life of the present generation. These aborigines call them- 
selves the children of Montezuma, who has (jone from them, but 
promised to return, and left the sacred fire, which is still kept 
burning until he returns. Their religion Is indistinct, but seems 
to be mainly a worship of the powers of nature, the sun, the 
clouds, the wind and the rain. Their sacrifices are of fruits and 
flowers, and resinous gums only. They have been throughout 
New Mexico nominally converted to Catholicism, but maintain 
their old worship in secret. The men and women of this singular 
people are orderly, peaceable and Industrious, and they make 
good citizens of the Territory. They are the best cultivators of 
the soil on the Rio Grande. The women grind the corn or 
wheat, and make pottery, very astonishing In its symmetrical pro- 
portions. The customs of these people have never changed, and 
they are extremely neat and cleanly. The Spanish-speaking 
people are generous and hospitable and most agreeable In their 
manners. They are a contented people, perhaps too contented. 



THREE DISTINCT CIVILIZATIONS IN NEW MEXICO. 1087 

They have no ambition to rise, and their wants are so few that 
they even don't want money. You cannot buy land from a Mex- 
ican, even if he is not using it himself, because it belonged to 
his father. Instead of being murderous or dangerous in their 
tendencies, they have a positive dislike for murder and bloodshed, 
except in the case vif those who are located on the border. It is 
a remarkable fact that they have five distinct languages. In their 
methods of courtship and marriage the Spanish differ very much 
from them. The third type in Mexico is the American. The 
typical American life is found in the Texas frontier or the frontier 
of the Indian Territory. Among these are many wild and lawless 
men, away from the restraints of civilized life, some of them being 
practically outlaws. The railroads have just penetrated New 
Mexico, and emigrants of a better class are flocking there from 
all parts of the country." 

To the Chief-Justice's list of civilizations should be added two 
more — the tribal Indians, of whom there are two distinct races — 
the Apaches, of three or four distinct bands, the Jicarillas, Mes- 
caleros and Hot Spring Apaches, who occupy Southern and 
Southeastern New Mexico, and are, without exception, the 
meanest, filthiest, most treacherous, murderous and degraded of 
all the Indian tribes ; and the Navajoes, in the northwest of the 
Territory, a tribe of much higher character, largely engaged in 
pastoral pursuits, owning nearly or quite a million sheep and 
large herds of cattle. This tribe, whose reservation is partly in 
New Mexico and partly in Arizona, are possibly of kindred race 
with the Pueblo Indians ; they have been badly treated by the 
whites, but are greatly superior to any of the other nomadic tribes 
of the West, and give good ground to hope that they may yet be 
civilized. There were, in 1879, 11,850 Navajoes, and 1,977 
Apaches in the Territory. 

Counties and Principal Tozvns. — There are twelve counties in 
the Territory, viz.: Taos, having in 1879 13,025 inhabitants; 
Colfax, 4,290; Mora, 11,475 ! ^^^ Arriba, 12,000; Bernalillo, 19,- 
595; Santa Fe, 13,355; San Miguel, 16,175; Valencia, 10,035; 
Lincoln, 4,450; Socorro, 6,220; Grant, 7,200; Dona Ana, 7,430. 
The population In all these cases Is exclusive of Indians. Of 



IQ88 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

these counties Bernalillo, Valencia, Santa Fe and San Miguel are 
of the most irregular and peculiar shape, Bernalillo and Valencia 
having portions entirely detached and separated by other coun- 
ties from their larger sections. The other counties are of com- 
paratively regular form. 

Of the towns Santa Fe, the capital and oldest city, has about 
6,500 inhabitants ; Albuquerque, about 5,000 ; Las Vegas, Me- 
silla and Silver City, from 3,000 to 4,000 each ; Cimarron, Las 
Cruces, Mora, Placita, Fernando de Taos, Ocate, Tome and San 
Marcial, growing towns, each of 1,000 or more inhabitants. 

Education is at a low ebb in New Mexico. The Territory 
beincy under the control of the Roman Catholic hierarchy, which 
largely outnumbers all other denominations in its adherent popu- 
lation, the public school education has been wholly usurped by 
them, and the public funds for school purposes are entirely ex^ 
pended by them upon their own schools. Governor Lew Wal- 
lace, in his report to the Secretary of the Interior, September, 
1879, gives the following as the latest report concerning education 
in the Territory : 

" The lands set apart for pubHc schools in New Mexico are in 
very liberal quantity ; nothing, however, has been done to make 
them available. 

"In 1871 the legislature passed an act establishing a common 
school system, for the support of which there were set apart not 
only the poll-tax and a quarter of all other taxes, but a certain 
surplus in the various county treasuries. Four years afterwards 
eight of the twelve counties reported : 

Schools 138 

Pupils in attendance S^'^'^^ 

Teachers (male and female) 47 

Wages of teachers per month, ^16 to ^40. 

"The amount of school moneys raised by tax in 1874 was 
$28,523.34. 

" Education is chiefly in the Spanish language. In Grant and 
Colfax counties the English is the prevailing tongue. 

"In addition to the above there a.e twenty-six private and 



RELIGION AND MORALS. jOgo 

parochial schools, in the greater portion of which the common 
and higher branches are taught. In some instances German and 
French, and the classics and music, have place in the course of 
instruction." 

Religion and Morals. — As we have already said, Roman 
Catholicism is supreme in New Mexico. In 1874 there were 
198 church organizations and 170 church edifices, belonging to 
the Roman Catholics, many of the latter being costly buildings, 
against ten organizations and nine church edifices of all other 
denominations, and the proportion is about the same to-day. 
The Territory, while a Mexican State, was, of course, under exclu- 
sively Roman Catholic jurisdiction, and so far as the great mass 
of the people are concerned, especially the Mexicans and Pueblo 
Indians, it is so to-day. Unfortunately the Catholicism of the 
Territory is the Catholicism of the middle ages, and not that of 
the nineteenth century, aggressive, imperious, arrogant and 
exclusive, while it is also illiterate and with few exceptions 
grossly immoral. Its priests are to a lamentable extent literally 
the fathers of their flocks ; and illegitimacy is as common and as 
little regarded as it was on the continent of Europe three hun- 
dred or four hundred years ago. This scandal became so gross 
a few years since that the archbishop banished all the priests 
(who were of Spanish or Hispano-American birth) from the 
Territory, and supplied their places with priests from France and 
Belgium ; but it is said that the time has come for another 
expatriation. There is some reason to hope that a portion of 
the large immigration now flowing into the Territory may be of 
a better class, and that purer morals and better educational 
facilities may soon prevail. 

Historical Data. — New Mexico was first heard of in Europe 

in 1530 as the Kingdom of Cibola, from whence the Mexican 

rulers obtained their gold and precious gems. It was reached 

in 1540 by Coronado, but did not come fully under Spanish 

domination until near the close of the sixteenth century. The 

foreigners were well received at first, but they soon became 

obnoxious to the people. The religious and civil authorities 

were alike greedy for gold, and the gold mines were made to 
69 



lOQO OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

yield immense sums to the church and the rulers, by the enslav- 
ing of the natives, and the practice of the most atrocious cruelties 
upon them. The cathedral of Santa Fe alone received from one 
mine ^10,000,000. At last, exasperated beyond endurance, the 
long-suffering natives rose in rebellion in 1680 and expelled the 
Spaniards, but only succeeded in keeping them out for thirteen 
years. During this time every mine in the country was filled 
up. Peace was made on condition that there should be no more 
slavery and no more mining. From that time until 1846, when 
the American army took possession of the Territory, the history 
of New Mexico is almost a blank; things went on the same from 
generation to generation. The governors of New Mexico were 
practically independent by their isolation ; and the revolution 
which threw off the Spanish yoke from Mexico made very litde 
difference with this remote State. In 1846 General Kearney cap- 
tured Santa Fe, and overran the entire Territory, which was 
ceded to the United States two years later under the treaty of 
Guadalupe-Hidalgo. The land south of the Gila was obtained 
in 1853 by purchase from Mexico, and in 1854 New Mexico con- 
tained, besides the region within its present limits, the whole of 
Arizona and portions of Nevada and Colorado. So much of the 
country east of the Rocky Mountains as lies between the thirty- 
seventh and thirty-eighth parallels was annexed to Colorado in 
February, 1861, and, two years later, Arizona was set off. Sev- 
eral attempts have been made to secure the admission of New 
Mexico to the Federal Union, but so far without success. A bill 
for that purpose was presented to the Forty-third Congress in 
March, 1875, but failed to become a law. Until it can come in 
as a State having a republican form of government and not 
under the control of a religious hierarchy and an established 
church, it is to be hoped that all future applications will prove 
equally unsuccessful. But the vast tide of immigration now 
flowing into the Territory, and which is likely to be still larger, 
will soon effect such changes that its reception into the Union 
will be both proper and desirable. 

Conclusion. — There is no use in counselling immigrants to avoid 
a region so rich in mineral wealth, or so well adapted to pastoral 



OREGON— BOUNDARIES. lOoi 

pursuits, as New Mexico; but there is a sufficiency of these 
advantages to last for several years to come ; and the immigrant 
who delays until the Indian troubles are fully settled, and the 
country, and its railways and highways, its government, schools 
and religious advantages are more fully developed, will be wiser 
than those who, in their haste to be rich, rush in now, and find, 
as they will, that wealth is only to be purchased by great trials, 
privations and sacrifices. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

OREGON. 



Boundaries, Area and Extent — Face of the Country — Mountains, Rivers, 
Lakes — The Valleys of Oregon — The Willamette Valley — Umpqua 
Valley — Rogue River Valley — The Numerous Valleys of Eastern 
Oregon — The Elevated Plains of Middle and Central Oregon — Mr. 
Tolman's Description of Eastern Oregon — Soil and Vegetation — Fer- 
tility OF THE Soil — The Great Wheat Valleys of Eastern Oregon — 
Forest Growths — Great Size of Forest Trees — Water Supply — Climate 
and Rainfall of different Sections — Meteorological Table of Port- 
land, RosEBURG, Umatilla, Astoria, and Corvallis — Geology and Min- 
eral Wealth — Fossils — Gold and Silver — Lead and Copper — Iron and 
Coal — Excellence of the Coal — Zoology — Oregon Fishes — Agricul- 
tural AND Pastoral Products — Table of Crops and Live-Stock — Fish- 
eries — The Salmon Trade — Timber and Lumber Production and Exports 
— Wheat and Flour Exports — Wool — Total Exports — Manufactures 
— Labor — Wages — Price of Land and Facilities for Obtaining it — 
Railroads and River Navigation — Finances — Educational Facilities — 
Higher and Special Education — Population — Table — Characteristics 
of the Population — Indian Reservations and Tribal Indians — Counties 
and Principal Cities and Towns — Religious Denominations — Historical 
Data — The Title of the United States to Oregon. 

Oregon is one of the States of " Our Western Empire," situ- 
ated on the Pacific slope, and, except Washington Territory, is the 
most northwesterly of the States and Territories comprised within 
the limits assigned to that " Empire." It is between the parallels 
of 42° and 46° 18' north latitude, and between the meridians of 



jQQ^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

1 1 6° ^iC) ^""^ ^24'' 25' west longitude from Greenwich. It is 
bounded on the north by Washington Territory, the Columbia 
river forming the boundary to the point where that river crosses 
the parallel of 46° and the boundary running thence eastward, 
alono- that parallel, to the Snake river; on the east it is bounded 
by Idaho Territory, the Snake river forming the boundary to the 
mouth of the Owyhee, and thence a line drawn due south along 
the meridian of 116° 50' west longitude to the Nevada line; on 
the south it is bounded by Nevada and California, the parallel 
of 42° forming the boundary line; on the west its shores are 
washed by the Pacific Ocean. Its greatest width from east to 
west is 360 miles, and from north to south 275 miles; while its 
coast line is about 300 miles. Its area is 95,274 square miles, or 
60,975,360 acres. It is a little larger than the two States of New 
York and Pennsylvania. 

Face of the Coimtry. — The principal mountains of Oregon, 
those having the highest summits, are the Cascade Mountains, a 
continuation of the Sierra Nevada of California, which stretch 
across the State from north to south, at an average distance of 
about no miles from the coast of the Pacific. Numerous barren 
snow-capped peaks of volcanic origin rise from them to great 
heights within the limits of Oreo-on, of which the most elevated 
are Mount Hood (i 1,025 feet). Mounts Jefferson, Thielsen, Scott, 
Pitt and the Three Sisters. The Cascade Range divides Oregon 
into two distinct sections, known as Eastern and Western Ore- 
gon. Of these the former contains by far the most territory, but 
the latter is far more advanced in settlement ; and within its 
natural boundaries, that is, between the Cascade Mountains and 
the Pacific coast, more than seven-tenths of the present population 
of the State are living. 

Another chain of mountains, the so-called Coast Range, ex- 
tends also north and south, over Western Oregon, at a distance 
varying from forty to seventy miles from the Cascade Mountains, 
and proportionately nearer to the Pacific coast. Its elevation is, 
however, much lower than that of the latter, its highest points 
being only a few thousand feet above the level of the sea. 
Eastern Oregon is subdivided, so to speak, into Middle Oregon 



TOPOGRAPHY OF OREGON. jOg^ 

and Eastern Oregon proper, by the Blue Mountains ; a range 
with a general northeast and southwest direction, at a distance 
of about 150 miles east of the Cascade Mountains. A chain 
known as the " Western Spur " of the Blue Mountains extends 
at right angles with the main chain of the Blue Mountains, in a 
direction from northwest to southeast, from the mouth of Trout 
creek, on the Des Chutes river, to the Malheur river, and a par- 
allel but shorter chain extends from Camp Curry to Crooked 
lake. 

The Cascade Mountains, in conjunction with the Coast Range 
and the numerous chains of hills flanking and skirting and run- 
ning out from them, divide the surface of Western Oregon into 
numerous valleys of varying extent, traversed by more or less 
important water-courses. 

The largest rivers of Western Oregon are the Columbia, which 
separates it on the north from Washington Territory ; the Wil- 
lamette, the largest tributary of the Columbia ; Young, and Lewis 
and Clarke rivers, also flowing into the Columbia ; the Umpqua 
and Rogue, Tillamook, Yaquina, Alseya, Siuslaw and Coquille, 
emptying into the Pacific ; and the Tualatin, Clackamas, Yamhill, 
Santiam, Luckiamute, Mary and Long Tom rivers, all tributaries 
of the Willamette, which itself is formed by three separate 
streams, known as McKenzie's, Middle and Coast forks. 

The principal water-courses of Middle Oregon are the Des 
Chutes, John Day's and Umatilla rivers, and their numerous trib- 
utaries, the waters of which unite with the Columbia. 

The principal river of Eastern Oregon proper is the Snake 
river, which separates Oregon from Idaho, and its main tribu- 
taries, the Grande Ronde, Powder, Burnt, Malheur and Owyhee 
rivers. 

There are numerous lakes in Southeastern Oregon, the prin- 
cipal of which are the Klamath, Goose, Malheur and Warner's 
lakes. Lake Harney, Silver, Summer, Albert, Christmas and 
Guano lakes. 

Among the distinctive features of Oregon are the numerous 
valleys formed, as already stated, by the several mountain chains 
and the minor rano^es issuino- from them. 



jQgj OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The principal valleys of Western Oregon are tfiose of the Wil- 
lamette, Umpqua and Rogue rivers, each of which deserves par- 
ticular mention. 

The Willamette valley is by far the largest, and in every re- 
spect the most attractive. It has been appropriately named "the 
garden of the Northwest." None of the famous valleys of the 
Old or New World, not even that of the Nile, or the Sacramento, 
San Joaquin or Santa Clara valleys of California, surpass it in 
fertility or salubrity. In beauty of scenery jts equal is not to 
be found anywhere. The Hon. Schuyler Colfax, late Vice-Presi- 
dent of the United States, who visited it some years since, enthu- 
siastically pronounced it " as charming a landscape as ever 
painter's hand placed upon canvas." It is about 1 50 miles in 
length, from thirty to sixty miles in width, and contains within its 
ilatural boundaries — viz. : the Columbia river on the north, the 
Cascade Mountains on the east, the Coast Range on the west, 
and the Callapoia Mountains on the south — about 5,000,000 acres 
of unusual productiveness, of which only a part is as yet under 
cultivation. It is well watered throughout by the Willamette 
river and its tributaries. This valley was the first portion of 
Oregon to be settled, and will always be the Eden of the Pacific. 
A few years ago it contained two-thirds of the population of Or- 
egon, but within the past decade other portions of the State have 
been rapidly settling up, and its population, though large and 
permanent, does not bear as large a proportion to the whole as 
formerly. 

The Umpqua valley lies to the south of the Callapoia Moun- 
tains, and is watered by the Umpqua river and its tributaries. 
Its eastern boundary is formed by the Cascade Mountains, its 
western by the Coast Range, and its southern by the GraVe 
Creek Range. It contains about 2,500,000 acres. 

To the south of the chain of mountains last named lies the 
Valley of Rogue River, which has the same boundaries to the 
east and west as the two other valleys described, and is bounded 
on the south by the Siskiyou Mountain, which separates it from 
California. Its area is about 2,400,000 acres. There are sev- 
eral other smaller but fertile valleys, the bottom lands of the 
numerous small streams which fall into the Pacific. 



MR. TOLMAN ON NORTHEASTERN OREGON. ioq<^ 

Middle Oregon has no great agricultural valleys, the region 
between the Cascade Range and the western spur of the Blue 
Mountains being almost wholly composed of high rolling pla- 
teaux, and the Des Chutes river, as its name implies, flows 
through deep and narrow canons, with numerous rapids and 
cataracts. At the sources of the Des Chutes there is an exten- 
sive sage desert, but the sage after being touched with the frost 
is very much liked by catde, and forms an excellent forage for 
them, so that the "Sage Desert" proves to be excellent grazing 
ground. This whole region of the plains has been found to be 
admirably adapted to grazing, and portions of it are among the 
most productive wheat farms in the State. 

Eastern Oregon abounds in fertile valleys, which yield immense 
crops. The Commercial Reporter gives a list of twenty-twO 
(not one-half of those which are known there), which have an 
area of 5,891,200 acres, every foot of which is very fertile. These 
valleys will soon have good access to markets over narrow-gauge 
roads, now in course of construction by the Oregon Railway and 
Navigation Company to. La Grande, Baker City and Sparta, 
which will connect them with Portland, Oregon, by rail or 
steamer, and very soon also by the way of the Northern Pacific 
with the East. 

The Surveyor-General of Oregon, Hon. James C. Tolman, 
speaks as follows of those sections of the State which have 
hitherto been least known, in his report to the Land Office, Au- 
gust 15, 1879: 

"A small pordon of Southwestern Oregon is quite mountain- 
ous, and is mostly adapted to mining and grazing. The area of 
this class, however, is comparatively small, and generally contains 
sufficient arable tracts to furnish supplies of garden products for 
local use. 

" That pordon of the district east of the Cascade Range and 
north of the Blue Mountains, generally known as Northeastern 
Oregon, consists principally of high, rolling table-lands, with 
occasional river and creek bottoms, and, with the exception of the 
eastern and northern slopes of the mountain ranges mentioned, is 
scarce of timber. It comprises an area of generally arable land, 



iqq5 our western empire. 

of about forty by eighty miles in extent, is rapidly settling up in 
the more eligible locations, and is certain, in the near future, to 
become a vast wheat-growing region. Where, but a few years 
ago, only the Indian or the trapper found inducement to remain, 
is now the scene of busy activity and great attraction. It is in 
this region that timber is now in most demand, and dependence 
is upon the adjacent mountains. There they can cut and saw 
timber for rails and lumber and draw or raft it to the farms 
below, and it is here that timber depredations have been most 
frequent. The land has mostly remained unsurveyed where the 
timber grows, and the citizens could not purchase it, or procure 
the use of it, even by the payment of * stumpage ; ' but they felt 

that they must have timber The central portion of 

Eastern Oregon is mainly mountainous, with occasional valleys 
and water-courses adapted to settlement and utility. This tract 
is bounded on the north by the Blue Mountains, on the west by 
the Cascade Range (the latter extending entirely through the 
State from north to south), on the east by Snake river, and on 
the south by the spurs and buttes of the Cascade and other 
ranges of mountains, embracing a tract of country near 150 
miles square. Although mainly devoted to mining at this time 
there are yet large tracts of this district that are good arable 
land, and which will, in the course of time, be surveyed and taken 
up by settlers. At this time it is so far removed from market 
that it affords little attraction to other than stock-raisers and 
miners, excepting a narrow strip along the one overland 
thoroughfare, 

"Southeastern Oregon comprises about one-fourth the entire 
area of the State, and is mainly adapted for grazing. It is here 
that are annually reared and fattened the beeves which furnish 
the markets of California, Utah, Nevada and most of Southern 
Oregon. There are numerous small valleys, however, which are 
of most excellent agricultural quality, and will be more than suffi- 
cient for all time to furnish the local demand for produce. This 
portion of the country is composed principally of vast grassy 
■ plains, interspersed with low wooded hills, and thickly set with 
beautiful lakes. Scattered over it are some marshes and swamp:^. 



SOIL AND VEGETATION— WESTERN OREGON. iQgy 

many of which are susceptible of easy reclamation, and when 
once redeemed will add that much to the already abundant 
meadow land. There are no extensive belts of arid land in Or- 
egon, only at long intervals small tracts of desert, and these gen- 
erally reclaimable. Such tracts as could be thought worthy of 
the name exist only in the imagination of those really unac- 
quainted with the country." 

Soi/ and Vegetation. — In Western Oregon, both mountain and 
valley have good and productive soils, the valleys being very 
rich, the mountain slopes hardly less so; while the mountains are 
rich enough to be covered with gigantic growths of timber to 
their summits, or where this has been burned, with a dense 
undergrowth, indicating its productiveness. The general char- 
acter of the soil in the valleys is a dark loam and vegetable 
mould with a clay subsoil. The soil of the bottom lands, con- 
tiguous to the water-courses, is generally composed of rich 
alluvial deposits of decomposed earth and vegetable mould. 
The so-called beaver-dam lands have deep accumulations of 
humus or earthy deposits, decayed vegetable matter and decom- 
posed trees, the work of beavers during centuries, and are of 
extraordinary fertility, but are of limited extent. Most of the 
lands in the larger valleys have a rich, very deep soil. This is 
especially true of the level and rolling prairies between the river 
bottoms and foot-hills. Besides the large valleys of the Willa- 
mette, Umpqua and Rogue rivers, and their tributaries, those of 
the Young, Lewis and Clarke, Nehalem and Coquille rivers, and 
of Skippanon creek, the basins of Tillamook and Yaquina bay, 
and the so-called Clatsop plain, offer fine fields for agricultural 
pursuits in Western Oregon. The action of the clay subsoil in 
retaining moisture accounts for the exceeding productiveness of 
the soil. The land, too, retains its productive capacity for 
unusually long periods of time, and seems, indeed, all but inex- 
haustible. Even after having produced crops of wheat, oats and 
barley, for from fifteen to thirty years, without any manure, and 
with indifferent ploughing, it remains as fertile as ever. 

The soil of the foot-hills and tillable mountain surfaces con- 
sists of red, brown, or black loam ; the black predominating near 



1098 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the mountain ranges. The elevated lands not only afford the 
best natural pasturage, but produce good crops of hay, cereals, 
ve^retables and fruit. 

In Middle Oregon soil for agricultural purposes Is not so gen- 
erally good on the elevated plateaux as west of the Cascade 
Mountains ; the best openings are in the valleys along water- 
courses. In some parts of these districts, artilicial irrigation has 
to be employed to make the soil productive, and with this 
stimulus, they yield enormous crops. 

In Eastern Oregon, the river valleys are rich, and most of the 
land, even in the uplands, is a strong alluvium, producing from 
thirty to sixty bushels of wheat, a like proportion of other grains, 
and immense root crops. These lands are new, and their pro- 
ductiveness has not been known until within the past five years. 
The Cascade Mountains, the Coast Range, and the Callapoia 
Mountains, as well as a large part of the valleys of Western 
Oregon, are covered with mighty forests, affording an inex- 
haustible supply of hard and soft timber. In the valleys different 
kinds of ash, oak, maple, balm and alder, as well as fir, cedar, 
spruce, pine and yew, grow in great abundance. In the foot- 
hills scattering oaks and firs, with a thick second growth in many 
places, are found. The mountains are mostly covered with thick 
growths of tall fir, pine, spruce, hemlock, cedar, larch and laurel, 
without much undergrowth. Two kinds of cedar, two of fir, and 
three of pine, are indigenous to Oregon. Trees attain an unusu- 
ally fine development, both as regards height and symmetrical 
form. In the northern part of the State the red fir abounds, and 
often measures two hundred to two hundred and fifty feet in 
height, with trunks nine feet in diameter, clear of branches up 
for one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet. Out of such 
trees eighteen rail-cuts have been made, and five thousand to ten 
thousand feet of lumber. Elder stalks from eighteen to thirty 
inches in circumference, hazel bushes from one to five inches in 
diameter, are of common occurrence. Lumber is cut from elder 
saw-logs measuring twenty to thirty inches in diameter. In the 
forests south of the Umpqua the yellow pine is found, as also an 
abundance of sugar pine, the wood of which is in great demand. 



OREGON PASTURE-LANDS. lOgg 

For commercial and industrial purposes, the red cedar, red fir, 
hemlock, sugar pine, maple and ash, are the most valuable. The 
natural grasses of Western Oregon are of fine quality and retain 
their nutritious and fattening character till late in the autumn. 
The rains which fall regularly in May and June keep the pasture 
in a succulent condition through the later summer and autumn. 
One acre of this natural pasture will feed a sheep through the 
year, and two acres an ox. But the best grazing lands are found 
in Middle and Eastern and especially Southeastern Oregon. 
There are a great variety of native grasses of the most nutritious 
character in this vast pasture-ground, which comprises about 
thirty-three million acres. The cattle and sheep pastured on 
these orrasses thrive better than those fed on Qrrain In the east. 
The only difficulty is that they become too fat. These lands, 
where they are moderately accessible to a market, are being 
taken up extensively for dairy farms, and the golden Oregon 
butter has already a high reputation on the Pacific coast. 

Watej"" Supply. — Western Oregon, with its immense annual 
rainfall, its streams fed from the snow on the Cascade Moun- 
tains, and the moist breezes swept in from the Pacific, is in no 
want of water. Lakes, ponds, and fine springs abound. In 
Middle Oregon, on the elevated plains, there is sometimes a 
scarcity, and occasionally irrigation is necessary, but the facilities 
for this are so ample, the cost of irrigation is so moderate, and 
the results produced by it so vast and profitable, that irrigation 
is not a drawback to the cultivation of these lands. In Eastern 
Oregon the rainfall, though less copious than in the western 
portion of the State, is sufficiently so for all practical purposes, 
and the beautiful valleys there do not suffer from drought. 

Cl277taie. '—Th^ climate of Western Oregon Is mild and equable, 
differing in this from that of the Eastern States, that It is neither 
too hot in summer nor too cold in winter. Owlnof to the 
proximity of the Pacific and the Gulf stream of that ocean, snow 
or frost never prevails to any considerable degree. The average 
temperature explains this fact. The average for spring is 52°; 
for sumiflei-, 6"]° ; for autumn, 53° ; and for winter, 39° Fahren- 
heit, showing a mean deviation of only 28° during the year. The 



II QQ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

average yearly rainfall is forty-four inches, about the same as at 
Davenport (la.), Memphis and Philadelphia. Thunder-storms 
are almost unknown in Western Oregon, and the disastrous 
hurricanes and whirlwinds of the Atlantic States entirely so. 

Eastern Oregon has a dryer climate, a considerably smaller 
rainfall, a somewhat greater heat in summer and a lower tem- 
perature in winter, assimilating very closely in these respects to 
the Red River valley of Minnesota and Dakota, though in gen- 
eral with less depth of snow in winter. But this climate is 
eminently healthful, and the smaller rainfall does not interfere 
with the production of the largest and finest crops of wheat 
grown anywhere. 

Middle Oregon has a more equable climate and a moderate 
rainfall, but on its elevated plateaux both the cold and the heat 
are felt all the more keenly, that there is no kindly forest to 
shelter and protect the traveller from the hot rays of the sun, or 
the bitinof cold of the winter winds. 

Rheumatic and pulmonary diseases are excessively rare in all 
parts of Oregon. There are in some of the lowlands near rivers 
and lakes in Southern Oregon occasional sporadic cases of a mild 
intermittent fever, but they are never severe enough to be serious, 
and they yield rapidly to treatment. Some of the small towns 
on the Pacific, like Astoria, Port Orford and Umpqua City, have a 
much greater rainfall than the towns of the Willamette valley. 
In these towns, in the past, the annual rainfall has reached sixty- 
four, sixty-six, or sixty-seven inches, but the Coast Range robs 
the weeping clouds of the skies of the coast of a part of their 
superabundant moisture. 

According to the census of 1870, the death-rate in Oregon is 
lower than in any other State or Territory in the Union, except- 
ing Idaho, being only .69 per cent, of the population : while in 
California it is 1.16; in Vermont, 1.07; Massachusetts, 1.77; 
Indiana, 1.05; Illinois, 1.33; Kansas, 1.25; and Missouri, 1.63. 

The equable temperature, the absence of high, cold winds and 
sudden atmospheric changes, render people less subject to 
bronchial, rheumatic and inflammatory complaints than in other 
parts of the country, where the extremes of heat and cold are 



CLIMATES OF OREGON. HOI 

greater, and the changes of temperature more sudden and 
violent. 

We give on page 1102 the meteorology of Portland, Oregon, 
representing the northwest region of the State ; of Roseburg, rep- 
resenting the southwest, and of Umatilla, on the Columbia, in the 
northeast. We have no reports from the southeast, but only 
know from the correspondence of those who have lived there, 
that the climate has very much the same characteristics as that 
of Eastern Oregon generally. We give also the average tem- 
perature and rainfall of Astoria and Corvallis, representing the 
extreme northwest, at the mouth of the Columbia, and Western 
Central Oregon in the Willamette valley. 

Poriland, 2iw&r2igG temperature of five years: Spring, 51° 9'; 
summer, 65° 3'; autumn, 52° 8'; winter, 40° i'. Annual rainfall 
for five years: 43.41; 53.12; 43.69; 41-45; 4770- 

Astoria, latitude, 46° 17'; longitude, 123° 50'. Mean tempera- 
ture for ten years: Spring, 51° 16'; summer, 61° 36'; autumn, 
53° 55'; winter, 42° 43'; year, 52° 13'. Annual rainfall, 60 to 67 
inches. 

Corvallis, latitude, 44° 35'; longitude, 123° 08'. Mean temper- 
ature for ten years: Spring, 52° 17'; summer, 67° 13'; autumn, 
53° 41'; winter, 39° 27'; year, 53°. Annual rainfall, 38.47 to 
42.08 inches. 

Geology arid Mirteralogy. — Much of the area of Oregon has 
been subjected to volcanic action on a grand scale, and in Eastern 
Oregon this has been comparatively recent (though probably 
not within the historic period), and on the most stupendous scale. 
The Coast Range and the Blue Mountains and their spurs are 
both eozoic; the intermediate Cascade Range is volcanic in its 
surface rocks, with indications that these metamorphic rocks were 
originally limestones and sandstones. The volcanic action in 
Eastern Oregon was so violent as to leave deep fissures or 
canons where the rocks were rent. Some of these canons are 
1 ,500 feet deep, and on their perpendicular walls there is a record 
of the order of the geologic strata rarely accessible elsewhere. 
Near the bottom of the fissure are the cretaceous beds, abound- 
ing in marine shells, preserved in perfect form, but often filled 



II02 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



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GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY OF OREGON. j 103 

with chalcedony or calcareous spar ; next above, the lower ter- 
tiary strata, with leaf impressions of great trees — of palms, yews 
and giant ferns, as well as of the oak leaf and acorn ; with these 
are associated fossils of two species of rhinoceros, four of the 
oredoTi, a connecting link between the cam.el and tapir, and sev- 
eral genera of the tapir and peccary families ; and with them the 
orohippiis. Upon these lower tertiary strata supervenes the 
period of volcanic action, w^ith a vast overflow of lava, mud and 
ashes. The region thus rent is heaved elsewhere into isolated 
cone-like hills, or ridged with secondary rocks, thrown up dike- 
fashion, their strata contorted into sharp angles or broken into 
chasms filled with earth or lava. Here are mountains of amyg- 
daloid, heaps of volcanic conglomerate, and cliffs of columnar 
basalt walling in the water-courses. In the region of the upper 
Des Chutes and John Day rivers, the volcanic action is less 
marked, and here the cretaceous formation approaches the sur- 
face. The whole of the Cascade Range in the State gives evi- 
dence of volcanic action, and this extends westward into the Wil- 
lamette valley. The bed of the Willamette river near its mouth 
is partially basaltic, with perpendicular walls ; south of Oregon 
City it traverses a district of volcanic debris, and black trap is 
frequently exposed on its banks. Southward of this occur thin 
strata of limestone, with fossil bivalvular shells, granite in situ, 
and again basalt. The prevalent rock of the Willamette valley 
is trap, while at the head of the valley a light-colored clayey sand- 
stone, possibly tertiary, is found. The fossil teeth and tusks of 
elephants have been found at great depths in the same valley. 
At the Dalles, on the hillsides, are boulders of gray and of a red 
granite. 

Minerals. — The mineral wealth of Oregon is very great, but 
as yet very imperfectly developed, mainly owing to the want of 
capital. Gold was first discovered in 185 1, in the counties of 
Jackson and Josephine, in the extreme south of the State; and 
mines have been worked in them ever since. Their total product 
up to the present time is estimated at 5^27,000,000; but of late 
years the yield has declined in consequence of the want of water. 
Baker and Grant counties, in Eastern Oregon, have also yielded 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



1 104 

many millions of the precious metal. In Baker county, espe- 
cially in the vicinity of Baker City, gold mining is carried on very 
actively at this time, and with good results. On the ocean beach, 
near Coos bay, placer mines are worked to a considerable extent. 
Rich gold quartz lodes have been discovered and partially worked 
in the southern part of the Cascade Mountains ; but their dis- 
tance from railroads, and the want of machinery for working 
them, has, until now, prevented their development on a scale 
commensurate with their richness. Were the same amount of 
capital, enterprise and trained skill brought to bear upon the 
gold mines of Oregon, that is now again increasing the gold 
product of California at a rapid rate, after years of decline, the 
former State would not be far behind the latter in the production 
of precious metals. The yearly gold product of Oregon repre- 
sents now a value of nearly ^1,500,000. 

Lead and copper have been found in large quantities in Jack- 
son, Josephine and Douglas counties, on Cow creek, a tributary 
of the Umpqua, and also on the Santiam river. The mines on 
the latter river are successfully worked. 

Large deposits of rich iron ore exist in nearly every part of 
the State. The most i;nportantof these is situated near Oswego, 
on the Willamette, about six miles south of Portland. The ore 
from it yields about fifty-four per cent, of pure iron. Other ex- 
tensive deposits exist in the counties of Columbia, Tillamook, 
Marion, Clackamas, Jackson and Coos. A large bed of ore has 
been found at St. Helen's, on the Columbia. 

That essential element in the development of mineral resources, 
coal, abounds in Oregon no less than iron. Beds of great thick- 
ness exist on Coos bay, in Coos county, on the northern Umpqua, 
and in Douglas county. Beds, as yet but partially explored, have 
been found on Yaquina bay, at Port Orford, near St. Helen's, on 
Pass creek, and on the line of the Oregon and California Rail- 
road, and at different other points in Clackamas, Clatsop and 
Tillamook counties. But only a few of these coal mines are 
regularly worked. The Coos bay mines keep a fleet of schooners 
busy carrying coal to San Francisco, where it is highly esteemed, 
and brings about ^i i a ton. With the exception of that obtained 



MINERAL WEALTH OF OREGON. IIO5 

from the Queen Charlotte Islands, it is the best coal produced 
on the Pacific coast. 

What, with the abundance of coal and the immense beds of 
iron ore, the day cannot be far distant when Oregon will have a 
well-developed iron industry. 

There are also quarries of limestone, brown stone and marble 
in the State. 

Of the present outlook for gold and silver mining in the State, 
the Surveyor-General, Hon. James C. Tolman, says in his report 
of August, 1879: 

" The mining interests of Oregon are assuming an importance 
and permanent assurance of profit not heretofore exhibited. 
Gravel mining is being extensively prosecuted in some district? 
with the aid of the most approved and extensive machinery, 
although the past year only has been witness to their general in- 
troduction. A new era has undoubtedly dawned upon that in- 
dustry in this State. The existence in Southern and Middle 
Eastern Oregon of immense deposits of auriferous gravel has 
long been known; but prospectors and men seeking only shallow 
surface diggings in connection with water do not generally have 
the capital and enterprise necessary to prosecute hydraulic mining 
of the modern kinds. Within the past two or three years capital 
has been attracted to these deposits, wherein in two counties of 
Southern Oregon alone I am credibly informed that many hun- 
dreds of thousands of dollars have been expended in opening up 
claims — in the construcdng of ditches and arrangement of ma- 
chinery principally. Much labor and time, as well as money, is 
required to develop and put in paying order any of these claims, 
and although numbers of them are now in working order, few or 
none of them have yet been sufficiently tested to develop their 
real worth. A full ' clean up ' is the only fair test of value, even 
after months of labor and many thousands of dollars of expen- 
diture. 

"This must be ranked mainly as an agricultural State, though 

mining is, and will indefinitely continue to be, a large factor in 

the sum of our productions, both in gravel and quartz mining. 

Our people have never been subjected to the emotional risks 
70 



I Io6 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

occasioned by stock boards and wild cat speculations which have 
swept other mining regions, and are thus more disposed to weigh 
the chances of profit in any enterprise offering inducements. 
Hence our mining interests have lagged, only to be placed upon 
a profitable basis when undertaken at all. 

" The quartz mining of this district has also attracted a re- 
newed share of attention. Heretofore, with but few exceptions, 
this class of mining has been lightly employed, and has yielded 
but small returns, for precisely the reasons which have been 
offered in regard to the small effort expended in placers. Some 
wonderfully rich deposits were discovered many years ago, and 
were worked with immense profit. Notable among them were 
the Gold Hill and Steamboat or Fowler lands, in Jackson and 
Josephine counties respectively. From these, by the ordinary 
processes then in use, several hundred thousands of dollars were 
taken from the surface rock alone in the space of a few months. 
In one instance, from the Gold Hill ledge, one gentleman secured 
a trifle over i,6oo pounds of surface rock, from which he took 
^30,000. When these surface deposits were exhausted (nearly 
twenty years ago) by crushing in ' arastras ' and other almost 
equally primitive methods, and the serious and expensive work 
of sinking shafts, driving tunnels, etc., began, those mines were 
abandoned and have lain idle till this day, with the exception 
of an effort now being made to resume work on the Steamboat, 

"In Eastern Oregon quartz mining has been steadily followed, 
in a small way, by gentlemen of limited means, for a number of 
years, yielding fair returns where effort merited reward. Several 
small mills are now in operation there, and prospecting is pushed 
with considerable vigor. I have no data as to average yield, but 
am assured that it has been uniformly satisfactory. The general 
outlook, however, is better now in regard to mining than it has 
been before for many years. In the course of time I believe this 
State, to the extent of its mining area, will rank with the most 
favored mining localities of the coast. Given the mines, and we 
certainly possess facilities unsurpassed by any region — cheap fuel 
and labor, abundance of water and plenty of all kinds of pro- 
visions, all easily obtained." 



ZOOLOGY Ai\D LIVE-STOCK. 



1 107 



Zoology. — The beasts of prey are identical with those of Cali- 
fornia ; the grizzly bear, black and cinnamon bears, the cougar, 
or panther, and several of the smaller y^/?^^, the catamount, lynx 
and ocelot, the fisher, otter, marten, mink and beaver, several 
species of fox, the gray wolf, possibly the raccoon ; and of game 
animals, elk, deer of two species, antelope, bighorn, or Rocky 
Mountain sheep, rabbits and hares, including the jackass rabbit, 
and two or three hares found only on the Pacific coast ; all the 
rodents of the coast ; and of game birds, wild swans, wild geese 
and ducks of many species, pheasants, sage hens and other 
grouse, quail and snipe of extraordinary size, and a great variety 
of song birds and birds of prey. The waters of Oregon abound 
in fish of great delicacy and economic value. There are six or 
seven species of salmon native to the coast ; and the Eastern 
salmon and lake salmon have been introduced. The salmon 
forms an important item in the products of the State. Trout of 
great size and excellence are found in the streams ; sturgeon, 
tom cod, flounders and other edible fish are abundant. The 
shad and black and sea bass have been introduced. Most of 
the edible shell fish are found in great abundance on the coast. 

The followmg table shows the estimated number and value of live-stock in 
January, 1879, c-^d January, 1880/ 



1879. 

Animals. 



Horses 

Mules and asses 

Milch cows 

Oxen and other cattle 

Sheep 

Swine 



Totals . 



109,700 
3,50o| 
112,400 
188,300 
,t6o,6:>o 
22 1 ,goo 



Av. 
Price. 



50-05 
5091 
18.56 
•215: 
1-57 
3- 19 



Value. 



?5 .490,485 

•78.185 

2,086,144 

2,287,84s 

1,822.142 

707,861 



AmMALS. 



Number. 



Av. 
Price. 



Value. 



Horses 117,400 

Mules and asses 3.600 

Milch cows 121,392 

O.vcn and other cattle. 201,500* 

^hecp 1,265,054 

Swine 220,557 



43 t>l. 



2II,»S2 

184,680 

2,318,587 I 

2,941,900 

2,087,339 

788,521 



$12,572,662 Totals I !.. $15,531,342 



The real increase in the grain crops and in catde and sheep is 
considerably greater than our tables would indicate. 

Fishei'ics. — The canning and pickling of salmon mainly at the 
mouth of the Columbia river is becoming an immense industry. 
It had not attained any great proportions until 1872, in which year 



•Probably much below the actual number. 



iio8 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



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TIMBER AND OTHER PRODUCTIOXS. IIO9 

170,000 salmon, weighing 2,700,000 pounds, and when canned 
vakied at ^432,000, werecanned and exported, and 1 62,500 pickled 
fish valued at |;i 17,000. In 1873 the export value of the canned 
salmon was ^949,000; in 1874, 5^1,500,000; in 1875 it was 
nearly ^2,000,000; in 1876, $2,215,000 ; in 1877, $2,300,000 ; in 
1878,^2,920,000; in 1879 over $3,200,000; and it is believed 
that it will reach $4,000,000 in 1880. But for the large salmon 
trade in Puget sound, and in Alaska, it would have attained even 
larger proportions. 

The Timber and Liunber Trade. — The magnificent forests of 
Oregon supply an immense amount of timber and lumber for 
San Francisco and other California ports, and also for the Mexi- 
can and South American markets. For ship-building, mine- 
timberine and house-buildinof, as well as for the choicest furni- 
ture, the Oregon woods are the best in the world. Over 100,- 
000,000 feet of lumber and timber were exported in 1875, and 
the amount has greatly increased since that time. In 1877 the 
value of the exported lumber was set down as $510,000. It has 
greatly increased since, and the home demand, with the rapid 
increase of immigration, is larger than of the foreigfn. 

Wheat and Flour. — The exports of wheat in 1880 will probably 
exceed $9,000,000, the larger part being from the Upper 
Columbia and the rich valleys of Eastern Oregon. In 1877-78, 
seventy-tix large vessels were loaded with wheat from Portland, 
of which seventy-four sailed direct for Great Britain. Oregon 
flour has a very high reputation, and was exported in 1877 to 
the amount of $2,500,000. 

Wool is also largely exported, and about 1,500,000 pounds 
manufactured in the State. The wool clip of 1878 was over 
6,000,000 pounds, and that of 1879 nearly 7,500,000 pounds. 

The total exports of the State in 1877 were $16,086,897, 
and were increasinof at the rate of four or five million dollars a 
year. 

Manufactures. — The leading manufactures of the State are 
lumber, flour, of which we have already spoken; woollen goods, 
especially fancy cassimeres and blankets, which bear the highest 
reputation, and bring the best prices of any in the market; dressed 



J J jQ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

flax linen goods, and linseed oil, leadier, and especially harness 
leadier of excellent quality, iron furnaces and foundries, and 
manufactories of iron and tinned goods, wooden ware, agricul- 
tural implements, butter, dried and canned fruit, and fruit juices 
of remarkable excellence, furniture and paper. In 1870 the 
manufactured products of the year were valued at $6,877,387. 
In 1880 they will exceed $20,000,000. 

Labor, Wages. — Common laborers earn $2 ; mechanics, $3 to 
$5 ; farm-hands, from $25 to $30 a month, and found. Farm- 
laborers, and especially female servants, are in good demand. 
The latter earn as high wages as in California. Persons with 
some means and a knowledge of farming or a mechanical trade 
can easily establish themselves, and, with frugality and industry, 
acquire a competency in a few years. 

Rulmg Prices. — For the past three years wheat in bulk in 
Portland has ranged from 80 cents to $1.25 per bushel ; oats, 50 
cents; potatoes, 50 cents to 75 cents; apples, 50 cents; corn, 
$1 ; flax, $2; onions, $1.50; good average farm-horses, $100 
each ; oxen, $125 per yoke ; good average milch-cows, $25 ; sheep, 
$3 per head ; wool, common-graded, 35 cents per pound ; beef 
on foot, 5 to 6 cents ; fresh pork, 7 cents. 

Price of Land. — In the valley of the Willamette good brush 
and timber lands can be purchased for $2.50 per acre and up- 
wards, according to soil and locality. All the prairie lands are, 
however, taken up, but can be bought at from $8 to $50 an acre. 
Along the foot-hills, and near them, small tracts or farms can be 
purchased, with ample outside pasturage for extensive stock- 
farms. The Oregon and California Railroad Company, and the 
Northern Pacific Railway, have large grants of land from the 
United States Government, which they sell on very liberal condi- 
tions at the low prices of $1.25 to $7 per acre. The purchaser 
can pay cash, in which case he will be allowed a discount of ten 
per cent, on the purchase price, or can have ten years' time in 
which to make up the same by small annual payments, with 
interest at seven per cent, per annum. In this case the pur- 
chaser pays down one-tenth of the price. One year from the 
sale he pays seven per cent, interest on the remaining nine- 



RAILROADS AND RIVER NAVIGATION. HU 

tenths of the principal. At the end of the second year he pays 
one-tenth of the principal and one year's interest on the re- 
mainder ; and the same at the end of each successive year until 
all has been paid at the end of ten years. There is an abundance 
of government land surveyed aifd in the market, subject to the 
Homestead and Pre-emption lavi^s. 

In Eastern and Middle Oregon the government lands are the 
best, though partially improved farms may sometimes be had. 
Government lands may be bought there under the Pre-emption, 
Homestead, or Timber-Culture laws, and in Middle Oregon under 
the Desert Land Act, for grazing purposes. The immigrant re- 
quires a little more capital to land him in Oregon, than would be 
necessary for some of the States and Territories farther east ; 
but once there, and a small capital will go as far and can be as 
readily supplemented by labor for others, as anywhere else in the 
country. 

Railroads and River Navigation. — The Columbia river, which 
forms the northern boundary of Oregon as far as nearly to the 
mouth of the Snake river, is navigable from its mouth to this 
point, and above, except at two points: the Cascades, where there 
is a portage railroad of five or six miles, and the Dalles, near the 
mouth of the Des Chutes, where there is another portage railway 
fourteen miles long. These obstructions, requiring two railway 
and three steamer transshipments, have greatly enhanced the cost 
of transportation by it, but are now in a fair way to be removed. 
The Northern Pacific Railway, whose Pend d'Oreille division 
starts from Ainsworth, at the mouth of the Snake river, has built 
a branch to Wallula, on the south bank of the Columbia, connect- 
ing there with the Oregon Railway and Navigation line to Walla- 
Walla, thirty miles east ; and the Oregon Railway and Navigation 
Company have undertaken the construction of a railway along 
the south side of the Columbia river to Pordand, where the 
steamships of this company to San Francisco can receive the 
freight. This road is now completed to the Dalles, and will reach 
Portland next season. The United States government are con- 
structing canals and locks around the Cascades and Dalles, but 
so leisurely that it will require twelve or fifteen years to complete 



I I 12 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

them ; so that the railway is the only hope for cheap transporta.- 
tion from the Upper Columbia. The Northern Pacific will 
eventually construct a railway down the north bank of the 
Columbia, and extend it to Portland, which is not on the 
Columbia, but on the Willamette, one of its largest tributaries. 
The Willamette is navigable partly by slackwater navigation for 
I -^^ miles from its mouth. But the Willamette valley is already 
traversed by two railroads, and is likely ere long to be gridironed 
by one and possibly two more. The Oregon and California 
Railroad, starting from East Portland, extends southward throucjh 
the Willamette and Umpqua valleys to Roseburg, a distance of 
200 miles. Its eventual terminus is to be Redding, in California, 
where it will connect with the Northern California Railway, The 
Oregon Central, starting from Portland, extends in a horseshoe 
curve to Hillsboro, and thence south to Junction City, whence one 
branch goes to Ellendale, across the Coast Range, and another 
to Luckiamute, with a probable future terminus at Harrisburg, on 
the Oregon and California road. The Oregonian Railway Com- 
pany (limited), a Scottish company, has undertaken to construct 
two narrow gauge railways, close to the mountains on either side 
of the Willamette valley, one to cross the Coast Range and reach 
Yaquima Bay, and the other crossing the Cascade Range to con- 
nect with a road from the Central Pacific in Nevada. They also 
propose to build from Portland to Astoria, at the mouth of the 
Columbia. The Oregon Railway and Navigation Company have 
also commenced several narrow-ofauee railroads from Wallula 
and Milton southward and southeastward in Eastern Oregon, to 
points where the great live-stock and wheat crop can be most 
easily conducted to their main line on the Columbia river. Some 
of these will eventually extend into Idaho. 

The Northern Pacific, though having an extensive land grant 
in Northern Oregon, from Walla- Walla to the Willamette, has 
not, and does not intend to have, any portion of its line in 
Oregon, except, perhaps, a branch of some twelve miles, ex- 
tending across the Columbia to Portland. Its present terminus 
on the Columbia is at Kalama, in Washington Territory, forty-five 
miles north of Portland. We have already spoken of the short 



EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES. UI^ 

railway portages (six and fourteen miles) at the Cascades and 
the Dalles. With the completion of the railways now under con- 
tract or in course of construction, Oregon will have nearly i,ooo 
miles of railroad in operation. 

Finances. — The government of the State has been economi- 
cally administered and taxes are light. The entire indebtedness 
of the State, January i, 1881, will not probably exceed ^308,000, 
and there is sufficient money accruing from the sale of swamp 
lands, etc., to meet it when it becomes due. 

Educational Facilities. — The school fund of the State (derived 
from the sale of school lands) amounted in 1878 to $609,000 ; it 
has since materially increased. In 1878 the number of youth of 
school age (four to twenty) was 53,462, of whom 26,992 were 
enrolled in the public schools, and the average daily attendance 
was 21,464. There were 904 organized districts, of which 865 
reported ; there were 768 public schools of ordinary grade, and 
iwenty-two of advanced grade. The average time school was 
maintained was four and a half months. The value of public 
school property was $483,058. The total number of teachers was 
1,068, of whom 569 were males, and 499 females. The average 
monthly pay of the men was $45.25 ; of the women, $34.33. The 
total receipts for public schools were $258,786; the total expen- 
ditures, $275,107. There were 105 private and collegiate schools. 
The schools of Portland and Salem are of very high character. 
There is a normal school at Monmouth, and a normal depart- 
ment of the State University at Eugene City. There are 
Teachers' Institutes held annually in each judicial district. In 
the way of higher instruction there are four (so-called) universi- 
ties, which are really only colleges, viz.: the University of Oregon, 
at Eugene City, with a normal department attached; this had 
a land grant of 66,080 acres, and has received $100,000 from 
it, 20,000 acres being yet unsold ; the Blue Mountain Uni- 
versity, at La Grande, Eastern Oregon, with a very thorough 
course ; the Willamette University, at Salem, a Methodist col- 
lege with a medical school attached; and Pacific University and 
Tualatin Academy, at Forest Grove, a non-sectarian institu- 
tion. There are also four colleges, viz. : Corvallis College, at 



1 1 14 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



Corvallis, under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church 
South, of which the State Agricultural College, endowed with the 
Congressional land-grant of 90,000 acres, is a department ; Mc- 
Minnville College, a Baptist institution at McMinnville; Philomath 
College, at Philomath, under the control of the United Brethren 
in Christ (German Methodists) ; and Christian College, at Mon- 
mouth, under the control of the Christian connection. These 
institutions had 1,025 students in 1878, 675 of them in the pre- 
paratory departments. All of them admit women to their classes, 
and there is also at Portland a college for women, St. Helen's 
Hall, under the care of the Protestant Episcopal Church. 

There are also institutions at Salem for the education of deaf 
mutes and of the blind. 

Population. — In 1843 there were not more than 400 white in- 
habitants in Oregon Territory, which then included Washington 
Territory also. The following table shows the growth since that 
time : 

Population of Oregon. 





c 



















« 




« 


0. 


>. 







Oi 










c 





U 


H 


i8^o 


13,294 


i«6o 


52,465 


1870 


101,883* 


187s 


122 ,960* 


1880 


180,022* 



8,2661 5,036 13,087 
31,527' 20,847 52,170 
49.777; 37,49«>i 86,929 

I 108,324 

103,3881 71,379 1 163.087 



207 
128 
346 















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1,213 

5,123 




162 


4.522 
16,988 


4,923 
'5,707 


5,617 
18,806 


"■U, 




47^342 


294.6 


1. 511 


11,278! 


3,330 


79,323 


1 1 ,600 


73-3 


4,427 


29,400 


23,959 


28,616 


10,960+ 
6,934T 


3,410 






20.6 




44,661 






9,508 


144,327 


30,440 


78.0J 




61, 12-2 







Oreofon has been called the " New England of the Pacific 
Coast," and has probably a larger proportion of New England 
people in its population than any other of the Western States. 
Its people are thrifty, intelligent and moral. They have reared 
the church and the school-house in their villages, even while their 
own dwellings were of logs or sods, and have shown their New 
England origin by their early attention to higher institutions of 
learning. No one of the States of the far West has, in propor- 
tion to its population, so many colleges and collegiate schools 



•Tribal Indians added, f A part of these Indians are in Washington Territory-. | For decade. 



INDIAN RESERVATIONS AND TRIBAL INDIANS. 



III5 



of high character, or imparts to the students so thorough 



training. 



Eastern Oregon, which is now receiving avast number of emi- 
grants in its rich and fertile valleys, will have a larger proportion 
of people of foreign birth, as well as a greater number from the 
Mississippi valley and the Middle States ; but the State is a de- 
sirable one for the better class of emigrants, not only from its 
advantages of soil and climate, and its mining and pastoral facili- 
ties, but for its educational and religious advantages, and the high 
character of its inhabitants. 

Indian Resei^vations and Tribal Indians. — The 5,818 tribal 
Indians credited by the Indian Commissioner to Oregon, though 
some of them more properly belong to Washington Territory, 
are of twenty different bands. Those belonging to the Grande 
Ronde, Klamath, Malheur and Siletz Agencies, and most of those 
connected with the Warm Springs Agency, about three-fourths 
of the whole, have adopted citizens' dress, and are becoming quite 
civilized. They till about 8,000 acres of land of their reserva- 
tions, and a few have had lands allotted to them in severalty. 
Their reservations include 3,853,800 acres, but less than 200,000 
acres of this is tillable. 

Counties and Principal Cities and Towns. — There are twenty- 
three counties in the State, whose population in 1880, and 
assessed valuation in 1879, was as follows: 



Counties. 

Baker 

Benton 

Clackamas 

Clatsop 

Columbia 

Coos 

Curry 

Douglas 

Grant 

Jackson 

Josephine 

Lake 

Lane 



Population, 
1880. 

4,615 

6,403 

9,260 

7,222 

2,042 

4,834 

1,208 

9,596 

4,303 

8,154 

2,485 

2,804 

9,411 



Ass'd Valuation, 
1879. 

$874,516 00 

1,722,115 00 

1,908,580 00 

1,159,361 00 

287,837 00 

894,113 00 

243,733 00 

2,133,118 00 

1,102,327 00 

1,466,992 00 

278,290 00 

830,591 00 

3,301,368 00 



iii6 



OUK WESTERN E Mr I RE. 



Counties. 








Population, 
1880. 


.\.ss'd Valuation, 
1879. 


Linn ..... 12,675 


$ ;, 490, 854 00 


Marion 








14.516 


3,922,258 00 


Multnomah 








25,204 


10,633,190 00 


Polk 








6,601 


io99'423 00 


Tillamook 








970 


83,902 00 


Umatilla . 








9,607 


1,523,988 00 


Union 








6,650 


1,117,099 00 


Wasco 








11,120 


2,262,570 00 


Washington 








7,082 


2,069,190 00 


Yam Hill . 








7>945 


2,465,258 00 


Total . 


174.767 


$46,370,673 00 


For 1878 . 










46,240,324 00 



This valuation was about fifty cents on the dollar of the true 
valuation. In 1880 the true valuation, including property not 
taxed, is not less than |, 1 00,000,000. 

The largest city in the State is Pordand, on the Willamette, 
1 1 2 miles by river from the Pacific Ocean. It is a place of con- 
siderable and increasing business and of great wealth. Its popu- 
lation in 1880 was 20,549. Salem, the capital, is also on the 
Willamette, and on the Orecjon and California Railroad. It is a 
pretty town of about 5,000 inhabitants. Oregon City, Albany, 
Harrisburg and Eugene City, all on the Willamette, have over 
3,000 inhabitants each, Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia; 
Roseburg, the present terminus of the Oregon and California 
Railroad ; Jacksonville, in the southwestern part of the State ; 
Corvallis, Junction City, both in the Willamette valley; Dallas, at 
the second rapids of the Columbia ; East Pordand, Port Orford 
and Empire City, on the coast ; and St. Helen's, in the northwest, 
on the Columbia river, are towns of 2,000 or more inhabitants. 
These are all in Western Oregon. In Eastern Oregon, La 
Grande, Baker City, Umatilla, Sparta, Pendleton and Milton are 
the principal towns. 

Religious Denominations. — In 1875 there were in Oregon 351 
church organizations and 242 church edifices of all denominations ; 
320 clergymen, priests or ministers; 14,324 members or com- 
municants; 71,630 adherent population, and church property 
valued at ;^65 2,950. This with a population estimated at 1 1 2,000, 



RELIGIOUS DENOMIiYATIONS. Hj-r 

exclusive of Indians, is certainly a very creditable showing-. The 
Methodists were considerably the most numerous denomination, 
the Methodist Episcopal Church having i 21 church organizations, 
63 church edifices, 140 ministers, 5,871 members, 20,1 70 adherent 
population, and ^139,500 of church property, while the minor 
Methodist denominations (Evangelical Association and United 
Brethren in Christ) had 42 churches, 23 church edifices, 19 minis- 
ters, 1,028 members, 4,200 adherent population, and ^22,000 of 
church property. The Baptists came next, the regular Baptists 
having 59 churches, 54 church edifices, 47 ministers, 2,052 mem- 
bers, 8,000 adherent population, and ^51,300 of church property, 
and the Christian Connection, Baptists in their practice, had 43 
churches, 29 church edifices, 36 ministers, 1,867 members. 7,900 
adherent population, and ;^42,5oo of church property; the Pres- 
byterians had 28 churches, 26 church edifices, 25 ministers, 
1 ,599 members, 7,000 adherent population, and ^64, 1 50 of church 
property. Next in order came the Catholics with i 7 churches, 
15 church edifices, 18 priests, 15,000 adherent population, and 
$124,500 of church property. Then followed the Protestant 
Episcopal Church with 16 parishes, 14 church edifices, 15 priests, 
607 communicants, 2,800 adherents, and ^74,300 of church prop- 
erty, while the Congregationalists were nearly equal to them in 
numbers. There were five minor sects represented, of whom 
only the Lutherans have increased very much within the past five 
years. Of the leading denominations there has been a very 
decided increase, most marked among the Baptists, Presbyterians, 
Episcopalians and Congregationalists. 

Historical Data. — Spain seems to have had the first title — that 
of maritime discovery — to Oregon and Washington Territory, 
having visited and mapped the coast nearly to the fifty-fifth 
degree of north latitude, in 1592 by the Greek pilot, De Fuca, 
in 1640 by Admiral Fonte, and subsequendy by other explorers. 
This title, with whatever validity it possessed, was expressly con- 
veyed to the United States by Spain by the treaty of Florida, 
concluded in 1819. The tide of the United States to Oregon and 
Washington Territory by no means, however, rested on this alone. 
Other valid claims were the following : the discovery and explo- 



IIl8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

ration of Columbia river by Captain Robert Gray, commanding 
the ship "Columbia," in 1792, who gave the name of his ship to 
the river; his previous exploration of the coast in connection with 
Captain Kendrick, in the "Washington " and the "Columbia," 
and his discovery and naming of Gray's Harbor, and exploration 
of the Straits of San Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound, more 
fully detailed in the chapter on Washington Territory ; the 
purchase of Louisiana and all that belonged to it from the 
French in 1803, this including the Spanish title so far as they had 
received it from the French in i 762 ;* the exploration of Columbia 
river from its sources to its mouth by Captains Lewis and Clarke, 
by order of our government in 1804, 1805, and its continued 
occupation by American citizens from 18 10, as a result of the 
knowledge of its resources gained from the report of Lewis and 
Clarke. 

In 1 8 10 the first house was built in Oregon by Captain Winship, 
a New Englander, but the house was carried away by a flood the 
following year. In 181 1, John Jacob Astor, of New York, estab- 
lished a trading-post at the mouth of the Columbia river, which was 
named "Astoria" in his honor. The venture proved disastrous, 
mainly in consequence of the war between the United States and 
Great Britain in 181 2. The British took possession of the post 
in 18 1 3 and called it Fort George. Subsequently it became the 
property of the Hudson Bay Company, and remained in its pos- 
session until 1848. The Northwest Fur Company disputed for 
a time the rule of the latter company on the Pacific coast, but 
had to succumb in a few years, and was absorbed by its rival in 
1824, from which time, till 1848, the latter ruled supreme in the 
valleys of the Columbia and Willamette. 

In 1824 the first fruit trees were planted in Oregon, and in 



* This claim to Oregon in consequence of the Louisiana purchase was a very weak one, and 
has been abandoned by Greenhovv and some other American authorities. The great name of 
Thomas Jefferson, who was President when the Louisiana treaty was negotiated, has also been 
cited against it; but the other claims were sufficient, and their justness and completeness cannot 
be denied. See on this subject two very able and conclusive papers by John J. Anderson, 
Ph. D., author of several works on the history of the United States, entitled '♦ Did the Louisiana 
Purchase extend to the Pacific Ocean ? " and " Our Title to Oregon " — San Francisco and New 
York, 1880. 



HISTORICAL DATA. 1 1 In 

1 83 1 the first regular attempts at farming were made by some 
of the retired servants of the Hudson Bay Company. In 1832 
the first school was opened. Between 1834 and 1837 missionaries 
of various denominations arrived, bringing the first cattle with 
them. In 1838 the first printing press arrived in Oregon. In 
1 841 Commodore Wilkes visited the Columbia on an exploring 
expedition at the instance of the United States government. 

From 181 6 till 1846 the American and British governments 
had held Oregon "by joint occupancy" under a formal treaty, 
but neither nation had organized any form of civil government 
there. In 1843 the inhabitants organized a provisional govern- 
ment, which continued in force till 1848. In 1846, after a long 
discussion, a treaty was made with Great Britain by which the 
whole territory south of 49° was ceded to the United States, 

In 1848 Oregon Territory was organized, and in 1849 received 
its first territorial grovernor. 

In 1859 it was received into the Union as a State. Since that 
time it has had some Indian troubles, but these are now all 
quieted, by the banishment of the Indian offenders, and the 
location of the Indians on reservations where they are cared iior 
and educated. 



II20 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

TEXAS. 

Situation and Boundaries of Texas — Its Area and Extent — Vastness of 
ITS Area — Comparisons with other States and Countries — Face of the 
Country — Mountains in the Northwest— Isolated Summits and Ridges 
Elsewhere — Elevations of Various Points — Rivers, Bays and Estuaries 
IN their Order from East to West — Texas Rivers not Navigable — Ge- 
ographical Divisions of the State and their Characteristics — Geology 
AND Mineralogy — Minerals — Forests and Vegetation — Zoology — Cli- 
mate — Meteorological Table giving the Temperajure, Rainfall, etc., 
AT Eight Points in the State — Mining and Manufacturing Industries 
— Agricultural Productions — Tables of Agricultural Products and 
Live-stock — Not all the Arable Lands of Texas of the First Quality — 
The Live-stock of the State Commands Lower Prices than that of 
States and Territories farther North — Why ? — Railroads and Navi- 
gable Waters — Population — Table of Population — Statistics — Nativi- 
ties OF the Population — From Whence the Emigration — Counties and 
THEIR Finances AND Valuation — Principal Ciiiesand Towns — Education 
-Public Schools — Contradictory Statistics — Lack of Interest in them 
— Universities, Colleges and Professional Schools — Institutions for 
Blind and Deaf Mutes — Lands for Immigrants — Religious Denomina- 
tions — Historical Data — Early Settlements in Texas — Its Revolt and 
Independence OF Mexico — The Republic — Annexation to United States 
— Progress — Secession — Reconstruction — Present Constitution — Con- 
clusion. 

Texas is the southernmost State of "Our Western Empire," 
and joins on its western border the RepubHc of Mexico, of which 
it was once an integral part. It is a vast domain, extending from 
the parallel of 25° 51' to that of 36° 30' north latitude, and from 
the meridian of 93° 27' to that of 106° 43' west longitude from 
Greenwich. It is of very irregular shape, a part of its boundaries 
being of mathematico-geographical lines of latitude and longitude, 
and a much greater portion following the natural lines of gulf 
coast, bay and river. Its northern boundaries are New Mexico 
from the Rio Grande eastward, to the 103d meridian, the Indian 
Territory (the narrow strip in the northwest of that Territory) 
from the 103d to the looth meridian, and the Red river from the 



TOPOGRAPHY OF TEXAS. II2I 

looth meridian to the 94th, where it crosses the Arkansas bound- 
ary. This river separates it from the Indian Territory. Its eastern 
limits are the meridian of 94° 10', as far south as the thirty-second 
parallel, Arkansas and Louisiana being its actual bounds, and 
from the thirty-second parallel the Sabine river and lake or estuary 
to the Gulf of Mexico, and the gulf itself thence to the mouth of 
the Rio Grande del Norte. The Rio Grande del Norte forms its 
southwestern border, separating it from the Republic of Mexico, 
as far as to El Paso, where it passes into New Mexico. The 103d 
meridian, passing through the Llano Estacado, forms its western 
boundary. Its extreme length from southeast to northwest is 
somewhat more than 800 miles, and its extreme breadth about 
750 miles. Its area is 274,365 square miles, or 1 75,587,840 acres. 
This area is equal to that of the German Empire, with Holland, 
Belgium, Switzerland and Denmark added to it. It is one-third 
larger than the Republic of France. It is four times larger than 
all New England, and nearly equal to the combined area of New 
York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and Illinois. 

Face of the Cotmtry. — It is avast inclined plane, with a gradual 
descent from the northern and northwestern boundary to the 
Gulf of Mexico. The coast counties are nearly level for sixty or 
eighty miles inland; the surface then becomes undulating, with 
alternate gradual elevations and depressions, and this feature in- 
creases as we proceed toward the northwest, until it becomes 
hilly and finally mountainous in some of the far western counties; 
the Sierra Charrotte are the most eastern of these mountain 
ranges, and between these and the Rio Grande, in Pecos, El Paso 
and Pre^sidio counties, are the Guadalupe, the Pah-cut, the Apache, 
the Sierra Hueco, the Sierra del Diablo, the Sierra del Muerio, 
the Chanatte Mountains, the Sierra Merino, the Sierra Cariso, 
Eagle Mountain, the Sierra Blanca, and stretching along the Rio 
Grande for many miles the Sierra Blancha. Most of these moun- 
tains carry leads of silver, lead and copper. The highest of them 
do not attain an elevation of more than 5,000 feet. In other por- 
tions of Texas there are hills, and occasionally a summit towering 
above the plain, but no mountains in the strict sense of the word. 
The gradual character of the ascending slope of the country is 
71 



1122 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Indicated by the following elevations ascertained by the coast 
survey and railway surveys: Goliad, 50 feet; Houston, 65 ; Gon- 
zales, 150; Jefferson, 226; Silver Lake, 350; Marshall, 377; 
Webberville, 394; Brenham, 435 ; Dallas, 481 ; San Antonio, 575 ; 
Fort Worth, 629; Austin, 650; Sherman, 734; Fort Inge, Uralde 
county, 845 ; Weatherford, 1,000; Sisterdale, in Kendall county, 
1,000; Fort Clark, Kenney county, 1,000; Fredericksburg, 1,614; 
Mason, 1,800; Fort Concho, 1,750; Fort McKavitt, 2,050; Fort 
Bliss, El Paso county, 3,830; Fort Davis, Presidio county, 4,700 
feet. 

Rivers, Bays, Estuaries and Lakes, — The State, except in the 
region of the Llano Estacado, or Staked Plain, in the northwest, 
is well watered. The Canadian river, the largest tributary of the 
Arkansas, and the Red river, which forms a part of its northern 
boundary, both have their head-waters in Northwestern Texas 
and New Mexico, but neither of them receive any very large 
affluents in Texas, though the North, Salt, Middle and South 
forks of the Red river are considerable streams. Beginning now 
at the east, the Sabine river, which for nearly 200 miles forms the 
eastern boundary of the State, is a large and for much of its route 
a sluggish stream, with several considerable affluents ; and the 
Neches, or Naches, a river of about the same size, runs nearly 
parallel with it, both discharging their waters into the Sabine 
lake. The affluents of these streams and of those to be men- 
tioned Interlock with each other, and though not of large size 
water the country well. All the rivers of Texas except the Can- 
adian and Red river have a general direction toward the south- 
east; at first perhaps rather to the south-southeast, but each 
successive river makes a laro^er ang-le with the meridian. After 
the Naches come successively the Trinity, the Brazos, with sev- 
eral large affluents, the Colorado, the largest river of Central 
Texas, having its sources on the borders of the Staked Plain, and 
fed by a hundred or more tributaries, the Guadalupe and its large 
affluent the San Antonio, Mission river, Aransas river, the 
Nueces, with its tributary, the Rio Frio, the Aqua Dulce, and a 
dozen smaller streams ; and on its southwest border the Rio 
Grande del Norte and its great tributary, the Rio Pecos. 



rOPULAR DIVISIONS OF TEXAS. 1 1 23 

None of the Texas rivers are navigable for any considerable 
distance except at high water, but by dredging and the construc- 
tion of a short canal, Galveston bay and Buffalo bayou have 
been rendered navigable as far as Houston, fifty miles from 
Galveston. 

Most of the so-called lakes in Texas are really estuaries and 
bays, and when somewhat narrower and without much current, 
they are called bayous. Of these bays and estuaries the prin- 
cipal are Sabine lake, at the mouth of the Sabine river, Galveston 
bay and its two arms, East and West bay, Matagorda bay and 
Lavaca bay, connected with it, Espiritu Santo and San Antonio 
bays, one opening into the other, with several small bays con- 
nected with them, Aransas and Copano bays, Corpus Christi and 
Nueces bays, and the Long Lagoon, or sound, Laguna de la 
Madre. The only considerable lakes not estuaries are Caddo 
lake, in the east. Forked lake, in Zavala county, Espantosa, in 
Dimmitt county, and three large salt lakes in Presidio county, in 
the northwest. 

Divisions of the Siate. — The State is divided for civil and de- 
scriptive purposes into — i. The coast counties; 2. Eastern 
Texas; 3. Central Texas; 4. Northern Texas; 5. Western and 
Southwestern Texas ; 6. Northwestern Texas. 

In the coast counties the soil and climate are especially adapted 
to the culture of the sugar-cane, sea island cotton, rice and many 
semi-tropical fruits and vegetables. 

The eastern portion of the State, including some eighteen 
counties, is heavily timbered, and from here are drawn nearly all 
the immense supplies of pine lumber required in the prairie por- 
tions of the State. The natural resources of this section are 
varied. In it are vast deposits of iron ore of excellent quality 
and extensive beds of lignite. Large crops of cotton, corn and 
other grains are grown in its valleys, and its uplands are noted 
for the production of fruits and vegetables. It is generally well 
watered by streams and springs. 

Central and Northern Texas, though generally a rich prairie 
country, is by no means devoid of a sufficiency of timber for ordi- 
nary purposes, its numerous streams being fringed with a large 



I 1 24 ^^^ WESTERN- EMPIRE. 

orrovvth of forest trees. It is also traversed by what is known as 
the upper and lower Cross Timbers — a belt of oak, elm and other 
timber, from one to six miles wide. 

Western and Southwestern Texas are the great pastoral re- 
gions of the State. The surface is generally a high, rolling table- 
land, watered by creeks and ponds, but with little timber, except 
alone the streams and on some of the hills and mountain reofion-s 
of the western part, where forests of cedar, mountain juniper, 
oak, etc., exist. 

The luxuriant growth of rich, native grasses found in this sec- 
tion renders it pre-eminently a stock-raising country, and as such 
it is unexcelled by any other portion of the continent. The pre- 
cious metals and other mineral deposits are known to exist in 
this section of the State, and it is believed their development will 
be rapid when railroads shall have been built across it. 

Northwestern Texas includes not only the mountainous region 
comprised in Pecos, Presidio and El Paso counties, but the un 
organized region known as the Territory of Bexar, and Tom 
Green county, and sixty-three counties north of and east of these, 
extending up to the parallel of 36° 30', and eastward to the me- 
ridian of 99° 30'. This region, a part of which is known as the 
" Pan-handle of Texas," has an area of more than 90,000 square 
miles, and perhaps one-third of it belongs to the Llano Estacado, 
or Staked Plain. It is not well watered, and portions of it are 
not watered at all except by wells. Its rainfall is very small, and 
the pasturage, though scanty, is nutritious where any water can 
be obtained. The mountainous portion is rich in minerals. Sil- 
ver, lead, copper and iron are found there, and gold probably 
will be. If, as is proposed, the great Staked Plain is rendered 
habitable by water supplied from artesian wells, this will be an 
I excellent country for pasturage. Flocks and herds sufficient to 
supply the world could be raised there. 

Geology and Mineralogy. — Texas has never had a State geo- 
logical survey; it has been once or twice attempted, but has soon 
failed for the want of means for its prosecution. It is said that 
the new constitution of the State prohibits anything of the kind — 
a most unwise provision, if true, as no State in the Union would 



GEO LOU Y AND MINERALOG V. 112? 

be as much benefited by such a survey as Texas. From some 
rapid and superficial geological reconnoissances of the State, we 
glean the following general view of the geology and mineraloo-y 
of the State. 

Mr. N. A. Taylor, a Texan geologist, has gathered together the 
sum of what is known in regard to it, though acknowledging that 
extensive districts, like that from Bandera west to the Rio Grande, 
and that from San Antonio southwest to the Rio Grande, have 
not been explored even superficially, and that even the formations 
which approach the surface are entirely unknown, though they 
are conjectured to be Tertiary: 

"The coast-belt, like that of the other gulf and southern Adantic 
States, is alluvial, though somewhat less fertile than the deposits 
of the Mississippi delta ; it Is, however, well adapted to corn, 
cotton, sugar-cane and the tropical fruits. 

" From the best data and my own observations, the Tertiary 
formations occupy all Eastern Texas as high as Red river, and 
all the lower portion of the State from the gulf lOO to 150 miles, 
and farther, into the interior. If there is any exception to this, 
it is in the remote southwest, which I have not visited. Of this 
great Territory, the Pliocene, or newer Tertiary, occupies the 
tide-water region, and a considerable portion of Eastern Texas 
above tide-water. All this region Is low and level, and wonder- 
fully productive when well drained and well treated. The 
Miocene, or middle Tertiary, appears here and there in scattered 
patches above the Pliocene, and Is quite largely developed about 
Huntsvllle. These lands are largely sandy, and usually hilly or 
broken. From the melting nature of the soil they are also cut 
up by considerable gullies and ravines. Usually productive, but 
cannot resist drought. Above these comes the Eocene, or 
oldest Tertiary, which occupies a larger space. These lands are 
rolling, and contain much very graceful and beautiful scenery. 
The waves and swells rise higher and higher as you go north 
and west. This formation has a very small percentage of poor 
land. 

" There are, no doubt, here and there, many Intrusions on a 
small scale of older strata through these formations, but I know of 



I 1 26 ^UR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

only one of any Importance. That is at the place called Damon's 
Mound, in Brazoria, where several acres of valuable limestone 
rise many feet above the Pliocene which surrounds it. This 
limestone cannot be later than Eocene, and may be older. It is 
the only stone I have seen in the Pliocene territory of Texas, 
and some day it will be very valuable for quicklime. 

"Above the Eocene, the Cretaceous formation rises like a 
rampart and extends north and west a great distance — how far 
It Is not certainly known. Many say that it goes on northward, 
with occasional Interruptions, until it reaches the plateau of the 
Rocky Mountains, Including the Staked Plains, This is the idea 
of Professor Buckley. With all deference, I believe it is not so. 
I believe there is very little Cretaceous after reaching the great 
outburst of Plutonic and Metamorphic rocks which extend 
through Burnet, Llano, Mason and Menard counties, and farther 
west to an unknown distance. After passing this primitive 
region, the country assumes outlines totally unlike the Cretaceous 
as elsewhere seen, I have no doubt. Indeed I know, that it 
appears here and there even to El Paso, on the Rio Grande, but 
the general formation I believe to be Jurassic, including the 
Staked Plains, and have little doubt that investigation will prove 
it to be so, 

" Just north of the primitive region of Llano, etc., there Is a 
large development of Carboniferous, extending northeast toward 
the Indian Territory, and embracing, as is calculated, 30,000 
square miles of coal-bearing strata. It is no doubt a continua- 
tion of the Arkansas or Ozark system. The Permian formation 
here and there crosses this coal territory, and probably flanks 
it all round. The Permian is also undoubtedly developed largely 
farther north and west. Not far from Fort Concho It terminates, 
and here, closely connected with it, there is a narrow streak of 
coal strata, in which an excellent coal has been found. As in 
England, so in Texas, this formation, wherever found, seems to 
Indicate unerringly the near presence of coal. I believe the 
Permian may be found almost anywhere near the foot of the 
Staked Plains. 

" Beyond the Pecos, in that almost unknown region below the 



THE MINERALS OF TEXAS. 112/ 

El Paso stage route, it is difficult to say what is the ruling- 
geological formation. All the formations, except the Tertiary, 
seem to have been thrown together in one vast pile of ruin, 
penetrated by valleys of exquisite beauty and fertility. Here we 
find all manner of Plutonic eruptions, frequently capped and 
flanked by Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks. Perhaps basaltic 
rocks predominate. They certainly assume some very immense 
forms, sometimes rising into perpendicular cliffs many miles long 
and a thousand or more feet high. The Permian also appears 
here, filled with selenite and other forms of gypsum. This is 
the most interestinor reoion in the world to the creoloeist. 

'■'Minerals. — If we are filled with doubt in regard to the geo- 
looical formations of Texas, we are much more so in reoard to 
the minerals that lie hidden in her strata. As reofards the Ter- 
tiaries, they contain many valuable deposits of iron ore in East- 
ern Texas, some of which have been a little worked and found 
to yield from forty to sixty per cent, of metallic iron. These ores 
are the brown oxides or limonite. The forests are dense in this 
region, and charcoal is obtainable at a nominal price. Lime- 
stones are usually within easy distance, sufficient to supply fluxes. 
These ores are also abundant in Robertson, Limestone and other 
counties of Central Texas, but have received no attention. The 
Eocene also contains very large deposits of lignite, some of 
which, particularly that found in Limestone county, is a superior 
variety of that sort of coal. It would prove excellent for gas- 
making, but will not coke. It burns furiously in a grate, but 
emits an unpleasant odor in combustion, which goes through the 
whole house and may even be smelled at a distance outside. 
Some of these layers of lignite are said to be at least twelve 
feet thick. They are associated with brown and blue shales, 
and rather soft brow^n sand-stone. There is some gypsum in 
the Eocene — notably about the falls of the Brazos, in Falls 
county, where it is in considerable quantity. It is pure enough 
for manufacturing Into plaster of Paris, and there is none better 
for fertilizing. West of Corpus Christi large deposits of salt are 
formed annually in the lagoons near the gulf. In the winter these 
basins are filled with water from the gulf, which evaporates in 



1 1 28 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

summer, leaving the clean white salt. Enough of it is thus 
formed here every year to salt all Texas. During the war these 
deposits supplied a large portion of Texas with salt. 

"The Cretaceous contains a good deal of gypsum, and lime- 
stone for building or quicklime, widiout end. About two miles 
from Round Rock, on the International railroad, there is a great 
quantity of gypsum, quite pure. There is also a good deal of it 
about Mount Bonnel, near Austin. Both of these points are so 
convenient to transportation that it is singular that some one has 
not engaged in making plaster of Paris. Nearly all that article 
used in Texas comes from Newfoundland, and this when we have 
it just as good and in great abundance right at our own doors. 
No chalk has ever been found in the Cretaceous system of Texas, 
so far as I know. 

" The granitic and metamorphic region, running through Burnet, 
Llano, Mason, Menard, etc., abounds in mineral wealth. There 
are probably no larger and certainly no better deposits of iron 
ore in the world than those of Llano county ; none easier to get 
at. These ores are magnetic and specular, and often appear in 
immense masses resembling solid iron. They have been wrought 
to a very small extent and found to yield from seventy to eighty 
per cent, of iron, equal to the best in the world. With such 
immense masses of iron as this, Texas ought to furnish not only 
her own railroad iron, but also ship it to other lands. This will 
be done in time. At present Austin is the nearest point to a 
railroad, about a hundred miles off. The region is generally 
timbered, furnishing plenty of material for charcoal ; some coal 
has also been discovered in this region, and it is known to exist 
abundantly in Coleman and other counties not far off. There is 
also abundance of limestone. Soapstone, valuable for furnaces, 
also abounds. Some copper, silver, and even gold, have been 
found in this region, but not yet, I believe, in paying quantities. 
Its great mineral wealth is doubtless its iron. Marble of excellent 
quality is found in places throughout this region. Perhaps the 
largest deposit of it is at the Marble Falls of the Colorado, where 
the river for ? ^ — ;' ble distance cuts its way through walls 
and mountain marble. It is not uncommon in this 



THE MINERALS OF TEXAS. II2g 

region to find the people living In huts or cabins surrounded 
with fences built of the finest marble. The marble is of various 
shades — some pure white, some variegated with red and blue 
markings, and some black. This place is about sixty miles above 
Austin, and the marble might be brought down the river in flat- 
boats, but it Is not. 

"In the same region there are numerous salines, issuing, it is 
said, from Silurian rocks, and some salt of a very fine quality is 
manufactured — enough to supply the wants of the people around 
there. This whole region is very picturesque, and has some of 
the loveliest scenery on the American continent. 

" Below this primitive region, lying out in the post-oaks to the 
southeast, are nuinerous strange boulders, which have been borne 
many miles from their native beds by some remarkable occur- 
rence which took place about the close of the Cretaceous era. 
Some of these lost rocks are many tons in weight. The Jurassic 
and Permian beds are known to contain great deposits of copper, 
gypsum and salt. Indeed, the largest deposit of gypsum known 
in the world is found in Northwest Texas along Red river, and 
extending a great distance into the State. The gypsum belt Is 
a hundred or more miles In width, and of unknown thickness. 
The gypsum is of all sorts, from the purest alabaster and selenite 
to the common massive forms. There is enough of it to supply 
the demands of the universe for centuries. All the streams that 
wander through this great bed are impregnated with this mineral 
and salt — some to such a degree that even the animals will not 
drink them. The Pecos is a strange compound, and one of the 
arms of the Brazos Is far more briny than the ocean. Yet in all 
this region there are springs and deep circular pits of pure water. 
The Permian, in Archer and several other counties, is heavily 
stored with copper. 

"In regard to the region west of the Pecos, I have this prophecy 
to place on record — that the day will come when it will develop 
great mineral wealth. We have every reason to think so. No 
Intelligent man has ever penetrated that region without being 
filled with this conviction, and the more intelligent and observingr 
he is the stronger Is this conviction upon him. There is hardly 



1 1 20 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

a doubt that the geological formation there is but a continuation 
of the rich mineral-bearing system of Colorado, Nevada and 
Chihuahua. The rocks appear the same ; they contain silver, cop- 
per and lead. These rich metalliferous rocks run in great systems, 
and not in isolated protrusions. Thus we find gold in the great 
Appalachian system of mountains, reaching out thousands of miles; 
and thus we find gold and silver in the great Rocky and Andes 
Ranee, traversine the length of two continents. For this reason 
I have ever entertained a lively hope that much silver and gold 
will be found in the far isolated group of Llano, etc. The moun- 
tains beyond the Pecos fill every condition for the expectation 
of great mineral wealth. Here the systems of Colorado and the 
Sierra Rica, of Mexico, meet and blend. Being so rich elsewhere, 
why should they not be even richer where they meet and blend? 
I have no question that they will eventually prove so, and that 
those now utterly lonely mountains will be filled with great works 
and the busy camps of the miners. Silver will be the principal 
metal, though copper and lead will abound." 

Forests and Vegetation. — Eastern Texas, east of the Trinity 
river, is a region of abundant timber, and although the most 
densely populated portion of the State, full one-half of its surface 
is still covered with forests. There are two species of pine, here 
known as the "long straw" and "short straw" pine, both of large 
size and producing excellent lumber, while the long straw yields 
a superior quality of turpentine. There are also in Eastern 
Texas several species of oak, including the live-oak, so called, an 
evero-reen oak which differs somewhat from the live-oak of 
Florida, and which is found all over the State ; the post-oak and 
blackjack ; the ash, elm, black walnut, butternut, pecan, box-elder 
and pride of China ; and toward the coast, the magnolia (here a 
stately tree), the cypress, palmetto, etc. In Northern Texas 
there are two immense belts of woodland, extending from the 
Red river southward, called the " Lower " and " Upper Cross 
Timbers." They are each about forty or forty-five miles wide, 
and extend southward from 1 50 to 200 miles ; the first com- 
mences in Cooke and Grayson counties, along the Red river, 
and extends to McLennan county ; the second, which is smaller, 



FOREST GROWTHS IN TEXAS. II3I 

occupies parts of Wise, Jack, Palo Piuto, Hood and Erath coun- 
ties. Most of the trees in these forests are post-oak and black- 
jack oak, and they stand so wide apart that a wagon can be 
driven between them in any direction. 

Central Texas is mainly rolling prairie ; but with plenty of 
timber, generally of good quality, though sometimes cottonwood, 
buckeye, black gum or sweet gum, in the river and creek bottoms. 
There are also islands of forest trees, live-oak, cypress (which 
grows on the hills here), post-oak and mesquite scattered through 
the prairies. The coast belt has no forest trees, but frequent 
chapparals, composed mainly of the different species of cactus. 
This region has also in spring and early summer rich and nutri- 
tious grasses, and a profusion of brilliant flowering plants. 
Western and Northwestern Texas are scantily wooded, though 
even there the cypress, the live-oak (more rarely), and that won- 
derful tree, the mesquite, are found. The Osage orange (bois 
d'arc) and the pecan tree are among the other valuable forest 
trees of Texas. The bois d'arc grows in almost all soils; its wood 
is very hard and durable, and its thorns and rapid growth make it 
excellent for hedges. 

The other shrubs and plants most common in Northwestern 
Texas and in the Llano Estacado are the yucca and four or five 
genera of the cactus, among which are the prickly pear, the melo- 
cactus, the mammelaria and several species of cereus. The sage 
brush is not so abundant, even on the Llano, as in New Mexico 
and Colorado. The mesquite grass, a very great favorite with 
cattle, is the best of the pasturage grasses of this region. 

Zoology. — There are still some herds of buffalo and antelope 
in the northwestern part of the State, though the number is di- 
minishing every year. In Western Texas the mustang or wild 
horse of Mexico sdll feeds in large troops on the prairies ; the 
gray wolf, more ferocious and stronger than his northern con- 
gener, the black bear, the puma or cougar, the jaguar or Amer- 
ican tiger, the wild cat and the lynx, are found in the wooded and 
thinly inhabited districts ; while deer, peccaries, raccoons, opos- 
sums, foxes, hares and squirrels abound in the woods. 

Amonor the feathered tribes are found : of game birds, the wild 



I 1^2 ^^^^ WESTER x\' EMPIRE. 

turkey, pheasant, quail, snipe, curlew, many species of wild ducks, 
brant and teal, wild geese, swans, and a great variety of birds 
remarkable for sweetness of song or beauty of plumage; and 
among the birds of prey, the king vulture, or king of the buz- 
zards, the common turkey buzzard, and other vultures, eagles, 
hawks, kites, pelicans, herons, king-fishers, flamingoes, cranes, 
etc. The streams abound in fish, of which the black bass and the 
war-mouth perch are the best edible fresh-water varieties, while 
the waters of the bays and gulf yield immense numbers of the 
salt-water fish common to all the Atlantic and gulf coasts. The 
oysters of Galveston bay and its vicinity are considered good by 
epicures. Alligators, turtles, etc., are abundant in the lower 
portion of the rivers and bayous, and on the coast are seen, though 
less frequently, the great sea-turtles, the manatee, octopus and the 
porpoise. In the mountains and wooded districts, rattlesnakes, 
moccasin snakes, copperheads, the red-mouthed adder and the 
milk adder are sufficiently numerous, and several species of the 
black snake (our American boa) and great numbers of harmless 
snakes are found almost everywhere. The gecko and other 
lizards, among them the chameleon, horned toads, horned frogs, 
salamanders, etc., abound, and the insect tribes are both numerous 
and formidable. The centipede, and on the lower coast a small 
sand scorpion, the large jumping spider, horse flies, buffalo gnats, 
chigoes and mosquitoes are all more or less troublesome ; but 
they are not found in the same localities nor at the same season 
of the year. The insects injurious to vegetation are less numerous 
and destructive than in any other States. 

Climate. — The climate of Texas is varied from semi-tropical to 
moderately temperate. Snow and ice are seldom seen in the 
central portion, and rarely, if ever, in the extreme south. In the 
northern part one or two snow-falls during the winter, of from 
one to three inches in depth, are usually expected. Occasionally 
a much heavier fall is had, and ice from one to two inches in 
thickness is sometimes made. 

In the northeastern and eastern sections of the State the mer- 
cury in summer rarely rises above loo, and as rarely descends 
to zero. The summers are long and the heat continuous, but 



CLIMATE OF TEXAS. WXT, 

not as intense as in many localities farther north. The winters 
are generally mild and for the most part pleasant. On the coast, 
even at Brownsville, near the mouth of the Rio Grande, the mer- 
cury rarely or never reaches ioo°, and as rarely falls below 32° 
in winter. The entire range of the year is not over 66°. 

Along the whole course of the Rio Grande, and, indeed, gener- 
ally in Western and Northwestern Texas, the climate is entirely 
different, bearing a greater resemblance to that of Arizona and 
New Mexico. The summer temperature rises to 110°, 112° or 
1 16°, and what is remarkable attains its greatest intensity in May 
when it remains above 100° for fifteen or twenty days too-ether. 
In winter it falls to about 20° or 25°, the annual range being from 
91° to 96°. The rainfall varies as much as the temperature. In 
Galveston it averages more than 50 inches; in Austin, 34.55 ; 
in Denlson, about 31 inches; while west of the looth meridian 
it gradually diminishes from 21.21 at Brackettsville to 8.99 at El 
Paso. From the reports of twenty-five stations of the Signal 
Service Office in Texas, and reports from two or three others 
from private sources, we have selected eight points, of which we 
give temperature, rainfall, and, in two of them, the barometer. 
These eight points represent as fairly as possible the meteorology 
of all parts of the State. ( See pages 1 1 34, 1 135. ) 

Mining and Maiinfacturing Industries. — There can be no 
question that Texas possesses a vast amount of mineral wealth, 
and that at some not distant day the mountain districts of 
Western and Northwestern Texas will be thoroughly prospected, 
and hundreds of mines of gold, silver and copper opened and 
profitably worked. The mines of coal, of rock salt and of lead, 
which are now just developing, will be wrought on an extensive 
scale, and the soapstone, marble, slate and gypsum will be largely 
exported. The whole State west of the meridian of San Antonio 
is full of mineral wealth. But at present there is a lack of the 
enterprise which is necessary for the development of these trea- 
sures. The coal mines are worked to a considerable extent, be- 
cause the railroads need and will have the coal, and the salt 
mines are worked, and the water of the saline springs evaporated, 
because there is an importunate and constant demand for salt for 



1 1 34 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



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METEOROLOGY OF TEXAS. 



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J I ^6 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

daily consumption. The manufacture of flour, of lumber, of ma- 
chinery, furniture, carriages and wagons, of cotton goods, of 
packed meats, leather and leather goods, might easily be ten-fold 
what it now is but for a lack of enterprise and push in these mat- 
ters. The annual product of mines and manufactories in the 
State in 1870, according to the ninth census, was ^11,517,302. 
It is safe to say that at the present time, including the large de- 
velopment of coal mining, copper miining, salt works, cotton gins 
and mills, saw mills, etc., etc., it is not less than ^50,000,000. Yet 
there is much truth in the words of the editor of the Galveston 
Daily News, in December, 1879: 

" The great want of Texas is manufacturing industry. With 
the exception of her flouring mills, cotton-seed mills, the New 
Braunfels woollen mills, and three or four foundries and work- 
shops — all successful testimonials, however, as to what can be 
accomplished in this way — the State is altogether deficient in 
manufactures. Yet there is plenty of opportunity and facility in 
the State for the establishment and successful operation of such 
in a variety of lines. State demand is ample, and the means are 
native here, awaiting the touch of enterprise and capital. Texas, 
as yet, is dependent upon the outer world for everything, from 
ax-helves to farm-wagons, from the hoe to the steam-engine; yel 
the State abounds in mineral wealth, and the timber of the country 
is profuse in the best of varieties and boundless in extent. With 
the full achievement of the manufacturing era will come the in- 
dustrial glory of Texas." 

Ag7-'ic2cllural Prodiutioiis. — In other parts of this work we have 
devoted much attention to the agricultural productions of Texas, 
as well as to its flocks and herds, and have endeavored to show 
that its present products, large as they may be, are very much 
less than they might be, even with the land at present under cul- 
ture, and the present population, if there were greater enterprise 
and more skilful farming. We have shown, also, that she has 
the land and the capacity to grow all the cotton necessary for the 
world's consumption, and a sufficiency of grain to feed the whole 
human family, as well as flocks and herds in sufficient number to 
furnish meat for every person on the globe; yet she is strangely 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS OF TEXAS. 



^^17 



apathetic to her grand opportunities, and prefers to boast of her 
wealth and productions, and discourse of them in ghttering gen- 
eraHties, rather than to work out her destiny by energetic and 
skilfully directed labor. Meanwhile other States, with not one- 
fourth of her area or natural advantages, are rapidly surpassing 
her in population, wealth, and manufacturing and mining devel- 
opment. The climate, pleasant as it is, may have something to 
do with this indisposition to vigorous and continued exertion ; 
and the former prevalence of slavery there may have had its in- 
fluence ; but until this apathetic indolence is overcome, the State 
will make far less rapid progress than she dreams of making. 

The latest complete statistics of agricultural products of tb,e 
State are for 1878 and 1879, those of 1880 being simply conjec- 
tural. There has been undoubtedly a considerable increase in 
many of the crops in the last year, but nothing except the special 
investigation made by the census office will account for it. The 
following table gives the statistics of products for 1878 and 1879: 

Agricultural Productions of Texas in 1878 a7id 1879. 



Products, 1878. 



Indian corn, bu. 

Wheat, bu 

Rye, bu 

Gals, bu 

Potatoes, bu. . . . 

Hay, tons 

Cotton, pounds. 



Totals . 



<y 



58,396,cxx) 

7,200,000 

54,000 

5>53i.5oo 

604,800 

127,200 

497,310,000 



26 
16 

I 18 

! 84 

'• 
275 



59 



4, 

2,246,000 

450,000 

3,000 

149,500 

7,200 

80,000 

1,808,400 



44 

86 

72 

42 

99 
9-75 
8.2 



Products, 1879. 

Indian corn, bu 

Wheat, bu 

Rye, bu 

Oats, bu 

Potatoes, bu 

Hay, tons 

Cetton, pounds 



29,198,000 

3,454,200 

32,400 

3,962,500 

310,200 

1 3 1 ,000 

338,625,000 



Totals I 4,924,596 



13 

7.6 

12 

25 

47 
1.08 

175 



4,744,100 

2,246,000 

454.500 

2,700 

158,500 

6,600 

121.296 

1,935,000 



1.03 
1. 15 
1. 00 

.62 

1.29 

11.64 

.10 



jS!25,694,240 

6,192,000 

38,880 

2,323.230 

59^.752 

1,240,200 

40,779,420 



376,866,722 

JJ30.073.940 

3.972,330 

32,400 

2^56,750 

400,158 

1,524,840 

33,862,500 

;g72,322,9i8 



72 



1 138 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Of the following articles the entire production is unknown, but 
as there are no large tanneries and but few woollen mills, the 
exports of both raw-hides and wool must cover nearly the pro- 
duction. This is partly true also of cotton seed-cake and oil : 

Wool exported, 14,568,920 pounds, valued at . . 1^2,913,784 

Hides exported, 28,104,065 " " . . 2,810,406 

Cotton-seed cake and oil, 506,063 

Of the next three, probably the export is less than 

one-half the production ; lumber and shingles . 1,349,691 

Sugar and molasses, 433,960 

Miscellaneous products, 672,364 

$8,686,268 

Adding to these the live-stock of the State, Januar}^ 1879, and 
January, 1880, we have the following as an approximate estimate 
of the entire agricultural and grazing product of the State : 



January, 1879. 



Animals. 



Horses 

Mules, etc 

Milch cows 

Oxen and other cattle. 

Sheep 

Swine 

Agricultural products . 
Special exports 



Number. ; Price. 



Value. 



918,000 : 

180,200 

544.500 

4,800,000 

4,56j,ooo 

1,957,000 



40.23 
14-53 



Total agricultural and grazing products. 



^20,563,200 
7.249.446 
7.911.585; 
43,920,000 
8,208,000 
5,604,870 
76,866,722 
8,686,258 



J.1 79, 100,081 



January, 18 



Horses 

Mules and asses 

Milch cows 

Oxen and other cattle. 

Sheep 

Swine 

Agricultural products. 
Special exports 



Number, i Price. 



$963,900 
191,012 
566,280 
4,464,000 
5,198.400 
1,917,860 



JS24.6D 
45.90 
13-85 
10.51 
Z.13 
3.00 



Value. 



1^23,811,940 
8,767,451 
7,832,973 
46,916,640 
1-1,072,592 
5,753,580 
72,322,918 
8,686,258 



Total agricultural and grazing products $185,164,357 



There is, in the vast area of Texas, much arable land, and some 
of it, especially in Eastern and Central Texas, is of the first qual- 
ity ; that of the coast counties is inclined to be sandy, but pro- 
duces excellent crops of tropical and semi-tropical fruits, and 
sugar and rice. But a very large portion of the arable lands 
are of the second or third quality, and are not thoroughly culti- 
vated. The average yield of cotton, Indian corn and wheat per 
acre is conclusive evidence either that the land is poor or the 
farming very slovenly. There are farms in the State, and those 
not on the land which is considered of the highest quality, where 
the cotton crop in average years is two bales (960 pounds) to the 
acre, in fields of many hundred acres; and others where the corn 



THE GRAZING INTEREST IN TEXAS. 



"3^ 



crop is forty to forty-five bushels, and the wheat crop twenty-five 
to thirty bushels. These are not extravagant or fancy crops ; but 
they prove the truth of the old Georgia adage, that "it is as much 
in the man as in the land." 

The State is well adapted to grazing, and even the northwest- 
ern region, with its small rainfall and its few streams, often dry, 
is a fair grazing country, if water enough can be found for the 
cattle and sheep. Texas has the largest amount of live-stock to 
be found in any one State or Territory in the Union ; but even 
in this pursuit the carelessness and shiftlessness of her stock- 
growers prevent her from making as good a showing as her 
situation warrants. The cattle of Texas are very largely of a 
comparatively poor breed ; long-horned, not very large, and 
somewhat unshapely, not inclined to take on flesh rapidly, and 
yet wanting in the qualities for good milkers. They bring in the 
market from ;^5 to ^lo per head less than steers of the same age 
in Colorado, Kansas, Wyoming or Montana, and the larger 
stock-raisers, with few exceptions, take no pains to improve the 
breed. The horses, which now number more than a million, are 
to a very large extent mustangs and most of them wild. The 
mustang is, for its size, the most vicious horse in the world. 
There are some bronchos, a cross between some of the better 
breeds and the Indian pony ; these are better than the mustangs, 
but are not very valuable. There are, of course, better horses 
than either in the State, and a few of the more wealthy stock- 
raisers are making efforts to introduce horses of better quality, 
but with indifferent success. 

The sheep are also of poor quality — Mexican sheep which will 
yield only from one and a half to two and a half pounds of wool 
at a shearing. The average weight of the fleeces on " King " 
Carlin's sheep ranche is three and a half pounds, but these are 
nearly all of improved breeds, and the wool clip is regarded as 
something astonishing in Texas ; while in Colorado, Wyoming, 
Montana, Oregon and Washington, the average weight is from 
five and a half to seven pounds, and the wool is of much better 
quality and higher price. The same indifference appears in the 
rearing of swine. The average Texas hog has long legs, a 



Il^o OUK WESTERN EMPIRE. 

humped back, a sharp snout, can run Hke a hound, and clear any 
fence without difficulty; but he is not given to taking on fat, and 
though his hams may have a gamy flavor, he excels most in all 
those points which neither breeder, butcher nor pork-packer 
regard as desirable in a hog. Of course such swine as these 
are not very profitable, especially when the adjacent, but much 
newer, State of Kansas has attained so nearly to perfection in 
raisine swine. Of course there are farmers, and laroe farmers, 
who are not liable to these criticisms ; men who endeavor to raise 
only the best animals ; but these are the somewhat rare excep- 
tions to the general rule; and with a most admirable country and 
climate for rearing stock, it has come to pass, that the average 
Texas horse, the average Texas steer, the average Texas sheep, 
and the average Texas hog, are about the poorest specimens of 
those animals respectively, to be found in all "Our Western 
Empire," and command the lowest prices. 

There is no good reason for this either in the soil, the climate 
or the location. The large ranche-owner may say, indeed, that 
it is not worth his while to take any more pains, or put himself 
to any more trouble to raise better animals, for he is becoming 
rich as fast as he cares to, and he wouldn't know what to do 
with more money if he had it ; but this is a very poor argument 
for shiftlessness and indolence. No man lives, or should live, for 
himself alone. It is every man's duty to do the best he can with 
the property which comes into his hands, and he who gives the 
best culture possible to his lands, who rears the best animals, or 
develops most fully the resources of his estates, is not only 
enriching himself thereby, but is benefiting his neighbor by his 
enterprise and example, and brings prosperity and wealth to his 
State, by thus showing its capacity for future growth and expan- 
sion. He is the State's best citizen who does the most for its 
material and intellectual advancement. 

Railroads and Navigable IVa^ers.—TexsLS has over 400 miles 
of coast line on the gulf, though its harbors are not of the first 
class. Still Galveston, Indianola, Corpus Christi and Brazos de 
Santiago are somewhat important ports, and have a foreign com- 
merce of about $23,000,000 annually, and a much larger coasting 



RAILROADS AND NAVIGABLE WATERS. H^I 

trade. With the exception of the canal and bayou, by means of 
which Houston has water communication with Galveston and 
has become a port of entry, none of the rivers of Texas are 
navigable for any considerable distance. The editor of the 
Galveston Daily Ncivs, in the issue of December 29th, 1879, 
described the progress of the State in railroad construction since 
1865 as follows: 

"At the close of the war in 1865 there were but six railroads 
in Texas that had track laid in running order, viz. : the Buffalo 
Bayou, Brazos and Colorado Railroad, from Harrisburg to 
AUeyton, eighty miles ; the Houston and Texas Central Rail- 
road, from Houston to Millican, eighty miles; the Washington 
County Railroad (now the Austin division of the Central), from 
Hempstead to Brenham, thirty miles ; the Galveston, Houston 
and Henderson Railroad, from Galveston to Houston, fifty miles; 
the Texas and New Orleans Railroad, from Houston to Liberty, 
forty miles ; and the Columbia and Brazos River Railroad, from 
Houston to Columbia, fifty miles — making a total of 330 miles 
of railroad in actual operation fifteen years ago. The Southern 
Pacific Railroad (now the Texas and Pacific) was under operation 
from Shreveport, La., to the Texas line, but at that period had 
not penetrated the State. Now there are twenty-six different 
lines of railroad in actual operation within the State, with a total 
mileage in running order of 2,556 miles, showing that since the 
year 1865 no less than 2,226 miles of railroad have been con- 
structed and placed in running order. Twenty of these roads 
are standard orauQ^e and six are narrow ofauofe railroads. There 
are few States in the Union with a better record than this. It 
speaks volumes for the future of the commonwealth in every 
direction toward progress and prosperity, and to all appearances 
the next few years will witness still further advances in the impor- 
tant work of railroad construction." 

During the year 1880 considerable progress has been made 
in railroad construction, and still more in railroad consolidation 
in the State. None of the Texas railroads are completed west 
of the ninety-ninth meridian, though the Texas Pacific is, we 
believe, under contract to El Paso; while the Southern Pacific 



1 142 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



of California is already at or near El Paso, and is heading direcdy 
for Galveston by as nearly as possible an air-line as far as Austin, 
where it will probably join the Houston and Texas Central. The 
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe is also at or near El Paso, and 
is supposed to have a terminus on the Gulf of Mexico in view, 
but whether over the Southern Pacific line or not is as yet uncer- 
tain. The Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway and the St. 
Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern are now virtually under one 
control, and will probably form some connection with Western 
Texas. Several short roads and connections have been con- 
structed in Eastern Texas, and the first of January, 1881, will 
probably find about 3,000 miles of railroad in operation in the 
State, with another thousand in prospect by January, 1882. 

Population of Texas. 



Year of Enumeration. 



1806. 



7,000 
1834 1 21,000 



H Q. 



52,670 

1 50,000 
212,592 
604,215 

818,579 

1880 1,510,000 



1836. 
1845. 

1850. 
i860. 
1870. 



33.500 

91,000 

113,780 

320,167 
423,557 



19,170 
59,000 

98,812 

284,048 

395,022 



30,000 

154,034 

420,891 

564,700 



O 



5,000 

397 

355 

253,47s 



58,161 
162,566 



SJ 



17,670 



403 
724 



Year of Enu- 
meration. 



1806, 

1834. 
1836. 

1845- 
1850. 
,1860. 
1870. 
4880. 



194,433 
560.793 
756,168 



fe 



17,681 
43,422 
62,411 



0.02 
0.07 
0.19 

0.54 
0.77 
2.20 
3,02 
5SO 



300 
150 

»85 
41.70 

184.22 
36.46 
82.21 



10,583 

18,476 

221,703 






< -7; 






83,206 
233,417 
319-233 



43,909 

119,362 

158,765 






■^ -I cj 

O cu 

3 



52,666 

143,151 

184,094 



POPULATION OF TEXAS. I I^j 

Population. — The growth of Texas has been more rapid than 
that of most of the Southern States, though less so than that of 
some of the Northern States. The preceding table gives the popu- 
lation of the State at different periods, and other particulars. 

Of this population, the number of foreign birth has never been 
very large. The Germans have some colonies in New Braunfels 
and its vicinity, and there are a considerable number of Irish, 
English, French and Spanish, a few Italians and many Mexicans 
and half-breeds of the lower classes, and some Indians. The last 
two classes find employment as cow-boys, shepherds, teamsters, 
etc. But there has been for the past thirty years and more a 
steady stream of emigration into Texas from the Southern, Gulf 
and Atlantic States, and, since the war, from the States of the 
Mississippi valley — Illinois furnishing, perhaps, the largest num- 
ber. The people are brave, free-hearted and hospitable, and 
immigrants are made welcome there; but there is need of a larger 
infusion of Northern thrift, enterprise and thoroughness. The 
habits, and perhaps some of the vices engendered by slavery, have 
not been entirely eradicated, but progress is made every year, 
and eventually this vast domain will be developed on a grand scale 
by the efforts of the generation now coming upon the stage. 

Comities and Principal Cities and Towns. — There are 220 
counties in Texas, of which, however, only 154 are as yet fully 
organized, while some of the unorganized counties are vast tracts 
as yet unpeopled, and some of them are designated as territo- 
ries rather than counties. The assessment valuation of the year 
1877— 1878, the last published, seems to be made on a basis of 
fifty per cent, of the true valuation, and perhaps on sixty per 
cent, of the numbers of live-stock. It is as follows : 

Acres of land -,. 76,450,450 

Miles of railroad i>78i 

Number of steamboats and other vessels .... 575 

Numberof carriages and buggies .,.,,,, 131,920 

Number of horses and mules 985,561 

Number of cattle 3,312,356 

Number of asses 5j37i 

Number of sheep 2,883,372 

Number of goats 229,618 

Number of hogs 1,292,909 



1 144 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



The total value of all property assessed was ^318,985,765. A 
true valuation would be not less than ^450,000,000. 

Of the towns and cities, Galveston, the commercial capital and 
chief port of entry, is the largest. It has a very poor harbor, the 
entrance to the bay being obstructed by a bar nearly four miles 
across. Its population according to the census of 1880 is 22,253. 
It is said not to be growing, though it has a good back country, all 
of Central and Eastern Texas, to furnish it with trade. Houston, 
which has already become a great railroad centre, had in June, 
1880, 18,646; and San Antonio, which is called the capital of 
Western Texas, has a large trade from Northwestern Texas, as 
well as from other sections of the State, and is rich in historic 
interest, had at the same date 20,561. Austin, the capital of the 
State, had in June, 1880, 10,960. Waco and Dallas are of about 
the same size as Austin, the latter having 10,358 and the former 
a little less than 10,000. Fort Worth has not quite 10,000 ; Sher- 
man, about 8,000 or 9,000; Denison, Marshall, Paris, Jefferson, 
Corpus Christi, Brownsville, Laredo, Brenham, Indianola, and 
perhaps one or two other towns, have 5,000 or more inhabitants, 
and there may be a dozen. New Braunfels, the chief town of the 
German colonists, among them, which range between 3,000 and 
5,000. 

Education. — Public school education in Texas has not been well 
managed. There is, indeed, nominally, provision for a school 
fund, which may eventually become large, but the school lands 
are held at a price considerably higher than other lands of equal 
value, and the State and railroads have so much land to sell that 
the school lands are neglected. 

During the late civil war, the school fund and its income were 
diverted to other purposes, and though an effort has been made 
to increase the amount of the fund since the war, it has not proved 
very successful, and the schools have been much hampered by 
bad legislation. The permanent school fund on September i, 
1879, was stated at ^3,300,581, but the income from it, which con- 
stituted the available school fund, was only ^132,883. Three 
and a half months later, viz.: December 15, 1879, the State 
Treasurer reports the permanent school fund of the State as only 




COTTON TRAIN. CoTTON FRlibS. CATTLE STAMl'EDK. \IE\V UK GAL\"ESTON UARBOR. 



EDUCATION IM TEXAS. 



1 145 

^1,154,400, and the available school fund as ^102,409. We can- 
not explain the discrepancy. Some money is raised for schools 
by taxation, but the taxes are not promptly paid. The whole 
actual expenditure for public schools does not probably exceed 
^550,000 per annum. The number of children of school age re- 
ported in 1879 (eight organized and all the unorganized counties 
not reporting) was 224,720. The various reports in regard to 
public school education are so conflicting as to impair confidence 
in their accuracy. That of the United States Commissioner of 
Education for the year 1878, from Secretary Hollingsworth, of the 
State Board* of Education, gives the following figures, which do 
not agree with any others : Counties reporting, 137 (there are 
154 organized counties in the State) ; youth of school age (eight 
to fourteen), 194,353 (other reports for the same year give 
168,294 and 164,294) ; whole enrolment in public schools, 146,- 
946; non-attendants, 23,963 (these figures again do not agree) ; 
whole number of illiterates of school age, 61,123. Whole number 
of organized schools, 4,633, of which 905 are for colored pupils; 
average time of schools in days, 88 days; 243 school-houses built 
within the year, at a cost of ^54,267. Whole number of teachers 
reported, 4,330 — 303 less than the number of schools. Of these 
2,895 were white males; 760 white females; 562 colored males, 
and 113 colored females. The average pay of all male teachers 
was ^42 per month, and of all females, %2)Z P^^ month. The whole 
income of public schools was stated to be ^859,484, and the whole 
expenditure, $747,534. Pe?^ contra, it is stated recently that the 
wages of the teachers are sadly in arrears. The amount of the 
permanent school fund in 1878 is stated to have been $3,385,571, 
while a year later it was only one-third of that sum. There is 
certainly room for improvement. Some of the cities, as Houston, 
Dallas and San Antonio, have good schools. The only normal 
schools are those sustained by private enterprise or by religious 
associations. 

There are five so-called universities, viz.: Baylor, Southwestern, 
Trinity, Waco and St. Mary's ; and four colleges : Austin, Mans- 
field, Marvin and Salado. Five of them admit young women on 
equal terms with young men as students. None of these insti- 



1 146 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



tutions have more than a local reputation. These and the Texas 
Military Institute and the State Agricultural and Mechanical 
College, at College Station, in Brazos county, had together 1,984 
students in the preparatory and collegiate departments. 

There were also one theological, one law and one medical 
school, and institutions for the deaf and dumb, and for the blind, 
in the State. 

Lands for Immigrants. — Texas is the only State or Territory 
of "Our Western Empire" in which the United States govern- 
ment holds no land, the State beino- annexed to the Union as 
an independent republic, and retaining its unoccupied lands in 
its own possession. We have given in Part II. of this work a 
full account of the modes of procuring lands from the State, and 
it is not necessary that we should repeat them here. (See page 

257-) 

Religious Denominations. — The census returns of these for 

1880 are not yet available, and would not give any information 
in regard to the three important items of number of clergymen, 
ministers or priests, the number of communicants, and the adhe- 
rent population, if they were. Our latest information on these 
points is that of 1875, as exhibited in the following table: 



Denominations. 



All Denominations 

Baptists 

Christian Connection and Disciples 

Congrcgationalists 

Protestant Episcopal Church 

Jews 

Lutherans 

Methodist Church South 

M'jthodist Episcopal Church 

Methodist, African, Zion, etc 

Methodist, Protestant 

Presbyterian, Regular 

Presbyterian, Cumberland 

Roman Catholics 

Union, and minor sects 



,050 

,047 

36 



421 
163 
io6 



1,764 

853 

29 

7 

38 

5 

39 

386 

124 

83 

25 

126 

67 

86 

6 



o e 

IS 



590 



i.^ 






>> 










^ CO 








s "^^ 




r-« 


a. 










E 5 


Ti 


*^ 


a 


X. 1 


\r, 
C >^ 

c ^ 


c 


X. " 


























3 


° ^ 








Z ° 


< 


;z; 


> 


167,850 ■ 


839,250 


220,510 


,$1,979,600 


59.6:-7 


298,000 


89,300 


447,500 


2,816 


1 4 ,c>8o 


5,100 


27,400 


359 


1,600 


750 


20,000 


2,612 


12,000 


11,400 


168,400 


1,800 


3, 3°° 


1,500 


21, 000 ; 


4,127 


18,000 


7.650 


75,250 


4 3, OCX) 


215,000 


89,200 


305,100 


16,206 


81,000 


12,400 


87,600 


17,000 


68,000 


8,300 


4>.5oo 


2,000 


8,000 


610 


12,500 


6,051 


30,250 


27,000 . 


239,000 


8,450 


42,250 


9,150, 


93,000 




103,000 


26,200 


401 ,000 


1,200 


6,000 


650 


4,800 



Historical Data. — The following memoranda of dates and 
events in Texan history are from a "Chronological Compend 



HISTORICAL NOTES ON TEXAS. i;j^7 

of Texas History," prepared for " Burke's Texas Almanac for 
1880," by D. W. C. Baker. They have been carefully verified 
by us : 

" Texas is supposed to have its name from an Indian village 
called Texas on the Neches river. Its meanina- in the Indian 
language is fHend. 

"In 1685 a French cavalier named Robert de La Salle, with a 
small colony, landed at Matagorda bay and built a fortress, which 
he called in honor of the King of France, St, Louis. This colony 
was soon exterminated by disease and the hostility of the In- 
dians ; and La Salle was killed by one of his own mutinous fol- 
lowers. 

" Spain next attempted the occupation of Texas, and in 1 689 a 
colony was landed and a mission was built near the spot where 
four years previously La Salle had landed. This colony was soon 
broken up by the same causes as the former one. 

"Between the years 1690 and 1720 the Spanish Roman Catho- 
lics established many missions and fortresses within the borders 
of Texas. Three missions were built and occupied by monks 
and friars, and by soldiers who were sent to defend them. 

"After many vicissitudes the Spanish missions were within a 
century from their establishment one after another abandoned, 
leaving throughout the State crumbling ruins of massive build- 
ings, which to this day sufficiently attest the self-sacrificing de- 
votion and labors of those Christian ambassadors from the Old 
World. 

"The fate of the inmates of the mission of San Saba was one 
of the most deplorable recorded in history. This mission was 
established in 1734, and for a while the Indians proved friendly. 
In 1752 a silver mine was discovered there, which drew to the 
place a number of adventurers. Trouble soon arose between 
these and the savages, who in their rage made an onslaught on 
the fortress, and slew all who were there, not one escaping. 

" Thus the efforts of France and Spain to effect a permanent 
occupation of Texas failed. 

" France formally abandoned her claims in 1763, and in 1821 
Mexico threw off the Spanish yoke, and Spain thereafter ceased 



J 1^8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

to press her claims for it. Texas thus became a province of 
Mexico in 1821. At that time, despite the blood and treasure 
which had been expended by the governments of the old world 
to hold Texas, nothing- had been accomplished. It was practically 
as much a wilderness in 1821 as when La Salle set foot upon its 
shores in 1685, the white population being only 3,000 in the whole 
Territory. 

" But the time had now come when the Ano-lo-American turned 
his steps hither, and history has yet to record where he has ever 
failed of his undertaking. The permanent colonization of Texas 
by citizens of the United States began in 1821. 

"In 1821-22 Stephen F. Austin, to whom justly belongs the 
title, Father of Texas, introduced a large number of colonists, and 
furnished them homes. After devoting the best years of his life 
to the accomplishment of his darling enterprise of establishing 
permanent and prosperous colonies in Texas ; after undergoing 
hardships and braving dangers such as few men have ever ex- 
perienced, he was stricken down with disease at Columbia, 
Brazoria county, and there died, December 25th, 1836, in the 
forty-fifth year of his age. From the advent of Austin until 1830 
the American population of Texas continued rapidly to increase, 
and at that time numbered about 20,000. 

"Then the government of Mexico became alarmed at the rapidly 
increasing strength and influence of the young colony, and took 
steps to prevent its further growth. The Dictator of Mexico, 
Bustamente, issued a decree suspending all existing colony con- 
tracts, and forbidding under severe penalty any citizen of the 
United States from settling in Texas. This measure did not 
have the desired effect, and the tide of immigration continued to 
pour into the country. 

"In 1833 the citizens of Texas, in the proper exercise of their 
rights as freemen, called a council at San Felipe. Of this council 
W. H. Wharton was president. A memorial and petition was 
prepared, setting forth in calm and forcible language the wants 
and grievances of the colonists, and praying the central power 
at Mexico for a separate State organization. This memorial was 
sent to Mexico by the hands of Stephen F. Austin. No definite 



THE TEXAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. u^n 

response was given to this petition, and Austin was thrown into 
prison, where he remained many months. Thus matters re- 
mained until 1835, when the colonists becoming fully satisfied 
that prompt action could alone protect their interests, held 
primary meetings and took steps to secure a separate govern- 
ment. Santa Anna, the Dictator, at once sent large bodies of 
soldiers to quell the revolutionary spirit which now showed 
itself 

" On the 2d of October the opening battle of the Texas revolu- 
tion was fought at Gonzales. 

"On the 8th day of October, 1835, ^ force of Texans under Cap- 
tain Collingsworth, attacked and captured the fort at Goliad. 
On the morning of the 28th of October a detachment of Texans 
under Captains Fannin and Bowie, who were encamped on the 
bank of the San Antonio river near the Mission of Conception, 
was surrounded and attacked by a large body of Mexicans. A 
short but decisive action followed, in which the Mexicans were 
completely routed, and fled, leaving one hundred dead upon the 
field. 

" On the 3d day of November, 1835, a general consultation, con- 
sisting of delegates of the colonists, assembled at San Felipe for 
the purpose of establishing a provisional government. This con- 
sultation elected Henry Smith Provisional Governor of Texas, 
and adopted a declaration setting forth that Texas no longer 
owed allegiance to the nominal Mexican Republic. 

"On the 26th day of November, 1835, a skirmish took place 
near San Antonio, called ^& grass fight, in which the Mexicans 
were driven to their entrenchments with a loss of fifty men. 

"On the 5th day of December, 1835, ^^ forces of the colonists 
in two divisions, under command of Col. J. W. Johnson and Col. 
Benj. R. Milam, made a series of determined assaults upon the 
city of San Antonio, which was occupied by a large force of the 
enemy. After a number of sanguinary battles, in which great 
valor was displayed on both sides, the Texan forces obtained 
complete possession of the city on the loth of December, and 
General Cos, with eleven hundred soldiers surrendered. In this 
affair the heroic Milam was slain. This decisive conquest had 
the effect of exciting much enthusiasm among the colonists. 



1 1 CO OUR WESTERN- EMPIRE. 

"Santa Anna now determined to crush out the rebellion in 
Texas by one decisive campaign, and in January, 1836, he 
equipped an army of 7,500 picked men, and placing himself at 
their head he marched into Texas. 

" The fortress of the Alamo was then garrisoned by a force of 
170 men, commanded by Col. W. B. Travis. They were soon 
surrounded by the whole Mexican army and summoned to sur- 
render. This being refused, a furious bombardment was com- 
menced, which was continued from the 25th of February until 
the 6th day of March, 1836. On the morning of the last named 
day the besiegers made a desperate assault upon the garrison. 
The particulars of that struggle can never be known. Enough 
to say the heroic band, exhausted by incessant toil, watchfulness 
and privation, were at length destroyed. Of the whole number 
within the walls of the fort only two escaped, a woman and a 
child. This victory cost Santa Anna 1,500 of his best soldiers. 
Close upon the heels of the dreadful massacre at the Alamo 
came another equally appalling. 

" Col. J. W. Fannin, who was stationed at Goliad with a garrison 
of 500 men, was, on the 19th day of March, 1836, surrounded by 
a vastly superior force of the enemy. Notwithstanding the 
Texans were almost entirely destitute of supplies and ammuni- 
tion, a desperate battle was fought, in which after inflicting a loss 
of 300 men upon the enemy. Col. Fannin was compelled to sur- 
render, on promise of honorable treatment. The forces thus 
capitulated were, in violation of the terms of surrender, marched 
out and inhumanly shot on the 27th day of March, 1836; 

" General Sam Houston, who had been appointed Commander- 
in-Chief of the Texan army, now fell back before the invader, in 
order to draw him as far as possible from his base of supplies, as 
well as to recruit his little army. He continued his retreat until, 
on the 20th day of April, he formed his troops in line of battle on 
the banks of the San Jacinto river. 

"The Mexican commander eagerly followed, and on the 21st 
day of April, 1836, was fought the memorable battle of San 
Jacinto. This decisive encounter resulted in the total rout of 
the Mexican army and the capture of Santa Anna, and secured 
the independence of Texas. 



THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS. H^I 

" On the 2d day of March, 1836, a convention of the people of 
Texas at Washington, on the Brazos, adopted a declaration of 
independence and established a government ad inteHm, by elect- 
incf David G. Burnet President. 

"The population of Texas now increased rapidly. 

" The first newspaper in Texas was established in San Felipe 
in October, 1835, t)y Joseph Baker and Gail and Thomas H. 
Borden. 

"September, 1836. General Sam Houston and M. B. Lamar 
elected first constitutional President and Vice-President of the 
Republic. 

"October, 1836. First Congress met at Columbia. By this 
body wise laws were enacted, an able judiciary established, the 
army organized, and the people put in possession of their civil 
and political rights. 

"March, 1839. The Congress of the United States acknowl- 
edged the independence of Texas. 

"October, 1839. Seat of government established at the new 
city of Austin. It had previously been first at San Felipe, next 
at Washington, next at Harrisburg, next at Galveston, next at 
Velasco, next at Columbia, next at Houston. In 1842 a Mexican 
invasion into Western Texas induced General Houston to order 
the removal of the government offices to Houston, where they 
remained until November of that year, when the seat of govern^ 
ment was removed to Washington. In 1850, and again in 1870, 
elections were held by which the capital of Texas was perma- 
nently fixed at Austin, where it now is. 

"In September, 1838, M. B. Lamar and David G. Burnet were 
elected President aad Vice-President. In 1837, the independence 
of Texas was acknowledged by France, and in 1840 by England, 
Holland and Belgium. September, 1841, General Houston and 
Edward Burleson were elected President and Vice-President. 
September, 1844, Anson Jones was elected President, and K. L. 
Anderson, Vice-President. 

"In February, 1845, Texas was annexed to the United States. 

"July, 1845, fii'st State Convention met at Austin. 

"November, 1845, Constitution adopted. 



IIC2 OUR WES7ERN EMPIRE. 

"From 1853 to 1856, public buildings were erected at Austin, 
the debt of the Republic cancelled, the Asylum founded, criminal 
code adopted, permanent school fund set apart, and aid given to 
railroads, 

"In 1859, General Sam Houston and Edward Clark were 
elected Governor and Lieutenant-Governor. 

"February, 1861, the ordinance of secession was passed by 
Texas Convention. 

"March i8th, 1861, General Houston retired from office to his 
home in Huntsville, where he died, July, 1863. 

"August. 1S61, F. R. Lubbock and John M. Crockett were 
elected Governor and Lieutenant-Governor. 

"October, 1862, Galveston captured by Federal troops. 

"January, 1863, Galveston retaken by Confederate forces. 

"August. 1863, Pendleton Murrah and F. S. Stockdale were 
elected Governor and Lieutenant-Governor. 

"In 1865, A. J. Hamilton was appointed by the President, pro- 
visional Governor of Texas. 

"June 19th, 1865, General Granger issued a general order 
proclaiming freedom of slaves in Texas. 

"February loth, 1866, first reconstruction convention assem- 
bled at Austin, and framed constitution. 

"July, 1866, J. W. Throckmorton and G. W. Jones were 
elected Governor and Lieutenant-Governor. 

"March, 1867, Texas again under military rule. 

"August, 1867, E. M. Pease appointed provisional Governor. 

"June, 1868, second reconstruction convention met at Austin 
and framed constitution. 

"November, 1869, E. J. Davis and J. W. Flannagan were 
elected Governor and Lieutenant-Governor. 

"In 1870, Senators and Representatives from Texas again 
admitted into Congress, 

"December, 1873, Richard Coke and R. B. Hubbard were 
elected Governor and Lieutenant-Governor of Texas, and they 
were re-elected to these positions in February, 1876. 

" The present State Constitution was framed by a Convention 
which assembled at Austin, September 6th, 1875. Governor Coke, 



ADVANTAGES OF SETTLEMENT IN TEXAS. 11^3 

having been elected United States Senator, resigned the office 
of Governor, and R. B. Hubbard became Governor of Texas, 
December ist, 1876. 

"November, 1878, O. M. Roberts and J. D. Sayers were 
elected Governor and Lieutenant-Governor, which positions they 
now hold. 

"At the first election for President of Texas in 1836 the whole 
vote cast was only 5,704; in 1838 the vote was 7,247 ; in 1840 
it was 11,531 ; in 1844 it was 12,752; in 1845 ^'^^ \oX.^ for Gov- 
ernor was only 9,578, because many neglected to attend the polls: 
in 1847 it was ^4A7^'^ ^^ 1849 it was 21,715; in 1851 it was 
28,309; in 1853 it was 36,152; in 1855 it was 45o39 : in 1857 
it was 56,180; in 1859 it was 64,627; in 1861 it dropped to 
57,443 on account of the neglect of people to vote, while in 1863, 
when most of the voters were in the Confederate army, it was 
only 31,037. In 1866 it rose to 60,682 ; in 1869 it was 79.373 ; 
in 1873 it was 128,361 ; in 1876 it was 198,137 ; in 1878 it was 
236,917 ; in 1880 the vote for President was 22,7,^37." 

Conclusion. — Land is so cheap in Texas, and some of it so 
good, the facilities for stock-raising, as well as for farming, are so 
desirable, the climate so mild and healthful, and the greater part 
of the State is now, or soon will be, so accessible by steamers and 
railroads, that it presents great advantages to immigrants. 
There should be better farming, more care in improving live- 
stock of all kinds; more enterprise in engaging in manufacturing 
and mining, and generally less brag and bluster and more 
industry, thrift and hard work. The public schools should be 
elevated and improved, and the laws somewhat more rigidly 
enforced. We think immigrants from our Southern States, and 
from Central and Southern Europe, will be more welcome and 
be better pleased with the country than those from more north- 
ern climates ; but in many respects Texas is a very good State 
for immigrants. 
73 



lie A OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

CHAPTER XIX. 
VTAE TERRITORY. 

Utah a Peculiar Territory — Its Location, Boundaries, Area and Extent 
— Forests and Vegetation — Altitude of its Mountains and Valleys — 
Zoology — Geology — Mineralogy — Topography and General Features — 
The Great Salt Lake Basin — Cache, San Pete and Sevier Valleys — 
The Colorado Basin, East of the Wahsatch Mountains — Climate — 
Meteorology of Salt Lake City and Camp Douglas — Notes on the Tem- 
perature, Rainfall, etc., of other parts of the Territory — Advan- 
tages OF Utah as a Sanitary Resort — Diseases for which its Climate is 
beneficial — Opinion of Eminent Army Surgeons on the Subject — Soil 
AND Agriculture — Irrigation very generally Required — Immense Crops 
where it is practised — Non-irrigable Lands sometimes productive with 
Deep Plowing — Timber — Yield of Cereal and other Products — Fruit- 
Culture — Stock-Farming — Sheep-Farming — Evils of Migratory Herds 
— Gov. Emery's Complaints of California Flocks — Mines and Mining 
Products — Wide Distribution of Gold, Silver, Lead, Copper, Iron, 
Coal, Sulphur, Soda, Salt, and Borax — The Mines of the Precious 
Metals in the Salt Lake Basin very rich and easily accessible — Rail- 
roads — Objects of Interest — The " Temple of Music " on the Colo- 
rado — Temples on the Rio Virgen — The American Fork Canon — Ir is 
called the " Yosemite " OF Utah — The Great Salt Lake Mineral and 
Hot Springs — Finances — Population-Table — The Population of Utah 
peculiar — Its early Settlement by the Mormons — Motives which led 
TO THEIR Migration — Mormonism a Religious Oligarchy — Its Despotic 
Rule — Its Crimes — Polygamy its Corner-Stone — Its Defiance of the 
Government — Its Propagandism — Religious L ^nominations — Education 
— Moral and Social Condition — Counties and Principal Towns — His- 
torical Data. 

Utah is a peculiar Territory ; peculiar in its situation, half 
in the Great Salt Lake basin, and half in the equally wild and 
deeply grooved basin of the Colorado river; singular in its geol- 
ogy, its minerals, its salt and fresh water lakes and rivers, with 
no oudet beyond its walls of rock; peculiar in its deposits of the 
precious metals and coal; peculiar in its deserts, and sdll more 
peculiar in the character, religious, polidcal, and social, of the 
.majority of its inhabitants. 

It is one of the central Territories of the middle belt of States 



FORESTS AND VEGETATION. urtj 

and Territories of "Our Western Empire." It is bounded wholly 
by mathematico-geographical lines, lying between the parallels 
of ^y° and 42° north latitude, and 109° and 114° west longitude 
from Greenwich. Its northern boundaries are Idaho and Wyom- 
ing; its eastern, Wyoming and Colorado; its southern, Arizona, 
and its western, Nevada. It is not quite a square, a tract which 
extends from the 41st to the 42d parallel and from the iiith to 
the 114th meridian being added to it on the north to include 
Great Salt lake. Bear lake, etc., and to make a part of its 
northern boundary coterminous with that of Idaho and Nevada. 
It has a maximum length of 325 miles by a breadth of 300 ; area 
84,476 square miles, or 54,064,640 acres. 

Forests and Vegetation. — On the mountains and along the 
water-courses are found the following trees, shrubs and vines, to 
wit: Cottonwood, dwarf birch, willow, quaking aspen, mountain 
maple, box-elder, scrub cedar, scrub oak, mountain oak, white, 
red, yellow and pinon pine, white spruce, balsam-fir, mountain 
mahogany, common elder, dwarf hawthorn, sumac, wild hop, wild 
rose, dwarf sunflower, and of edible berries, service berry, bull- 
berry, wild cherry, wild currant, etc. Most of the plants belong 
to the compositecB, cruciferce, leguminosce, boraginacecE, or rosa- 
cece. 

AltitiLcle of Mountains and Valleys. — It is intersected from north 
to south by the Wahsatch mountains, dividing it nearly equally 
between the Great Basin and the basin of the Rio Colorado. 
The altitude of the surface on both sides of this mountain range 
is about the same, the valleys 4,000 to 6,000 feet above sea- 
level; the mountains, 6,000 to 13,000. West of the Wahsatch, 
the drainage is into lakes and sinks which have no outlet, the 
largest of which is Great Salt lake, with an elevation of 4,260 
feet, a shore line of 350 miles, and an area of 3,000 to 4,000 
square miles. It receives the Bear and Weber, and many 
smaller streams, and, also, the discharge from Utah lake 
through the River Jordan. The latter is fresh water, about ten 
by thirty miles in extent, the receptacle of American, Provo, and 
Spanish rivers. There are numerous valleys, the lowest of them 
higher than the average summit of the Alleghanies. Following 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



I I 56 

are the ascertained altitudes of representative lakes, rivers, 
springs, valleys, and towns, namely- 



Great Salt Lake. 

Utah Lake 

Sevier Lake 

Little Salt Lake, 
Bear Lake, 
Bear River, 
Bear River, 
Weber River, 
Weber River, 
Provo River, 
Provo River, 
San Pitch River, 
San Pitch River, 
Sevier River, 
Sevier River, 
Cache Valley, 
Salt Lake City, 
Fort Douglas, 
Bush Valley, 



Paragoonah 

Laketown 

Randolph 

Hampton's Bridge... 

Kamas 

Ogden 

Heber 

Provo 

Mt. Pleasant 

Gunnison 

Pangnitch 

Bridge 

Logan 

Signal Ofifice 

Near Salt Lake City. 
Tooele County 



4,200 
4,500 
4,600 
6,220 
6,000 
6,440 

4r540 

6,300 
4,300 
5.574 
4,520 

6,090 

5.144 

6,270 

4.765 
4,550 
4,350 

4,Soo 
5,200 



Skull Valley, 

Deep Creek, 

Nephi, 

Fillmore, 

Antelope Springs, 

Beaver, 

Fort Cameron, 

Wah Wah Springs, 

Buckhorn Springs, 

Desert Springs, 

Iron City, 

Cedar City, 

St. George, 

Diamond, 

Strawberry Valley, 

Rabbit Valley, 

Kanab, 

Paria, 

Kanarra, 



Tooele County 

Tooele County 

Juab County 

Millard County. . . . 
Millard County. . . . 

Beaver County 

Beaver County 

Beaver County 

Iron County 

Iron County 

Iron County 

Iron County 

Washington County, 

Tintic Mines 

Wahsatch County. . 

Sevier County 

Kane County 

Kane County 

Rim of Basin 



4,850 
5,230 
4,927 
6,024 

5,850 
6,050 
6,100 
5.450 
5,690 
5,880 
6,100 
5,726 
2,900 
6,370 
7,716 
6,820 
4,900 
4.562 
5.420 



Zoology. — Among the animals are the coyote, gray wolf, wol- 
verine, mountain sheep, buffalo (now extinct in Utah), antelope, 
elk, moose; black-tailed, white-tailed, and mule deer; grizzly, 
black, and cinnamon bear ; civet cat, striped squirrel, gopher, 
prairie-dog, beaver, porcupine, badger, skunk, wild cat, lynx, sage 
and jack-rabbit and cottontail. Birds : golden and bald eagle 
and osprey; horned, screech and burrowing owl; duck; pig- 
eon ; sparrow, sharp shinned and gos-hawk : woodpecker, raven, 
yellow-billed magpie, jay, blackbird, ground robin, song sparrow; 
purple, grass and Gambell's finch ; fly-catcher, wren, water ouzel, 
sky lark, English snipe, winter yellow-legs, spotted sand piper, 
great blue heron, bittern, stork, swan, pelican, Peale's egret, 
ground dove, red shafted flicker, mallard and green-winged teal, 
goose, ptarmigan, humming bird, mountain quail, sage cock and 
pine hen. Reptiles: Rattle-snake, water-snake, harlequin-snake, 
and lizards. The tarantula and scorpion are found, but are not 
common. 

Geology. — The greater part of the rock of the interior moun- 
tain area is a series of conformable stratified beds,* reaching 



* Clarence King's Explanations 40th parallel. 



GEOLOGY OF UTAH. 



II57 



from the early Azoic to the late Jurassic. In the latter these 
beds were raised, and the Sierras, the Wahsatch, and the par- 
allel ranges of the Great Basin were the consequence. In this 
upheaval important masses of granite broke through, accompanied 
by quartz, porphyries, felsite rocks, and notably sienitic granite, 
with some granulite andgretsen occasionally. Then, the Pacific 
Ocean on the west, and the ocean that filled the Mississippi 
Basin on the east, laid down a system of Cretaceous and Tertiary 
strata. These outlying shore beds, subsequently to the Miocene, 
were themselves raised and folded, forming the Pacific Coast 
Range and the chains east of the Wahsatch ; volcanic rocks ac- 
companying this upheaval as granite did the former one. Still 
later a final series of disturbances occurred, but these last had 
but small connection with the region under consideration. 

There is a general parallelism of the mountain chains, and all 
the structural features of local geology, the ranges, strike of 
great areas of upturned strata, larger outbursts of gigantic rocks, 
etc., are nearly parallel with the meridian. So the precious 
metals arrange themselves in parallel longitudinal zones. There 
is a zone of quicksilver, tin, and chromic iron on the coast ranges ; 
one of copper along the foot-hills of the Sierras ; one of gold 
farther up the Sierras, the gold veins and resultant placers ex- 
tending far into Alaska ; one of silver, with comparatively little 
base metal, along the east base of the Sierras, stretching into 
Mexico ; silver mines with complicated associations through 
Middle Mexico, Arizona, Middle Nevada, and Central Idaho; ar- 
gentiferous galena through New Mexico, Utah, and Western 
Montana; and, still farther east, a continuous chain of gold de- 
posits in New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming and Montana. The 
Jurassic disturbances in all probability are the dating point of 
a large class of lodes : a, those wholly enclosed in the granites, 
'and by those in metamorphic beds of the series extending from 
the Azoic to the Jurassic. To this period may be referred the 
gold veins of California, those of the Humboldt mines, and those 
of White Pine, all of class b; and the Reese river veins, partly a, 
and partly b. The Colorado lodes are somewhat unique, and in 
general belong to the ancient type. To the Tertiary period 



11^8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

may be definitely assigned the mineral veins traversing the early 
volcanic rock ; as the Comstock Lode and veins of the Owyhee 
District, Idaho. By far the greater number of metalliferous 
lodes occur in the stratified metamorphic rocks or the ancient 
eruptive rocks of the Jurassic upheaval ; yet very important, 
and, perhaps, more wonderfully productive, have been those 
silver lodes which lie wholly in the recent volcanic formations. 

Minei'-alogy. — Utah is probably the richest Territory in "Our 
Western Empire " in its deposits of gold and silver, though 
Arizona, Colorado, Montana, Nevada and California might be 
inclined to dispute the justice of her claim. The region south 
of Great Salt Lake, between the Jordan river and the Oquirrh 
Mountains, and the whole of the Oquirrh range on both sides, is 
full of g-old and silver veins. Next south of these comes the Tintic 
Silver district, and as we proceed south, still in the Great Salt 
Lake Basin, the whole region from Sevier lake to the Arizona line 
abounds in lodes of silver, gold and copper, with occasional beds 
of coal, iron and alum. On the western slope of the Wahsatch 
Mountains, which forms the eastern wall of the basin, there are 
numerous silver mines, and they extend also east of the Wahsatch, 
especially along the line of the Uintah Mountains. But those 
counties in the Colorado Basin are especially rich in coal, much 
of it adapted to smelting purposes. There are twelve counties 
in which extensive coal lands have been found. The iron deposits 
of all varieties are of enormous extent in every part of the Terri- 
tory. Utah could produce all the iron and steel needed in the 
United States more cheaply than any other section. Sulphur 
exists in immense beds. Salt abounds everywhere. Other 
minerals are copper, lead, manganese, antimony, chrome, red 
and white ochre, jet, asphalt, mineral wax and mineral waters. 
The mines of antimony in Southern Utah are said by Professor . 
Newberry to be richer and more easily worked than any other 
in America. 

Topography, General Featitres. — The settled part of Utah lies 
along the western base of the Wahsatch Mountains, which run 
through the heart of the Territory from north to south, reaching 
their greatest altitude near Salt Lake City (where they abut on 



TOPOGRAPHY— GENERAL FEATURES. HCq 

the Uintah Range coming from the east, forming the cross-bar 
of a T), and almost losing themselves in the sandstone plateau 
of the Rio Colorado in the south. Abreast of Salt Lake City 
the Wahsatch Range is 10,000 to 12,000 feet in altitude. Here, 
within a small area, rise the Bear and Weber rivers, which empty 
into Salt lake ; the Provo, which empties into Utah lake ; and 
some of the main affluents of the Green river, which, with the 
Grand, become the Rio Colorado, lower down. It is in the 
vicinity of the heads of these rivers that the Emma, the Flagstaff, 
the Vallejo, the Ontario, McHenry and various other well-known 
mines are situated. Nearly one-half of the Territory lies south 
of the Uintah Range, and east of the Wahsatch Range proper, 
and is drained by the Green and Colorado rivers and their 
tributaries. Its general altitude along these streams is between 
4,000 and 5,000 feet ; it is much broken by mountains, and is but 
partially explored and not setded at all. It contains many thou- 
sand square miles of fine grazing country, above the Grand canon, 
with more or less arable land, and no one yet knows what min- 
eral treasures. It is believed that the Denver and Rio Grande 
Railroad, after being drawn to the head of the Arkansas river 
by the mineral attractions of Leadville, will find an easy way 
through this region, entering the Great Basin via some of the 
feasible railroad passes of the Wahsatch. A wide strip of the 
western part of the Territory is lake, sink, mountain or desert. 
The inhabited part is chiefly a narrow belt, watered by the 
streams of the western slope of the Wahsatch Range, which lose 
themselves In inland lakes or basins. The largest and best known 
of these is the Great Salt Lake Basin. 

Great Salt Lake Basin. — Including the valley of Bear river up 
to the Gates on the north, the Utah Basin, on the south, whose 
waters are discharged into Great Salt lake, through Jordan 
river. It Is 200 miles in length by forty or fifty in width. The 
principal streams which are lost in Great Salt lake are the Malad 
and Bear, the latter 300 miles long, on the north ; Box Elder 
and Willow creeks, Ogden and Weber rivers on the east ; and 
Cit3^ Mill and the Cottonwood creeks and the river Jordan on 
the south. Into Utah lake flow the American, Provo and Spanish 



ll6o OUH WESTERN EMPIRE. 

forks, though they are not forks but independent mountain 
streams, and Salt creek. All of them but the Malad have their 
sources in the Wahsatch Range, which collects the snows in 
winter that give them life and being. Where they emerge from 
their canons, settlements have been made on them, and their 
waters appropriated, so far as it can be cheaply done, for the 
purposes of irrigation, and in some cases, of furnishing power 
for mills. Of these settlements, the largest is Salt Lake City, 
located about centrally as regards the length of the entire basin, 
at the base of the Wahsatch Range, ten or twelve miles from the 
southeast shore of Salt lake, containing a population, Juue, 1880, 
of 20,768. The city is supplied with water by City creek. It is 
laid out with broad streets and sidewalks, and is built up more 
or less for two miles square, shade and fruit trees largely hiding 
the buildings in the summer season. It has ample hotel accom- 
modations, gas, water and streetcars; is peaceful and orderly; 
is connected with the outside world and adjacent points of inter- 
est or business by rail. Enjoying the most healthy and agree- 
able climate of perhaps any large town in the United States, with 
street cars running to the famous Warm Springs, and the bath- 
ine shores of Salt lake but a half-hour's ride on the rail distant; 
with the peaks of the Wahsatch, the Oquirrh, and other ranges 
ruffling the clouds at every point of the horizon ; with picturesque 
mountain canons threaded by trout streams accessible by rail, it 
is one of the most attracdve places of summer resort for tourists 
seeking health or pleasure in all the world. The eastern edge 
of Salt Lake Basin is dotted with settlements, and is highly culti- 
vated wherever water can be pfot on the ground. There are the 
North String, Bear River City, Corinne, Brigham City, Willard, 
North Ogden, Ogden, Kaysville, Farmington, Centerville, Bounti- 
ful, Salt Lake City, the Cottonwoods, Sandy, West Jordan, Dewey- 
ville, Lehi, American Fork, Pleasant Grove, Provo, Springville, 
Spanish Fork, Salem, Payson, Santaquin, Mona, Nephi and Levan. 
Ogden, at the intersection of the east and west and north and 
south railroads, is the town next in importance to Salt Lake City, 
the capital. It is in the forks of Ogden and Weber rivers, is 
within a short drive of fine fishing and mountain scenery, and Is 



CACHE, SAN PETE AND SEVIER VALLEYS. n^i 

rapidly improving. The Salt Lake Basin at large has an altitude 
of about 4,500 feet above the sea, and is the paradise of the 
farmer, the horticulturist, and the grower of fruit. Cut off from 
it by a low range, now surmounted by the Utah and Northern 
Railway, toward the northeast, is Cache Valley. 

Cache, San Pete and Sevier Valleys. — Cache Valley is oval in 
shape, and perhaps ten by fifty miles in extent, watered by Logan 
and Blacksmith forks of Bear river, and by the latter itself, and 
sustaining a settlement wherever a stream breaks out of the en- 
closing mountains. Logan is the principal town of Cache Valley, 
and thence one drives eastward through Logan Canon forty or 
fifty miles to Bear Lake Valley, Bear river here flowing toward 
the north. Farther on it bends to the west and southward, and 
down through Cache Valley, finds its way to Salt Lake. Cache 
and Bear Lake Valleys have a score of towns and 15,000 inhab- 
itants. To the southeast of Salt Lake Basin, and to be connected 
with it by rail through Salt Creek or Nephi Canon, this season, 
lies San Pete Valley, called the granary of Utah, surrounded by 
mountains, except on the south, where the San Pitch river breaks 
through into the Sevier, and sustaining eight thriving towns, all 
still in their infancy, though founded several years ago. San Pete 
and Cache Valleys are fine grain-growing sections, but having 
colder winters are not so well adapted to fruit-raising as the Salt 
Lake Basin. Next southward is the Sevier river, which has its 
source in Fish (Indian, Panguitch) lake, near the southern bound- 
ary of the Territory, and runs, like Bear river, a long way north 
before it finds a way out of the mountains, and turning to the^ 
southwest is finally lost in Sevier lake. Most of the streams in 
the southwest lose themselves in small lakes or sinks, that is, 
such as rise to the northward of the divide between the Great 
Basin and the Rio Colorado country. The Sevier River Valley 
is occupied, like all the other Utah valleys (and there are many in 
the recesses of the Wahsatch, and some outlying and disconnected 
with that range, although of minor importance, which have not 
been particularly noticed), where a stream breaks out of the 
adjoining mountains, by a settlement; but, like the other streams, 
the full capacity of the Sevier river for irrigation has not been 
called into requisition. 



J 1 52 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The western third of the Territory from end to end is an alter- 
nation of mountain, desert, sink and lake, with a few oases of 
arable or grazing lands. Great Salt lake covers an area ot 3,000 
to 4,000 square miles, and the desert west of it a still larger area. 
The Sevier, Preuss and Litde Salt lakes, all together, are small, 
in comparison. Formerly a mighty river flowed northward from 
the vicinity of Sevier lake to the westward of Great Salt lake, 
the dry bed of which, nearly a mile in width, must be crossed in 
going west from Salt Lake City to Deep Creek. Since it dried 
up, hills and spurs of mountains have been upheaved in its course, 
but the old channel continues on its way up hill and down, and 
over them all. Divided off from Great Salt lake by a sort of 
causeway 800 feet high is Rush Valley, containing a lake cover- 
ing twenty to thirty square miles, where twenty years ago there 
was hay land and a military reservation. This, as well as the 
accompanying filling up of Great Salt lake, shows a decided 
aqueous increase in Salt Lake Basin within that time. Rush 
Valley has mining and agricultural settlements, but much more 
pastoral than arable land ; and so has Skull Valley, to the west- 
ward. But from these south to the rim of the Basin, there are 
only occasional habitable spots, and they are due to springs. 
The mountains are the source of the wealth of Utah, present and 
prospective, which consists in water and metals. They gather the 
snows in winter which feed the streams in summer. In the 
northern part of the Territory the Wahsatch Range attains 
generally a high altitude, with a mass in proportion. There is a 
large accumulation of snow in winter, and the streams are corre- 
spondingly large and numerous. In the southern part of the Ter- 
ritory the main range is lower and less massive ; the average 
temperature is higher, of course ; there is less snow, smaller and 
fewer streams, and more desert in proportion. This part of the 
Territory is not rich in agricultural resources. The isolated 
ranofes in the Great Basin seldom crive rise to streams of much 
magnitude, and the intervening valleys partake more of the 
desert character. But all the mountains, so far as known, are 
full of minerals, and there is generally water enough for the pur- 
poses of mining and reducing them. 



CLIMATE OF UTAH. Hg.^ 

The region east of the Wahsatch Mountains and south of the 
Uintah Range, is wholly in the Colorado Basin. It is not as yet 
settled to any considerable extent, but the deep canons of the 
Grand, Green, San juan and Rio Colorado, which traverse it, are 
full of wonders and terrors. There is every reason to believe 
that the mineral wealth of this region is fully equal to that of the 
Great Salt Lake Basin, and unless the lack of water shall prevent 
their successful working, the whole region will, a few years 
hence, be honeycombed with mines of gold and silver, lead, 
copper, iron and coal. 

Cluiiate. — The climate of a mountainous country like Utah 
will vary considerably with its varying altitudes and exposures. 
The inhabited parts of the Territory range, in general, between 
4,300 and 6,300 feet above the sea ; but seventy per cent, of the 
population is settled in valleys not exceeding 4,500 feet in eleva- 
tion, and probably fifty per cent, in the basin of Great Salt lake. 
In these lower valleys the climate is mild and agreeable. Its 
perpetual charm cannot be conveyed by meteorological statistics. 
The atmosphere is dry, elastic, transparent and bracing ; and the 
temperature, while ranging high in summer, and not altogether 
exempt from the fickleness characteristic of the climate of North 
America in general, compares favorably in respect of equability 
with that of the United States at large, and especially with that 
of Colorado and the Territories north and south of Utah. Its 
range upwards is less than that of St. Louis, Philadelphia and 
New York, to say nothing of that of Arizona ; while in the other 
direction there is no comparison, either with the Eastern States, 
intersected by the same isothermal, or with Colorado, Idaho and 
Montana. This description applies mainly to Northern and Cen- 
tral Utah within the Great Salt Lake Basin. Outside that Basin, 
across the Wahsatch Mountains, and at an elevation not much 
greater, at Coalville, for example, not more than seven or eight 
miles farther north, and perhaps thirty-five miles east, the differ- 
ence of climate is very marked. The annual mean temperature 
at Salt Lake City is 51° 9'; at Coalville, 48° 65'; the spring means 
at the two places are 51° 7' and 45° 9'; the summer means 75° 
9' and 69° 2'; the autumn, 54° 8' and 48° 9'; and the winter 
means, 32° i' and 21° 9'. 



1 164 



OUR WESTER'N EMPIRE. 



In Southern Utah, both within and without the Basin, the cli- 
mate is much more tropical, approaching to that of Arizona. 

Meteorology of Salt Lake City and Camp Douglas. 



MONTHS. 



1877. 



TEMPERATURE. 



Mean. 



January . . . 
February . . 
March . . . . 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August. . . . 
September. 
October.. . 
November. 
December. 



27.9 

337 
48.0 
48.6 

65-9 
78.2 

76.3 
65.0 
51.0 
40.1 
317 



Ma 



50 

55 
73 
70 

83 
90 
98 
96 
90 
80 
60 
51 



For the Year 5 ' -9 



Mni. 



Rncr. 



3 
15 

28 

io 
34 
43 
50 

53 

42 

25 
15 



47 
40 

45 
40 

49 
47 
48 

43 
48 

55 
45 
43 



95 



HUMIDITY. 


Per Ct. 


Rainfall 




Inches. 


74-9 


.87 


75-3 


•38 


52.9 


2.93 


48.6 


2.14 


42.1 


3-49 


29.7 


.80 


24.1 


.02 


25.1 


.28 


31-5 


.90 


41.0 


2.41 


55-4 


1.02 


68.1 


I. II 


47-4 


16.35 



MEAN 
PRESSURE. 



Barometer 
Inches. 



071 
076 

S94 

834 
791 
927 
919 
971 

937 
971 
078 
039 



29.950 



MONTHS. 



January .... 
February . . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

J"iy 

August . . . . 
September.. 
October. . . . 
November . . 
December . . 

For the Year 



1878. 



TEMPERATURE. 



Mean. 


Max. 


Min. 











30.0 


52 


5 


^2.8 


60 


20 


46.6 


73 


27 


49.8 


73 


30 


56-2 


83 


34 


69.4 


93 


45 


777 


96 


52 


78.S 


97 


60 


60.5 


92 


38 


48.5 


78 


22 


42.7 


68 


22 


29.7 


56 


8 


51-9 


97 


5 



Rns. 



47 

40 

46 

43 
49 
48 

44 
37 
54 
56 
46 
48 



46 



HUMIDITY. 



Per Ct. 



64.8 
66.2 
52.6 
43-4 
39-0 
307 
26.2 

337 
37-0 
44-5 
54-6 
59-1 



45-9 



Rainfall 
Inches. 



1.07 
3-49 
2.54 
2.63 
2.50 

•35 
1.08 

.81 
3-15 
1-39 

.63 

.11 



MEAN 
PRESSURE. 



saronieter 
Inches. 



30-035 
29.882 
29.926 
29.817 
29.882 

29-939 
29.900 
29.956 
29.975 
30.055 
30.081 
30.091 



1975 



29.979 



We have no meteorological statistics of any points in the Ter- 
ritory, except Salt Lake City and Camp Douglas, which is near 
it, but 500 feet higher. The above tables give the tempera- 



CLIMATE OF UTAH. jl5c 

ture, rainfall, humidity and mean barometrical pressure at Salt 
Lake, and such particulars as are at hand concerning Camp 
Douglas. The latitude of Salt Lake City is 41° 10'; the longi- 
tude, 112°; the elevation, 4,362.25 feet. 

The mean air pressure at Salt Lake City is 25.63 inches; 
water boils at 204.3°. The prevailing winds are from the north- 
northwest, and the most windy months are March, Jul)^ August 
and September. The mean velocity of the winds during the 
entire year is 5^ miles an hour. On the ocean it is 18 miles; 
at Liverpool it is 13; at Toronto, 9 ; at Philadelphia, 11. The 
climate of Utah, on the whole, is not unlike that of Northwestern 
Texas and New Mexico, and is agreeable except for a month or 
so in winter, and then the temperature seldom falls to zero, or 
snow to a greater depth than a foot, and it soon melts away, al- 
though it sometimes affords a few days' sleighing. The spring 
opens about the middle of March, the atmosphere becomes as 
clear as a diamond, deciduous trees burst at once into bloom, and 
then into leaf, while the bright green of the valleys follows the 
retiring snow-line steadily up the mountain slopes. The summer 
is not unpleasant in its onset, accompanied as it is by refreshing 
breezes and full streams from the higher meltinof snow banks. 
Springs of sweet water, fed largely from the surface, bubble forth 
everywhere. But as the season advances the drought increases, 
every stirring air, near or far, raises a cloud of alkaline dust until 
the atmosphere is full of it. Sometimes a shower precipitates it, 
but there are more dry than wet storms. The springs fail or 
become impregnated with mineral salts, and the streams run low 
or dry up. Vegetation dies in the fierce and prolonged heat and 
drought, if not artificially watered. Still, from the rapid radia- 
tion of the earth's heat, the nights are always agreeably cool, 
and the heat itself seems to have but slight debilitating quality. 
The presence or absence of the sun has a marked effect on the 
temperature from the great transparency of the air. Let his 
rays be cut off, even in July, and a fire is pleasant ; while, if they 
have free passage, the fires are allowed to go out even in January. 
October ushers in a different state of things. The atmosphere 
clears up again as in spring, and the landscape softens with the 



H56 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

rich browns, russets and scarlets of the dying vegetation, which 
reaches up the mountain sides to their summits in places ; 
but on them the gorgeous picture is soon overlaid by the first 
snows of approaching winter. The fall is a delightful season, and 
is generally drawn out nearly to the end of the year. 

We have been more particular in stating the peculiarities of 
the climate of Utah because it is just now, and as we think justly, 
recommended for its sanitary qualities in certain diseases. The 
following summary of the classes and forms of disease in which 
it has been found most beneficial has the authority of four very 
eminent army surgeons — Surgeons P. Moffatt, Charles Smart, 
E, P. Vollum and J. F. Hamilton ; and will, we believe, be found 
to be sustained by the experience of most of those who have gone 
thither for health. It is important, however, that health-seekers 
should spend as much of every day as possible in the open air. 

High altitudes and areas of low barometric pressure quicken 
the respiration and circulation, and are therefore unfavorable in 
cases of pulmonary disease that are far advanced, and also in 
heart disease, and that form of chronic bronchitis associated 
with it. The other forms of chronic bronchitis, chronic pneumo- 
nia, and phthisis, are the diseases, par excellence, upon which 
such localities exercise a favorable influence. Consumption does 
not originate here, and where the monthly fluctuation of the ther- 
mometer does not exceed 50°, and the mean monthly tempera- 
ture is at, or, within limits, above 50°, and the humidity is under 
50 per cent., a residence is beneficial to consumptives, if com- 
menced early enough. The best treatment known for consump- 
tion is a year of steady daily horseback riding in a mountainous 
country, diet of corn bread and bacon, with a moderate quantity 
of whiskey.* The beneficial influence of the climate on asthma 
is decided. It cannot exist here, except in a relieved and modi- 
fied condition. Bronchitis appears in a mild form during the wet 
and thawing periods of spring and fall, but it always yields to 
treatment. Rheumatic fevers are scattered over the months 
without reference to season ; but very few cases become chronic. 

* The more moderate the better. — L. P. B. 



UTAH AS A SANITARY RESORT. 1 167 

The intermittents are imported, and the tendency in them is to 
longer intervals and ultimate recovery. A remittent, called 
*' Mountain Fever," is indigenous. It yields readily to simple 
treatment if attended to in time, but if not develops into a modi- 
fied typhoid, which is liable to prove fatal. Experience in the 
miners' hospitals at Salt Lake City shows that the climatic con- 
ditions are very favorable to recovery from severe injuries. The 
summer heat is great, but not debilitating, and the dry pure air 
and cool, invigorating nights, enable patients to sustain the shock 
of surgical operations that could not often be safely attempted in 
more humid climates. Pyemia, or blood poisoning, the frequent 
accompaniment of severe injuries and of surgery, is of extremely 
rare occurrence. One has a choice of altitude, ranging from 
4,300 to 7,000 feet above the sea, with access to mineral springs, 
hot and cold, of decidedly efficacious qualities in the cure of many 
ills, as experience has amply shown ; and for the whole of Salt 
Lake Basin, the softening and other healthful influences of at 
least 3,000 square miles of salt water, giving off a saline air, and 
affordincr the benefits of ocean bathinor without its discomforts 
and dangfers. The waters of the lake are so dense with the salt 
in solution that it is impossible to sink in it, and at the same time 
so pleasant that the bather can remain in the water all day with- 
out serious inconvenience or injury. 

Temperature, etc., at Camp Datiglas. 



MONTHS. 



7 A. M. 



January 28 

February 23 

March j 2)'h 

April ' T,^ 

May : 45 

June 61 

July 68 

August 65 

September 56 

October 41 

November 38 

December 22 



2 p. M. 


9 p. M. 


35 


29 


34 


24 


47 


39 


50 


41 


55 


47 


77 


65 


«5 


73 


80 


69 


74 


62 


56 


45 


53 


41 


51 


24 



Diurnal 
Variation. 



7 
II 

14 
12 
10 
16 
17 
15 
18 

15 

15 

9 



Percentage 
of Sick 



2>Z 
31 
32 
36 
28 
29 
23 
25 
20 
21 

38 
40 



60 

30 

33 
42 

74 
28 
86 

38 
00 

97 
68 

50 



The preceding table relates to Camp Douglas, which is on an 



Ii68 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



elevation two miles east of Salt Lake City and 500 feet above it, 
being 4,862 feet above the sea. This table gives the diurnal 
variation of temperature at 7 a. m., 2 p. m, and 9 p. m. for each 
month of the year, and the effect of this variation in reducing or 
increasing the percentage of the sick in the hospital connected 
with the camp. 

The mean temperature of June to September inclusive at 2 ?. m. 
was 79° ; at 9 p, M, 57'' ; difference 22° ; mean percentage of sick 
for these months, 24,63. For the other eight months the mean at 
2 p. M. was 47° ; at 9 p. m. 36° ; difference 1 1°. Mean percentage 
of sick for these months, 32.93. The months of greatest mean 
diurnal variation seem to be the healthiest months. Attention is 
called to the mean temperature of the four warmest months, at 
9 o'clock in the evening, viz., 57° ; a night temperature which 
ensures quiet sleep. 

The second of these tables shows the annual mean, maximum, 
minimum and range of temperature, and annual rainfall at Camp 
Douglas for sixteen years, 1 863-1 878. 



YEARS. 



1863 

1864 

1865 

1866 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1870 

I87I 

1872 

1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

Mean for 16 years 



Mean. 



52.93 
52.22 
50.11 
51-87 
52-71 
50.66 

53-61 
51.66 

53-09 
50.42 
49.26 
50.18 
51.26 
50.64 
51.00 
51-29 



51-43 



TEMPERATURE. 



Max. 



103 

97 
100 

94 

95 
96 

97 

96 

104 

91 
98 
97 
95 
99 
98 

93 



97 



Min. 



Range. 



96 

lOI 

94 
85 
95 
91 
90 
92 
96 
91 

lOI 

89 
86 

91 
93 

85 



92 



RAINFALL. 



Inches. 



7-47 
14^2 

15-51 
22.29 
26. 14 

17-25 
22.32 
20.96 
23. 12 
18.12 
17-37 
19-55 
21.07 
18.31 
1452 
17.86 



18.58 



AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION. Il6(^ 

Soil atid Agriculture. — There were surveyed of public lands 
in Utah, down to June 30th, 1879, according to the Land Office 
Report, 9,341,375 acres, including arable, timbered, coal and 
mineral lands. It is impossible to tell from any accessible data 
what proportion is arable land. Perhaps an estimate that one- 
fourth or about 2,350,000 could be cultivated by the aid of irriga- 
tion, would not be far out of the way. 

We have in other parts of this book discussed fully the advan- 
tages and disadvantages of irrigation, and need not repeat here 
what has been already said elsewhere. Irrigation is almost 
universally required in Utah, but in different quantities in different 
localities, and it is usually done by colonies or communities 
uniting to divert part or the whole of a stream from its natural 
channel to the adjoining land, each member of the association 
there having his proportional right to the use of the water. But 
few of the standard crops of Utah ever require more than two 
or three waterings to perfect them, some of them, especially fall 
wheat, seldom needing more than one. Most of the smaller 
streams in Utah, that could easily be diverted from their natural 
channels, have been already utilized ; but their full capacities as 
irrigating supplies, which can only be exhausted by means of 
dams, reservoirs and canals of considerable importance, have 
not as yet been called into requisition. Irrigation by means of 
artesian wells has not yet been seriously attempted in the Terri- 
tory, probably because the necessity for it has not been seriously 
felt, but the few experiments in that line made by the Union 
Pacific Railroad have been so successful as to encouraofe a resort 
to it hereafter. Flowing water was obtained at a depth of less 
than a hundred feet. From a report made to the Legislature in 
1875 it appears that one-third of the land under cultivation at 
that time in the Territory required no irrigation (this propor- 
tion since that time has been largely increased, it having been 
discovered that, by deep plowing, lands apparently entirely barren 
would yield twenty-five to thirty bushels of wheat to the acre 
without irrigation for many successive years). Of the lands re- 
quiring irrigation, one-fifth only needed one or two waterings ; 
74 



jj^Q OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

five-sevenths required from three to four, and about one-eighth 
from four to ten. 

The soil of Utah is partly volcanic, and contains elements of 
fertility which, when moisture can be had, cause it to produce 
enormous crops. 

Timbe)'. — Utah holds an intermediate position, with respect to 
its supply of timber, between the Atlantic and prairie States. 
Its arable lands are not interspersed with forests, nor yet is it 
without an adequate supply of timber within its own limits for 
building, fencing, mining and fuel. The valleys or plains are 
destitute of forest growth, and in early times willow brush was 
resorted to for fencing, adobe bricks for building, and sage brush 
for fuel. But the mountains are generally more or less wooded, 
almost wholly with evergreens, however. The best trees furnish 
lumber not technically clear, but the knots are held so fast that 
they are no real detriment, and the lumber is practically clear. 
The red pine and black balsam indigenous to the mountains 
make a fence post or railroad tie that will last ten years. The 
white pine is not so good. More than half of the forest growth of 
the Wahsatch is of the white or inferior variety. On the Oquirrh 
the trees are chiefly red pine. Scrub cedar and pinon pine are 
quite common in the south and west. They are of little value 
for anything but posts, ties and fuel. In 1875 there were perhaps 
100 saw-mills in existence, if not in operation, in the Territory. 
Ordinary rough building and fencing lumber ranges in price from 
^20 to $25 a thousand. Flooring and finishing lumber is im- 
ported, and costs about ^45 a thousand. Wood is obtained from 
the canons for fuel, and soft coal of good quality can be had for 
^8 to ^12 a ton In all Northern Utah. When the coal deposits 
of the Territory shall have been developed and made accessible 
by railroads, the price should be less by one-half, for there is an 
abundant supply and it Is widely distributed. 

Products, Yield. — All of the products of the same latitude, east 
or west, on or about the level of tide water, with the exception 
of Indian corn (for which the nights are too cool), are grown in 
Utah with great success, and the soil and climate seem peculiarly 
adapted to the growth of wheat and fruit. Following are statistics 



AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS OF UTAH. 



I 171 



of the area and yield of various crops for the year 1875, on the 
authority of a legislative commission : 

Articles. Acres. Total Yield. Yield per Acre. 

Wheat 72,020 1,418,783 bushels. 20 bushels. 

Barley 13^847 359^52? " 25 " 

Oats 19,706 581,849 ** 30 " 

Rye 447 8,987 " 20 " 

Corn 16,452 317.253 " 20 " 

Buckwheat 11 243 " 22 " 

Peas 1,701 30,801 '* 18 '* 

Beans 127 3.176 ** 25 " 

Potatoes ...... 10,306 1,306,957 " 130 " 

Other Roots i,433 278,712 " 125 " 

Seeds 125 49,501 lbs. 396 lbs. 

Broom Corn 200 713 tons. 3^ tons. 

Sugar Cane 1,432 103,164 gals. 72 gals. 

Meadow 81,788 112,529 tons. i^ tons. 

Lucerne 3,5^7 13.189 tons. 3^ tons. 

Cotton 113 31,075 lbs. 275 lbs. 

Flax 5 1,250 lbs. 250 lbs. 

Total acres, 223,300. Total value of products, about 1^7,500,000. 

Of the wheat crop of 1873, 100,000 bushels were exported. 
There was no surplus for export in 1874-75. ^^ the crops of 
1876-77, 50,000 to 60,000 bushels were exported. There was a 
surplus of about 270,000 bushels raised in 1878, one-half of which 
was shipped to England via San Francisco ; the rest remains in 
stock. Probably the acreage in wheat has not increased much 
since 1875, nor the hay crop, but dry farming has, and the growth 
of lucerne has doubled. 

Improved lands are held at from ^25 to ^100 an acre, according 
to location. They are almost all adjacent to either towns or mines, 
or both. There are, in different localities, comparatively large 
bodies of government lands unoccupied, which can be entered at 
the Salt Lake Land Office under the United States land laws, the 
same as in other States and Territories, or bought of the Pacific 
Railroad companies at low rates, and on easy time ; although, as 
a general thing, agricultural settlement and improvement in Utah 
will be undertaken to better advantage by colonies than by 
individuals. The construction of the main irrigating canals may 



11^2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

usually be accomplished by plow and scraper, each adjoining 
land-owner contributing his quota of the expense, and having a 
perpetual right to the water at the additional cost for repairs. 
Under the Desert Land Law, each person joining in such an 
enterprise is entitled to pre-empt 640 acres of land, paying one- 
fifth down and the rest in three years, on condition that the 
enterprise be consummated within that time. 

Fruit. — The Salt Lake Basin throughout is unsurpassed in the 
adaptation of its soil and climate to the growth of all kinds of 
fruit common to the latitude ; in the south, on the waters of the 
Rio Colorado, grape culture is followed with great success, and 
wine-making is there a growing industry ; but in the higher 
mountain valleys, as well as in Cache and San Pete, the seasons 
are too short, and not so much attention has been devoted to it. 
The following table shows the area, the product, and the yield 
per acre, of fruits, for the year 1875, as returned and published 
by order of the Legislature : 

Fruit. 

Apples 3,935 

Pears 

Peaches 

Plums 

Apricots 

Cherries 

Grapes 544 3,409,200 lbs. 6,260 lbs. 

Total acres, 7,920. Value, $1,028,616. 

No finer, thriftier trees, no fairer, better flavored fruit is pro- 
duced anywhere. The trees are extremely bounteous bearers, 
having to be propped up to enable them to sustain the weight 
of their enormous burdens. The fruit market in Salt Lake City 
is almost perpetually deriving its supply from California, when 
native fruits and berries are not in season. This applies, too, to 
many kinds of vegetables, cauliflower, lettuce and asparagus. The 
season for most fruits, berries and vegetables begins in California 
a month or six weeks in advance of the same in Utah, and pro- 
portionally lengthens it. The extreme southern part of the 
Territory is adapted to the production of many semi-tropical and 



Acres. 


Total \ 


^ield. 


Yield per Acre. 


3.935 


358,277 


L)ushels. 


90 bushels. 


12S 


10,560 


<( 


75 " 


2,687 


330.535 


<( 


120 ** 


259 


43,585 


(( 


165 " 


305 


44,160 


11 


145 " 


62 


4,661 


i( 


75 " 



FRUIT AND STOCK-FARMING. I 1 73 

some tropical fruits, but not much has been done in that line as 
yet. Cotton is grown in a small way, for use in the making of 
cloth. Figs and almonds have also been tried a little. The 
climate is not greatly different from that of Southern California, 
where oranges and many tropical fruits do as well as anywhere 
in the world. 

Stock- Farming. — One great resource of Utah, and one easily 
discounted, so to speak, is the very extensive stock range. 
There is in such a country necessarily a great deal of land on 
the foot-hill slopes and river terraces which cannot be artificially 
watered, and yet is not cut off from water. The native grasses 
generally are possibly not as good as the buffalo and gramma 
grasses of the plains east of the Rocky Mountains, but the bunch 
grass, which seems to be indigenous to the broken and elevated 
regions between the Sierra Madre and the Sierra Nevada, is un- 
surpassed in excellence. Throughout this interior basin millions 
of acres are not absolute desert, only because of the existence of 
this grass. It grows in bunches in apparently the most barren 
places. Early in the season it cures, standing, retaining all its 
nutriment, and being hard to cover with snow beyond the reach 
of stock. Its seed is pyriform, and has remarkable fattening 
properties. In the high, dry, bracing altitudes of the interior, 
cattle grow and fatten on much less than on the sea-level, and 
the same degree of either heat or cold, as marked by the 
thermometer, appears to affect them less. The grazing lands 
of Utah are almost unlimited ; including the second tables of the 
river courses, the slopes of the foot-hills and lesser ranges not 
too far from water ; the shores of the sinks and lakes, and the 
coves and valleys of the mountains. In the Salt Lake Basin, 
generally, stock winter without fodder; farther south, they not 
only subsist, but thrive on the range the year round. In Cache, 
Bear lake, and other valleys more elevated, they require more 
food and shelter; and the stock-grower will do well to prepare for 
occasional cold and snowy spells in all the northern parts of the 
Territory. There is ample hay ground for this. Under ordinary 
circumstances, a five-year-old steer, worth ^25, can be turned 



U^^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

out at a cost of %^. The statistics returned of stock in Utah in 

1875: 

Stallions 108 

Mares i>349 

Mules 4,727 

All others, not horned 45, 206 

Thoroughbred horned stock 510 

Graded ♦' " 3»5ii 

All other *' " 107,468 

Thoroughbred sheep r5,620 

All other sheep 287,608 

Goats 304,806 

Graded swine i,397 

Common swine 26,540 

Total value, including poultry and bees, placed at about $6,500,000. 

The number of blooded and graded animals has probably in- 
creased 200 per cent, since 1875, and that of sheep 150 per cent.^ 
while the strain of blood in all sheep has been so improved that 
double the wool is sheared from the same number. Consider- 
able stock is kept in adjoining Territories by residents of Utah. 
It is estimated by stock-growers and drivers that the Territory 
turns out yearly 40,000 head of stock from one to five years old, 
averaging in value $15 a head ; a total of ^600,000. 

Sheep- Farming. — The wool clip of 1875 ^'^^ returned at 885,- 
000 pounds, but it has quite doubled since. Mr, James Dunn, 
of the Provo Woollen Mills, estimates the clip of 1877 at 1,200,- 
000 to 1,300,000 pounds; for 1878, at 1,600,000 to 1,700,000 
pounds. Other large growers and dealers concur in this esti- 
mate. The clip of 1879 was nearly 2,000,000 pounds, and that 
of 1880 over 2,500,000 pounds. Of the clip of 1878 about 1,250,- 
000 pounds was exported, and the remainder, say 400,000 
pounds, was used by the Utah mills. Fleeces average about 
four pounds for ewes, six for wethers; part of the wool ranges 
with the best California wools as to quality, while part of it is in- 
ferior. Utah and Montana wools are considered better than the 
wools of the other Territories. Most of the Utah sheep came 
from New Mexico down to 1870. Since then ewes have been 
brought in from California, generally fine-wooled Spanish Mer- 



STOCK-RAISING AND SHEEP-FARMING. 1175 

Inos, but little mixed ; fine-wooled bucks from Ohio, and long- 
vvooled from Canada. The same strain of blood in sheep does 
not produce quite so long a wool as in the East. It is so dry and 
dusty, the grease seems to absorb the alkali and mineral dust, 
which makes it harsher and more britde. But since the large 
infusion of Merino blood, which has taken place in late years, 
there has been a marked improvement in the quality of Utah 
wool, in respect of length, softness and fineness of fibre. It re- 
alizes to the grower, here, crude, about twenty cents a pound. 

Mr. Daniel Davidson, who has imported ^30,000 worth of 
bucks within a few years, has a flock of 16,000 sheep, from which 
he sheared 90,000 pounds of wool in 1878. Among other large 
owners are the Provo Manufacturing Company, with 13,000; 
a Mr. Mclntyre, with 9,000. Mr. Davidson thinks there are 
550,000 sheep in the Territory. Castle Valley, near the corner 
post of Wahsatch, San Pete and Utah coundes, is a great sheep 
range, several large flocks being kept there. They are worth 
about $2.25 a head as they run, do not require feeding in winter, 
and if properly attended to, under ordinary circumstances, will 
yield a profit of forty per cent, a year on the investment. They 
are beginning to be bought up to be driven away. A flock of 
5,000, cosdng from %2 to $2.50 each, including lambs, was picked 
up and taken to Montana in the spring of 1878. By the time 
they got there the lambs were worth as much as the sheep, re- 
ducing the price in reality to about $1.50. 

Governor Emery says on this subject: 

Another serious drawback to the stock-growers of this country 
are immense herds of sheep, which have been driven into the 
Territories from California. Large flocks of fifteen, twenty and 
thirty thousand sheep not unfrequently make their appearance 
here from the West. It is not so much the grass they eat that 
the setders complain of, but they poison and kill out what is 
known here as the buffalo or bunch-grass, which is the only 
grass of any value indigenous to this soil. Where sheep range 
for one season there is left a barren waste upon which grass will 
not grow for several years after. If Congress would pass some 
law whereby parties can acquire rights to this pasturage, it would 



J J -5 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

undoubtedly be a source of revenue to the government as well 
as to parties engaged in stock and wool-growing. 

Mines and Mining Products. — With her increasing population, 
it is hardly probable that Utah will produce more grains, etc., 
than sufficient to supply the home demand for agricultural pro- 
ducts. She may export some wheat, but she will import more 
corn ; she may have more than a supply of some fruits and root 
crops, but she will import as much or more of others. 

She may have cattle, sheep, and possibly horses and mules to 
export, and as her grazing lands become developed, there may 
be a large traffic in live-stock, for which she has good facilities. 

But the chief attraction which Utah possesses for immigrants 
is its mineral wealth. Looking southward from one of the sum- 
mits of the Wahsatch Mountains, just above their junction with 
the Uintah Range, and the smoke of the smelters and stamp 
mills is seen in the clear pure air for a hundred miles, and on 
both sides of the Wahsatch ; while to the east and southeast the 
mines of copper, coal, sulphur, alum, borax, graphite and other 
minerals, with some gold and silver, are found in great abun- 
dance. 

There is not a county in the Territory where mines have not 
been located, and mining districts in greater or lesser number 
organized. These mining districts now cover over 1,200,000 
acres. They are, perhaps, most numerous in Salt Lake, Utah, 
Juab, Beaver, Box Elder, Tooele, Millard, Pi-ute and Iron coun- 
ties, but Washington county, Weber, Davis and Summit are 
coming into prominence either for their silver mines, gold placers, 
or deposits of coal, sulphur, borax, alum, etc. We cannot under- 
take to name all these mines or mining districts ; but a few notes 
in regard to some of the most prominent of them will be interest- 
ing. Bingham Canon and its chief town, Bingham City, is about 
thirty miles southwest of Salt Lake City, and is a rift or canon 
of the Oquirrh Mountains, through which a small muddy creek 
flows on its way to the Jordan river, about twelve miles south of 
Salt Lake City. It has had strange vicissitudes. In 1859 rich 
gold placers were found there by General Conner's soldiers, and 
were extensively worked and still yield fair pay for working. In 



MINES AND MINING IN UTAH. nyy 

1869 extensive beds of silver lead ore were discovered and mined 
with decided profit, and some of the mines are still profitably 
worked; in 1876 it was discovered that the disintegrated rock 
which had been thrown aside from the silver mines as waste 
really contained from ^19 to ^25 of gold to the ton, and was very 
easily reduced, and as this paid better than the silver, the mining 
for these quartz-gold ores was immediately resumed. Mean- 
while, however, some of the silver mines in the canon had been 
written up and their productiveness eulogized, and one of these, 
the Old Telegraph, which was really worth perhaps from ^700,000 
to ^1,000,000, was sold after examination to a French company 
for ^3,000,000. The mine has not only never paid a dividend, 
but is run either at a loss or without profit, although all its re- 
duction works and the appointments of the mine are of the first 
class. It was another instance in which silver mines in Utah 
have been sold to European capitalists at prices far beyond their 
actual value. The sales of the Little Emma, Flagstaff and 
McHenry, all Utah mines, are still fresh in the public memory, 
and have entailed an unwarranted disgrace upon mining proper- 
ties, especially in Utah. The Little Cottonwood Mines, which 
included the Emma and Flagstaff, are now developing other 
mining properties there ; but the frauds connected with those 
mines have destroyed confidence in them, and the present and 
prospective yield is not sufficient to restore it. The Parley's 
Park Mines, in the vicinity of Park City, of which the Ontario 
Mine is the principal, have an excellent property, though in their 
case the failure of the McHenry Mine to make good the repre- 
sentations under which it was sold, has proved a serious draw- 
back. The mill connected with this mine shipped East, monthl)'', 
in 1879, from ^135,000 to ^145,000, and new mines in the 
vicinity are promising well. On the Oquirrh Mountains there 
is also the Ophir District, which has the Hidden Treasure and 
many other silver mines of note ; the Stockton Mines, which 
have already yielded largely ; and the Tintic Silver District, the 
mines in which carry gold, silver and copper. In Southern and 
Southwestern Utah, within the Great Basin and south of Sevier 
lake, there are many silver mines of great value, and which are 



1 1^8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

conducted on sound business principles. In this region the 
mines are richer as we proceed toward the southern boundary. 
In the Beaver Lake District there are valuable copper mines, and 
a little to the east and southeast are silver mines in the same 
district, and some valuable mines in the Ohio District. A 
little farther south are the Frisco Silver Mines, to which 
point a branch of the Southern Utah Railway is running. 
Among these mines, the Horn Silver Mine, about one mile from 
the villao-e of Frisco, is said to be the richest silver mine in the 
world. Professor J. S. Newberry, who visited It in the autumn 
of 1879, and examined it very carefully, estimated that there was 
not less than ^15,000,000 worth of ore in sight, and a fair pros- 
pect of at least as much more when the mine was fully developed. 
This ore is chlorides and horn silver. The Carbonate and 
Rattler Mines, and the Cave Mine in the same vicinity, are car- 
bonates easily reduced and very rich ; the last named carries 
considerable gold ; as do the Picacho Mines. Around and just 
below Little Salt lake are the Silver Belt and the Sumner Mining 
Districts, and in the same vicinity immense coal beds and exten- 
sive deposits of iron and alum. Other coal measures are still 
farther south, and in the extreme southwest is the Leeds Silver 
Mining District, which has many rich mines ; most of these are 
chlorides and easily reduced. East of the Leeds District, and on 
and near the Rio Virgen, is the Harrisburg District, in which are 
a larofe number of excellent mines. Amono- these are those of 
Silver Reef, where sandstone beds of cretaceous or tertiary age 
are found impregnated with silver, either native or in chlorides. 
The Stormont Silver Mining Company owns several mines on 
Silver Reef, and is steadily producing from ^40,000 to ^50,000 
of bullion per month, with a fair prospect of increase with larger 
facilities for reduction. No smelting is needed, but the reduction 
is effected through stamp-mills and wet amalgamation. Just at 
the boundary of Utah, Arizona and Nevada is the Silver Park Dis- 
trict, where the argentiferous deposit is an enormous but irreg- 
ular vein lying in the contact between porphyry and limestone. 
Some of the ore is very rich, and Professor Newberry says that 
" it seems to present very much the same problems as the great 



MINING EAST OF THE WAHSATCH MOUNTAINS. 1179 

veins of the Shakspeare District, New Mexico, or the Ruby Hill 
District, Nevada; that is, they are very good or good for nothing, 
and considerable time and money will be required to decide which 
is true." 

The eastern slope of the Wahsatch Mountains undoubtedly 
contains both silver and gold, though, whether it is likely to be of 
ores which will prove profitable for present working, is a question. 
The Great Colorado Basin, which has shown itself so rich in the 
precious metals in Colorado and Arizona, is probably equally rich 
here. But we know that copper, and iron, and coal are not only 
abundant but that they are of excellent quality and easily 
worked. The coal beds of Utah contain coal of good quality, 
sufficient to supply the entire region west of the Rocky Moun- 
tains. It is bituminous or semi-bituminous in character, and 
many of the beds. Professor Newberry says, are excellent cok- 
ing coals. Whether it is a lignite of the Tertiary formations, or 
a true coal of the Carboniferous era, does not seem to be fully 
settled. Possibly the deposits of the north are of a later geo- 
logic aofe than those of the south. Volcanic action, here as in 
New Mexico, may have wrought some changes in it. The iron 
is of all varieties, and is pronounced by skilful iron masters equal 
in quality to any in the world, and the quantity is vast beyond 
conception. Its close proximity to good coking coals and the 
excellent fluxes close at hand insure very cheap production of 
the best qualities of iron, and already several large furnaces are 
at work. 

Recently andmony has been discovered. The antimony mines 
are situated 200 miles south of Salt Lake, and on the headwaters 
of the --Sevier river. The mineral occurs as a bedded or sedi- 
mentary deposit, in interrupted layers from a quarter of an inch 
to two feet in thickness. Its line of outcrop forms an irregular 
contour, which follows the windings of the cliffs. The quantity 
exposed varies greatly ; in some places perhaps a thousand tons 
could be obtained immediately. There are large deposits of sul- 
phur of great thickness, which are worked. Salt is produced 
from the waters of Great Salt Lake and other lakes in con- 
siderable quantities and of excellent quality. There are large 



Il8o OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

deposits of rock-salt in the Territory. Ozocerite, asphalt, jet and 
other minerals are known to exist in large quantities. Alum, bo- 
rax, bicarbonate of soda and caustic soda can also be produced 
pure for market, with very little trouble. 

Railroads. — There are now in operation in Utah somewhat 
more than 700 miles of railway, all of it except the small portion 
of the Union Pacific, between Evanston, Wyoming, and Devil's 
Gate, Utah, being within the Great Salt Lake Basin. All the 
railroads of the Territory belong to the Union and Central Paci- 
fic system, with which they connect at Ogden. Aside from the 
main line (the Union and Central Pacific) they consist of: The 
Utah and Northern Railroad, now extending from Ogden to 
Helena, Montana ; the Utah Central, from Ogden to Salt Lake 
City; and the Utah Southern, a continuation of the last, already 
constructed to the Beaver river, vv^ith branches of narrow gauge 
to Stockton, to Bingham Canon, to Alta, to Deer Creek, to Con- 
nelsville and the coal mines, and from Beaver river to Frisco. 
It may throw out another branch to Pioche, Nevada, where a 
short line running eastward has already been constructed, but its 
eventual destination is probably to a union with the Atlantic 
and Pacific at some point in Arizona, or in California west of the 
Rio Colorado. The extensive coal lands and erazincr lands in the 
Colorado Basin must eventually lead to the crossing of the Wah- 
satch by some of the branches of the Utah Central or Southern, 
unless the Denver and Rio Grande, or the Denver South Park 
and Pacific, both of which are building rapidly toward Grand 
and Green rivers in Western Colorado, should enter Utah from 
tlie east, and thus form another route to the Pacific. The local 
business on these Utah roads is sufficient to make them profita- 
ble stock. 

Objects of Interest. — In wild, grand, and terrible displays of 
the power of the forces of nature, Utah is perhaps unsurpassed 
by no State or Territory of " Our Western Empire." The 
canons of the Green and Grand rivers and of the Rio Colorado, 
which they unite to form, as well as those of the San Juan, have 
been most graphically described by Colonel J. W. Powell and 
other writers who have descended these rivers for a part or 



OBJECTS OF INTEREST. Il8l 

the whole of their course. The greater part of the main stream 
of the Green river, more than a hundred miles of the Grand river, 
and about 250 miles of the course of the Colorado, including some 
of the most remarkable canons of each, are within the bounds of 
Utah, and east of the Wahsatch Mountains. Near the southern 
boundary of the Territory the Monument Caiion of the Colorado 
commences, and at the mouth of the San Juan is the famous 
Temple of Music, one of the most wonderful of the results of 
erosion on these rocks. But it is not the Colorado Basin alone 
which abounds in remarkable natural scenery. The Great Inte- 
rior or Salt Lake Basin is full of wonders. Amongf these are the 
Temples on the Rio Virgen, the only affluent of the Colorado 
which has its sources in the Great Salt Lake Basin; while the 
Little Zion Valley, nordi of that river, is remarkable for its quiet 
beau ty. 

Farther north, in the Great Basin, are some very extraordinary 
combinations of canon, cataract, valley and mountain spires. Of 
one of these — the American Fork Canon of the Wahsatch Moun- 
tains, which opens upon the minor Basin of Utah lake, and has^ 
been called the Yosemite of Utah — a recent writer thus speaks : 

" This canon is noted not only for the towering altitude of its 
enclosing walls, but for the picturesqueness of the infinite shapes, 
resembling artificial objects, towers, pinnacles and minarets 
chiefly, into which the elements have worn them. At first the 
formation is granite and the cliffs rise to a lofty height almost 
vertically. Then come quartzite or rocks of looser texture, 
conglomerates and sandstones ; the canon opens to the sky and 
you enter a long gallery, the sides of which recede at an angle 
of forty-five degrees to a dizzy height, profusely set with these 
elemental sculptures in endless variety of size and pattern, often 
stained with rich colors. ' Towers, battlements, shattered castles, 
and the images of mighty sentinels,' says one, 'exhibit their out- 
lines against the sky. Rocks twisted, gnarled and distorted ; here 
a mass like the skeleton of some colossal tree which lightning 
had wrenched and burnt to fixed cinder; there another, vast 
and overhanging, apparently crumbling and threatening to fall 
in ruin. At Deer creek the canon proper ceases, the road has 



1 1 8 2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

climbed out of it 2,500 feet in eight miles. This is the main resort 
of pleasure parties. Since the railroad was taken up, its bed has 
become a wagon road, which continues to Forest City, eight miles 
above. The surroundings are still mountainous, but there are 
breaks where the brooks come in, grassy hills, aspens and 
pines. 

" To the sublimity of the caiion scenery in summer an inde- 
scribable beauty is added in the autumn, when the deciduous 
trees and shrubbery on a thousand slopes, touched by the frost, 
present the colors of a rich painting and meet the eye wherever 
it rests. To get the full benefit of this, one must go up and up 
till there is nothing higher to climb. In winter another and very 
different phase succeeds. The snows, descending for days and 
days in blinding clouds, bury the forests and fill the canon. 
Accumulating to a great depth on high and steep acclivities, they 
start without warning and bury in ruin whatever may be in their 
track. Hardly a year passes that miners and teamsters, wagons 
and cabins are not swept away and buried out of sight for months. 
The avalanche of the Wahsatch is quite as formidable as that of 
the Alps. Probably forty feet of snow falls on the main range 
every winter. Seven miles of tramway in Little Cottonwood 
Canon are closely and strongly shedded for defence against the 
awful avalanche. Even this is not always effectual." 

The Great Salt lake itself is an object of great interest. The 
remarkable density of its waters, which at some seasons and 
particularly in times of great drought, is so strong a brine as to 
contain two pounds of salt to the gallon of water, its islands 
which contain rich deposits of silver and copper and abound in 
game, its shores covered with salt, and the buoyancy of its waters, 
in which one cannot sink, all excite the wonder of the visitor. 

The mineral and hot springs, which abound throughout the 
Territory, are worthy of notice. The hot springs near Ogden 
are a favorite resort for tourists. 

Finances. — " The finances of the Territory," says Governor 
Emery, in his report to the Secretary of the Interior, October 
29th, 1879, "are in a most satisfactory condition. There is no 
indebtedness that is not covered by uncollected taxes. The 



POPULATION OF UTAH. 1 1 83 

territorial scrip, which three or four years since was worth only 
forty cents on the dollar, to-day is worth ninety-eight cents on 
the dollar. There is assessed annually an ad valorem tax on the 
taxable property in the Territory of Utah, as follows : three mills 
on the dollar for territorial purposes; three mills on the dollar 
for the benefit of district schools ; and such sum as the county 
courts of the several counties may designate for county purposes, 
not to exceed three mills on the dollar." 

Population. — The growth of Utah has been moderately rapid, 
as much so perhaps as could be expected under the circum- 
stances. The following table gives the particulars of it so far as 
they are attainable : 



B 


t 

E 

3 
C 

I 


c 


"3 
0. 


Oi 
I 


V 


i 






bs 

c 
rt 

c 

rt 

=5 

c 


> 
1 


c 
bd 


c 


rt 
"3 
a 

a, 


>, 

53 

P 


rt 

C 

"o 


s 

'A 


2 


f 







-0 

c 

bs 
< ^• 

Uj-d 
.5S 

S 




c 

U 

1 


1850 
i860 

1870 
1875 
1880 


11,380* 

40,273* 

99.58it 

i4o.ooof 

i44,659t 


6,046 
20,255 
44.121: 
66,125 
74,471: 


5,334 
20,018 
42,665 
63,875 
69,436 


",330 
40,125 
86,044 
130,000 
142,381 


50 9,326 
149 27,519 

•3,538 56,084 

10,000 I 81,000 

1526? 99,974 


2,054, o-°5 
12,754! 0.18 
30,702 1.63 
49,000 1.75 
43,933i 178 


2550 
14725 
40-59 
10.62 


154 

323 

7363 


4,076 
13,788 
33,367 
30. 792 II 


2,560 

6,744 

14,603 


2,765 
8,134 
18,042 


»,535 
4,520 
10,147 



The population of Utah is very peculiar. It is the only one 
of the States or Territories of "Our Western Empire" which 
was settled on a professedly religious basis. The Mormons came 
here when the country was a howling wilderness, and established 
themselves as a religious hierarchy, and their plan of settlement 
from the first contemplated an empire as well as a faith. They 
have been from the first intolerant of any government except 
their own, of any immigrants who were not converts to their 
faith ; of any business which did not contribute to the support of 
Mormonism ; of any worship which did not recognize the supreme 
authority of their leaders ; of any social order which did not recog- 
nize polygamy as a revealed ordinance of God, and did not give 



* Tribal Indians not included. t Including tribal and other Indians. JSex of Indians not ascertained. 
I Territorial report — only children from six to sixteen, g Including 204 negroes and mulattoes, 501 Chinese, 804 
Indians and half-breeds and seventeen East Indians and half-breeds. 



IlS^ OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

free rein to lust. Their power was for many years so absolute 
that the settlers, who professed another faith, were liable to 
assassination and to every indignity and oppression. Since the 
mineral wealth of the Territory was discovered, settlers have 
been pouring in, and in some of the mining camps, especially in 
Tooele county, the "Gentiles," as the Mormons contemptuously 
call them, are in the majority. The present census shows that 
about 107,000 of the 143,807 white inhabitants are Mormons and 
the remainder " Gentiles ; " a decided gain since 1870, when there 
were not more than 15,000 Gentiles in the Territory. But the 
Mormons are artful and shrewd. Knowing that their polygamy 
and other offences against society and good order are violations of 
the laws of the United States, they are yet determined to hold 
on to them, and to diffuse them in other States and Territories, 
and with an aggressiveness worthy of a better cause they are plant- 
ing their mission towns in Idaho, Nevada, Montana, Wyoming, 
Colorado and Arizona, and have even obtained some footing in 
California. In Idaho and Nevada they claim to have a majority 
of the inhabitants under their control. They send their missionaries 
to England, Wales, Scotland, Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 
and by a specious and plausible presentation of some of their 
doctrines (those that are objectionable being kept in the back- 
ground), and of their country, they persuade many of the ignorant, 
excitable and superstitious class to emigrate to Utah. Once here 
they are completely under the control of the leaders ; all that 
they have, and all that they can earn, belongs to the hierarchy, and 
if it is decided that they must go to the most unpromising desert 
region in Nevada, Arizona or Idaho, and aid in establishing a 
new town, however inconvenient or distressing it may be for 
them to break up their homes, there is no alternative ; they must 
go, or death and eternal destruction will be their portion. If it 
is deemed desirable to put some troublesome or inquisitive Gen- 
tile out of the way, the means and the men for the work are 
speedily found. The large influx of " Gentiles " to the mining 
canms and to business connected with the railroads and mines has 
modified their open and outspoken opposition to non-Mormon 
immigration ; but at heart they are as much opposed to this 



RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. I 1 85 

immigration as ever, and more to the United States government 
than at any time in the past. At the same time they are very 
desirous of being admitted into the Union as a State, that they 
may legitimize polygamy : and when in their judgment the fitting 
time has come, they propose to secede, taking with them the other 
States and Territories they have won over to their views, and 
start a polygamous empire. They have offered their vote and 
support to whichever of the two great parties will secure their 
admission into the Union ; but their practices are so palpably in 
violation of the constitution, that their admission is not probable. 
Religions Deiiominaiioiis. — The non -Mormon inhabitants of 
Utah are of all religious denominations, or of none ; but they 
have a great abhorrence both of polygamy and of religious des- 
potism. In 1878 there were 167 Mormon church edifices, and 
four temples built and in course of construction at St. George, 
Logan, Manti and Salt Lake City, by the Mormons. They 
claimed at that time 108,907 souls as belonging to their church. 
Since that time they have sent out about 10,000 to other States 
and Territories, and have received about 8,000 immigrants from 
abroad. Mormonism does not increase by conversions at home, 
but by the immigration of converts from abroad. At the same 
time there were thirty-five Protestant congregations, having 
twenty-two church edifices and twenty-eight regular pastors, sus- 
taining as a part of their work twenty-five mission schools, in 
twenty towns, with an enrolment of nearly 2,000 scholars. The 
number of communicants was about 1,400, and of adherent pop- 
ulation about 8,000. Their church property amounted to about 
^250,000, while that of the Mormons exceeded ^3,200,000. There 
has been some improvement in these particulars within the past 
two years. The number of Protestant churches now exceeds 
forty, the number of communicants is more than 2,500, and of 
adherent population about 13,000. There is also a much larger 
amount of church property, and an increase in the number of 
church edifices and schools. All the principal Protestant de- 
nominations have churches in the larger towns of the Territory, 
and there are Roman Catholic churches in Salt Lake City and 
Ogden, and perhaps at some other points. 
75 



I I 36 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Education. — Among the Mormons education Is at a low ebb. 
The school population is reckoned only between the ages of six 
and sixteen, and of this scanty enrolment less than thirty-nine 
percent., or only about 13,000 to 15,000, attended school. The 
whole number of schools in 1878 was 346; the time the schools 
were taught in days, 137; estimated value of school property, 
^382,1 12 ; the whole number of public school teachers was 489 ; 
pay of men, ^35 per month; of women, ^22 per month. The 
total income for school purposes was ^113,413 ; the total expen- 
diture, ^113,193. There is no school fund. There are, as 
already stated, twenty-five or thirty mission schools under "Gen- 
tile " control, which, though opposed by the Mormon leaders, are 
prosperous, and afford better instruction than the Mormon 
schools. There are two or three secondary schools, especially 
the Salt Lake Academy ("Gentile"), in Salt Lake City; the 
Brigham Young Academy, at Provo, and two smaller institutions, 
one at Logan, and the other at Salt Lake City — endowed by 
Younor with lands. These are all Mormon. The so-called Uni- 
versity of Deseret, which is as yet only a preparatory school with 
a normal class, is also Mormon. 

Morals and Social Condition. — The moral condition of Utah is 
very low. So far as the distinctive Mormon institution — polyg- 
amy — is concerned, it could not well be worse. Licentiousness 
in all its worst forms, Is openly sustained under the forms of po- 
lygamous marriage, and incest of the grossest character is not 
uncommon. There is, among the Mormon population, nothing of 
the family relation, and the Mormon youth, the boys, especially, 
are early taught the most atrocious depravity. This condition of 
things has exerted in many Instances an untoward influence upon 
the "Gentile" population. No man should emigrate to Utah who 
has not his moral principles firmly fixed. But to men of principle 
and character there Is an opportunity of accomplishing much good 
by engaging in such enterprises as will aid in rescuing this rich 
and valuable Territory from the control of the most depraved 
and vlllanous despotism which ever prevailed in any country, in 
ancient or modern times. 

Counties and Principal Towns. — There are twenty- three coun- 



COUNTIES AND PRINCIPAL TOWNS. 1 1 87 

ties in Utah. The assessed valuation of these in 1877, exclusive 
of mines and mining improvements, neither of which were then 
taxed, was as follows : 



Counties. 

Salt Lake 

Weber 

Utah 

Box Elder 

Cache 

Tooele 

Summit 

Davis 

San Pete 

Washington 

Juab 

Iron 

Morgan 

Kane 

Beaver 

Millard 

Sevier 

Wahsatch 

Rich 

Pi-ute 

Emery 

San Juan 

Uintah 

Totals 



Population, 


Ass'd Value of Property 


1880. 


1877. 


3i»978 


18,171,820 


12,597 


2,105,428 


17,918 


2,083,904 


6,761 


1,827,580 


12,561 


1,205,367 


4,497 


1,060,190 


4,240 


868,536 


5,026 


812,132 


11,557 


664,072 


4,235 


605,572 


3,473 


459,296 


4,013 


446,056 


1,783 


428,928 


3,085 


343,944 


3.918 


410,320 


3,727 


300,816 


5,138 


287,528 


2,927 


183,760 


1,263 


168,940 


1,651 


119,512 



556 

204 
799 



I43>907* $22,553,600 



The very large mining interests would much more than double 
these assessed values. 

Of the towns, Salt Lake City had in 1870 a population of 
12,854. Its population in June, 1880, was 20,768. It is the 
chief seat of Mormonism, has the Tabernacle and the yet uncom- 
pleted Temple, and many other attractive public and private 
buildings. Ogden, on the Union Pacific, is a thriving town 
of 5,000 or 6,000 inhabitants. Provo, Logan, Ephraim City, St. 



* Exclusive of tribal Indians. 



Ti88 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

George, Manti, Iron City, Frisco, Tooele, Mount Pleasant, Silver 
Reef, etc., are towns of considerable importance. 

Historical Data. — Utah derives its name from the Utes, a tribe 
of Indians who were its original inhabitants. The Mormons, 
driven from Illinois and Missouri, emigrated hither in 1847 ^'^^ 
1848, and established themselves in a region then remote from 
other inhabitants. The title of this region passed from Mexico 
to the United States with that of New Mexico and California, in 
1848, by the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. It was organized as 
a Territory In 1850 by the name of Utah; but the Mormons called 
it "Deseret," and in 1862 formed a Constitution, and demanded 
admission into the Union under that name. This was refused, 
and there has been much controversy, and sometimes threatened 
violence by the Mormons, since that time. In 1857 a most atro- 
cious massacre of a large party of emigrants was perpetrated 
under Mormon direction at Mountain Meadow, in the southern 
part of the Territory. Some of the actors in that massacre were 
hung for it in 1877. Most of the mining enterprises which have 
brought in so considerable a non-Mormon population have been 
undertaken since 1869. 



TOPOGRAPHY OF WASHINGTON TERRITORY. 1189 

CHAPTER XX. 

WASHINGTON TERRITORY. 

Situation of Washington Territory — Boundaries — The Boundary Line 
AT the Northwest, and North — Its Area — Length and Breadth — Com- 
parative Size — Topography and Divisions — Western Washington — The 
PuGET Sound Basin — What Puget Sound includes — The Beauty, Value, 
and Importance of this Great Inland Sea — The Lowlands and the 
Mountain Slopes of Western Washington — Rivers and Harbors of 
Western Washington — Eastern Washington — Its Rivers — Its Lakes — 
The Great Plains of the Columbia — River Valleys — Geology — Miner- 
alogy — Zoology — Climate — Meteorology of Western Washington — 
Governor Ferry's Remarks on the Mildness of the Climate, and the 
Reasons for it — The Climate of Eastern Washington — The Chinook 
Wind — Soil, Vegetation, and Agricultural Productions — The Alluvial 
Farming Lands — Table Lands — Forest Grov^ths — Agricultural Pro- 
ducts — Timber and Lumber — Soil and Productions of Eastern Wash- 
ington — The Yakinla County — Remarkably Fat Cattle — From whence 
THEY come — The wonderful Fertility of the Soil — The Mountain 
Slopes and Mountain Tops as rich as the Valleys — The Immense Yield 
OF Wheat — Thirty-five to Fifty Bushels to the Acre — Exports — Pop- 
ulation-Table — Indian Tribes and their Reservations— Partial Civil- 
ization OF THE Indians — Their Industry — Education — Counties and 
Principal Towns — Table of Population and Valuation of Counties — 
Chief Towns — Religious Denominations and Public Morals — Historical 
Data — The American Title to Washington and Oregon — The Arbitra- 
tion IN REGARD TO THE ISLANDS IN THE GULF OF GEORGIA ThE EaRLY 

Settlers — Indian War in 1855 — Conclusion— Washington Territory 
Desirable for Immigrants — The best Routes thither — The early Com- 
pletion OF the Northern Pacific probable. 

Washington Territory is, with the exception of Alaska, 
which is not yet organized, the extreme northwestern member of 
"Our Western Empire," lying between the parallels of 45° 32' 
and 49° north latitude ; and between the meridians of 117° and 
124° 28' west longitude from Greenwich. It is bounded on the 
north and northwest by British Columbia, the boundary line being 
a zig-zag one to give Great Britain the settlements and lands 
she claimed. Our tide ran legitimately along the 49th parallel 



1 1 go OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

to the Pacific; but to have insisted on this would have given us 
the greater part of Vancouver Island, on which were already im- 
portant British settlements. The line was finally run, not with- 
out a lone and tedious arbitration, through the centre of the Strait 
of Juan de Fuca, the Canal de Haro, and the Gulf of Georgia as 
far as to the 49th parallel. From the centre of the Gulf of 
Georgia to the west line of Idaho, the northern boundary is 
along the 49th parallel. The eastern boundary is the Territory 
of Idaho, along the 1 1 7th meridian to Lewiston, where the Snake 
river makes a sudden bend southward, when that river becomes 
the eastern boundary to the Oregon line; southward, Oregon 
forms its limit, the line running along the 46th parallel till it 
reaches the Columbia river at about the 119th meridian, when 
the Columbia becomes the southern boundary to the Pacific; on 
the west, it is washed by the waves of the Pacific as far as the 
Strait of Juan de Fuca. Its length from north to south ranges 
from 200 to 250 miles, its greatest breadth from east to west about 
360 miles. It is smaller than most of the Territories, and sev- 
eral of the States of " Our Western Empire," having but 69,994 
square miles, or 44,796,160 acres ; yet this area is one and a half 
times that of New York or Pennsylvania. 

Topography and Divisions. — The Territory is popularly divided 
into Eastern and Western Washington by the Cascade Range 
of mountains, which trend north-northeast from Oregon in a very 
disorderly fashion from the Dalles of the Columbia river to the 
line of British Columbia, following for most of the distance the 
west bank of the Columbia river, and extending in parallel ridges 
west-southwest to Puget sound, and eastward in several spurs 
north, east-northeast, and east-southeast. Almost the entire 
region between the 47th and the 49th parallels lying between 
the Columbia river and Puget sound is broken, rolling and 
mountainous, though the mountains are not high. 

Western Washington, the part of the Territory first settled, 
consists of a valley or basin, known as the Puget sound basin, 
and which lies between two ranges of mountains, the Cascade 
Mountains on the east and the Olympian or Coast Range on the 
west. The Puget sound or archipelago, the Mediterranean of 



SAFETY AND BEAUTY OF PUGET SOUND. hqi 

the Western Continent, as it is often called, extends from the 
British line on the north (the Gulf of Georgia penetrating sev- 
eral hundred miles into British Columbia) to Olympia on the 
south. It includes the Straits of Juan de Fuca, which furnish a 
broad channel into the Pacific, the Canal de Haro, Washington 
Sound, the Gulf of Georgia, Bellingham Bay, Rosario Strait, 
Admiralty Inlet, Hood's Canal, Lake Washington, several 
smaller passes and inlets, and Anderson's Bay, the latter items 
and some others going to make up the smaller Puget sound. 
It has a coast line in the Territory of 1,594 miles, and its area 
within the limits of the Territory is over 2,000 square miles. More 
than thirty-five years ago Captain (afterwards Rear Admiral) 
Wilkes, who had been engaged on a protracted voyage of ex- 
ploration of the Pacific coast, said of this sound : 

"Nothing can exceed the beauty of these waters and their 
safety. Not a shoal exists within the Straits of Juan de 
Fuca, Admiralty Inlet, or Hood's Canal that can in any way 
interrupt their navigation by a 74-gun ship. I venture nothing 
in saying there is no country in the world that possesses waters 
equal to these. They cover an area of about 2,000 square miles. 
The shores of all these inlets and bays are remarkably bold ; so 
much so that in many places a ship's side would strike the shore 
before the keel would touch the ground. The country by which 
these waters are surrounded is remarkably salubrious, and offers 
every advantage for the accommodationof a vast commercial and 
military marine, with convenience for docks, and a^ great many 
sites for towns and cities, at all times well supplied with water 
and capable of being well provided with everything by the sur- 
rounding country, which is well adapted for agriculture. 

"The Straits of Juan de Fuca are ninety-five miles in length, 
and have an averaofe width of eleven miles. At the entrance 
(eight miles in width) no danger exists, and it may be safely navi- 
gated throughout. No part of the world affords finer inland 
sounds, or a greater number of harbors, than are found within 
the Straits of Juan de Fuca, capable of receiving the largest 
class of vessels and without a danger in them which is not visi- 
ble. From the rise and fall of the tides (eighteen feet) every 



JIQ2 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

facility is offered for the erection of works for a great maritime 
nation. The country also affords as many sites for water-power 
as any other." 

The foothills and slopes of the mountains on both sides are 
almost wholly covered with immense forests of fir and cedar, 
reaching to the very summits of the mountains. Flowing down 
from the western slope of the Cascade Range, ten rivers empty 
into Puget sound, viz.: the Nisqually, Puyallup, White, Cedar, 
Snoqualmie, Snohomish, Stillaguamish, Duwamish, Skagit, and 
Nooksakh, affording many hundred miles of inland shore line for 
logging purposes, and having in their valleys an estimated area 
of two thousand square miles of alluvial agricultural lands. 
Most of these rivers are navigable for steamers of light draft, 
generally as far up as the alluvial deposits extend. The streams 
descending eastward from the Olympian or Coast Range, except 
the Skokomish and the Dungeness, are shorter and of less 
importance. The mountains approach close to the western shores 
of the sound, limiting the area of available territory ; but their 
sides are covered with vast forests of valuable timber already 
known to the markets of the world. Between the Olympian or 
Coast Range and the Pacific are some arable lands, but the soil 
is not so rich, though well adapted to the growth of timber. 
There are two moderately good harbors here — Gray's Harbor, 
and Shoal-water bay, extensive and partially land-locked bodies 
of water, but in respect to depth and facility of loading and un- 
loading bearing no comparison to the magnificent harbors of 
Puget sound. The Chehalis is the principal stream flowing into 
Gray's Harbor ; it has numerous affluents. The Willopah and 
some smaller streams fall into Shoal-water bay. There are 
numerous small rivers flowing into the Pacific and the Straits of 
Juan de Fuca. The other streams of Western Washington are 
afl^uents of the Columbia. The Cowlitz and Klikitat are the 
most important. All of Western Washington is well watered. 

Eastern Washington includes all that part of the Territory 
lying east of the Cascade Mountains, and consists of the Great 
Plains of the Columbia river, the Great Plateau of the Spokane, 
and numerous valleys or river bottoms, as of the Columbia, Snake 



CEOLOG Y AND MINERALOG Y. ^ I g^ 

river, Walla-Walla, Clarke's fork, the Oklnakane, Wenatchee or 
Pisquouse, Lake Chelann, the Grand Coulee, or Old Bed of the 
Columbia, the Spokane, Colville and Palouse rivers. This whole 
region is an elevated plateau, with a rich soil, well adapted to the 
culture of the cereals, and one of the finest grazing countries in 
the world. 

There are many lakes in Washington, some of them of con- 
siderable size ; Lake Chelann is the largest, but Lakes Kahchess, 
Washington and Whatcom are also important lakes. 

Geology. — The shores of the Pacific, the lower valley of the 
Columbia, and the great valley drained by Puget sound, are 
Tertiary and Quaternary ; the islands west of the Canal de 
Haro in the Gulf of Georgia are Cretaceous ; the vicinity of 
Bellingham bay is Carboniferous ; the Coast Range is Eozoic ; 
the Cascade Mountains to about 47° 40', and the Great Plains of 
the Columbia river in Central and Eastern Washington, south of 
the Spokane river, are volcanic ; Northern Washington is Eozoic, 
except two narrow and small outcrops of Silurian age in the 
extreme northeast, one east, the other west of Clarke's fork. 

Mineralogy . — Washington has probably some deposits of the 
precious metals in the extensive volcanic regions already noticed, 
but they have not yet been developed to any great extent. Gold 
has been found in the northeast near the Columbia river. There 
were discoveries of placer gold made In 1879, on the Skagit 
river in Whatcom county. Western Washington. The quartz 
lodes near the Columbia river, In Stevens county, yielded In 1879 
about $300,000. All the different ores of iron are plentiful ; but 
the greatest mineral wealth of the Territory consists In Its exten- 
sive beds of excellent coal. The coal near Bellingham bay and 
Lake Whatcom, in Whatcom county, is of excellent quality and is 
extensively mined. Much of it Is sent to San Francisco, where 
It is in great demand. This is a true coal from the coal measures, 
and is bituminous in its character. There is also a very good 
coal (probably lignite) back of Seattle, in King county, near Lake 
Washington, and also in the Coast Range. This coal is mostly 
bituminous, but it is claimed that deposits of anthracite coal have 
been found in Puyallup valley and on the Green river. This is 



IIQ4 OUR WMSr^RN EMPIRE. 

possible, as this is within the hmits of the volcanic region, but it 
is probable that this is at most only semi-anthracite. 

Zoology. — The wild animals are the same as in Oregon. In 
the northern part of the Territory moose are found in consider- 
able numbers. Elk are also plenty. The cougar or panther is 
laro-e and fierce. Game is abundant. Salmon are found in cjreat 
numbers, not only in the Columbia but in Puget sound, and 
some of the rivers flowing into it. 

Climate. — The climate of Western Washington is remarkably 
mild and temperate, notwithstanding its high latitude, resembling, 
in this respect, that of the British Isles, and demonstrating the 
truth of the law laid down by physical geographers that the 
western coast of a continent always has a much milder and more 
equable temperature than the eastern. Governor Ferry, in pre- 
senting, in his report of October, 1879, to the Secretary of the 
Interior, the meteorological table of Fort Blakeley, which we 
give on page 1 195, makes some very judicious notes and explan- 
ations in regard to it, and the climate of Western Washington, 
which we here insert in full, and which are fully corroborated 
by the corresponding table of Olympia, which we have placed by 
its side. One point, which the governor has omitted, is worthy 
of notice, viz.: that where the extreme annual range of the 
thermometer does not exceed from 64° to 74°, its maximum not 
being over 95° nor its minimum less than 19° to 25°, the result- 
ing climate is as agreeable, healthful and productive as can be 
desired. The rainfall is by no means excessive, but exerts a 
decided Influence in promoting the gigantic growth of the 
timber, which crowns the mountain slopes and extends even to 
the summits of the Cascade and Coast Ranges. 

Governor Ferry says : 

"It will be seen that the lowest temperature during this period 
of twenty-six months was 25° above zero, in January, 1879, and 
the next lowest 26 + °, In January, 1878. The highest temperature 
in 1877 ^vas 88°; in 1878, 94°; and in 1879, 86°. The highest 
monthly average was 67^°, in July, 1877, and the lowest 40^^°, 
in January, 1878. It will also be seen that the annual average 
rainfall is very little greater than In the Eastern and Western 



CLIMATE OF WESTERN WASHINGTON. 



II95- 






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Lowest. 



Average. 



Rainfall. 



Cloudy 
Days. 



Clear 
Days. 



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Highest. 
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Rainfall. 



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VO VO ^ VO o n 

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iiq6 our western empire: 

States. From June, 1877, to January, 1879, a period of nineteen 
months, embracing all of one winter and half of another, there 
was no snowfall, and in January, February and March, 1879, 
only 7^ inches, which disappeared almost as rapidly as it fell. 
The greatest rainfall is between the months of October and April, 
although, during this period, it will be seen that the cloudy days 
are very little In excess of the clear, 

" The climatic phenomena indicated by these observations are 
readily accounted for. 

"A thermal current, known as the Japan Current, having its 
origin at the equator, near the one hundred and thirtieth degree 
of east longitude, Greenwich, flows northwardly to the Aleutian 
islands, where It separates, one branch flowing eastwardly along 
the peninsula of Alaska, and then southwardly along the coast 
of British Columbia, Washington Territory and Oregon. This 
thermal stream, with Its concomitant heated atmospheric current, 
striking the northwest coast of America, operates powerfully In 
mltlofatlnor a climate which otherwise would be cold and ritrorous 
in the extreme. The effect of these currents upon the western 
portion of this Territory is the same as the effect of the Gulf 
stream upon the northwest coast of Euiope. In fact the climate 
and natural productions of England are essentially the same as 
those of Western Washington. In addition to this, the prevall- 
inof winds In the winter are from the southwest. These warm 
atmospheric currents, coming from the tropical regions of the 
Pacific, laden with moisture, meeting the cooler currents from 
the Coast Range and Cascade Mountains, produce the winter 
rainfall. These southwest winds also moderate the temperature 
during the winter. 

"The prevailing winds during the summer are from the north- 
west, which Is the cause of the dry, cool weather during that 
period. There is a marked difference between the climate of 
Western and Eastern Washington. In the latter, being that 
portion of the Territory lying east of the Cascade Mountains, the 
four seasons are plainly distinguishable. I am unable to present 
meteorological statistics of this portion of the Territory, and can 
only say that the temperature is lower In winter and higher In 



SOIL AND VEGETATION OF WESTERN WASHINGTON. ngy 

summer, and that the rainfall is about one-half less, than on Puget 
sound. The average annual temperature is reported as follows : 
spring, 52°, summer, y^°, autumn, 53°, and winter, 34°." 

The summers are at times very hot, though with cool nights 
generally. A part of the winter is cold, and there are usually a 
few days in which the mercury falls to zero, or below ; but with 
few exceptions the fall of snow is not heavy. The rainfall aver- 
ages from twenty to twenty-two inches for the year. 

The " Chinook winds," already spoken of under Montana, 
periodical warm breezes from the southwest, blow up the channel 
of the Columbia river, through the fall and winter, and along the 
foot-hills of the Blue Mountains, and in a few hours remove 
every vestige of snow in their path. Their influence is felt all 
over Eastern Washington and Idaho and into Montana. 

Soi7, Vegetatio7i and Agrictdtural Productions. — The soil of 
Western Washington is of various qualities, and may be divided 
into river bottoms, lands along the sound, table-lands and moun- 
tain slopes. 

The alluvial farming lands are subject to overflow, near the 
sound, but not usually to an injurious extent. The freshets gen- 
erally occur during the months of January and June, and rarely 
last more than three or four days. The soil is composed of clay, 
sand and gravel — detritus washed from the mountains — ^^mingled 
with decayed vegetation, the rank growth of centuries. Under 
cultivation it is quick, light and friable, and yields astonishing 
crops of hay, grain, hops, fruits and vegetables. These lands are 
mostly covered with vine-maple, alder, crab-apple and salal, with 
an occasional fir, spruce or cedar, and as a rule are confined to 
narrow valleys and limited, detached areas. Being covered with 
this deciduous forest growth, they are not like prairie lands, 
where the plow can be started as soon as a claim is staked out — 
but as compared with the more heavily timbered uplands, they 
are easily cleared — at an approximate cost of ^10 to $1 5 per acre. 
The wood and lumber will usually pay for the work ; and, for 
farming purposes, the setder will find no more desirable location 
west of the Cascades. 

Between these bottoms and the mountains are large areas of 



jjQg OUR WESTERN EMPlkE. 

table-lands, quite level or gently undulating near the rivers; 
broken and rugged toward the foot-hills. The soil of these up- 
lands is inferior to that of the river lands, varying from sandy- 
loam to clay-loam and unproductive gravel. The growths here 
are principally fir and cedar, with some hemlock, maple, willow, 
cherry, etc. South and east of the sound is a district where 
coarse gravel is found, with occasional granite boulders, extend- 
ing back from the shore from ten to thirty miles in streaks and 
patches, and covering perhaps half the land. In the intervals the 
soil is a strong, brown clay-loam of excellent quality for farming. 
Owing to the durability of the fir and cedar, and the difficulty artd 
expense of removing their stumps from the ground, it will be a 
considerable time before the lands now covered with these fir 
forests will be cleared and devoted to agriculture — but fortu- 
nately the timber is worth far more to its owners and to the 
country than the best open prairie would be. Considering the 
great diversity of the soil and the wooded, broken character of 
the country. West Washington is likely to be a region of small 
farms, devoted to a variety of crops, rather than to growing grain 
or stock on a large scale. 

With the above explanation it is safe to say that in connection 
with the mild climate, the productive capacity of the soil of the 
Puget sound region is great, both as to quantity and quality. 
The small grains are at home in Washington Territory. The 
quality and yield of wheat on the Pacific slope are well known to 
be good, and in this regard Puget sound basin is no exception to 
the rule. Much of the finest portion of the grain that reaches 
the Eastern market as "California wheat" is grown in Washing- 
ton Territory and Northern Oregon. All other cereals arfe 
grown to perfection; oats are particularly plump and heavy. In- 
dian corn (maize) has been ripened thirteen years in succession 
in one locality, and as many as forty bushels to the acre have 
been raised, but this is exceptional, and as a rule the nights are 
too cool for the ripening of this crop. Pork is usually fattened 
upon peas, wheat and barley, and it is claimed can be made as 
cheaply as upon corn in the Western States. 

Fruits of all kinds, except the peach and the grape, are raised 



BEAVER DAM LANDS AND TIMBER. Cj'^^0 

in great profusion, and are remarkable for size and flavor. Al- 
though California fruit is jusdy in good reputation, Oregon and 
Washington apples are exported to San Francisco, where they 
bring an advanced price on account of their excellence. The 
potatoes and other vegetables grown on the north coast are also 
in hicfh favor in the San Francisco market. 

A resident of Washington Territory, who has had extraordi- 
nary facilities for acquiring personal knowledge of the lands there, 
says : 

** The agricultural lands of the Territory, while generally con- 
fined to the river bottoms, are not entirely so. It is frequently 
found that even on the sides, and sometimes near the summit of 
a hill or mountain, considerable tracts of rich beaver dam lands 
exist. A noticeable Instance is near the summit of the Immense 
hill immediately In the rear of Kalama. The river bottoms of 
the Columbia and its confluent streams, as well as the valley of 
the Cowlitz, contain large tracts of lands of unexcelled fertility. 
About midway between Kalama and Tacoma is the Chehalis 
Valley, embracing, with its confluents, over 2,000 square miles 
of the best agricultural lands in the Territory. This valley is to 
Washington what the Willamette is to Oregon. It varies in 
width from five to fifteen miles, and extends from the base of the 
Cascade Range to Gray's Harbor. Large quantities of rich lands 
lie in the bottoms of its lower tributaries. Flowing into Puget 
sound there are the Cedar, NIsqually and Puyallup rivers, on 
which are some fine arable lands. These river bottoms are 
usually sparsely timbered with alder, vine maple, crab apple, etc., 
which are quickly and easily cleared, at an expense ranging from 
five to thirty dollars per acre, and will then yield, on an average, 
from forty to sixty bushels of wheat per acre. The small grains 
are produced most abundantly, with a larger average yield than 
obtains In almost any other locality or section of the country, and 
command the highest market price at home. And so long as we 
have the large non-producing lumbering population, the farmers' 
market will be at home." 

Thnber. — At present the leading industry of the Puget sound 
region is the manufacture and shipment of timber. This timber 



J200 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

has carried its own fame to all parts of the world. In the East 
Indies, in Egypt, in the maritime States of Europe, in South Amer- 
ica, the Pacific Islands, China and Japan, the fir timber of 
Washington Territory is an article of commerce. 

Washington Territory, west of the Cascade Mountains, covers 
an area of about 20,000 square miles (exclusive of interior waters), 
three-fourths of which are timbered lands. The timber consists 
of yellow fir, cedar, pine, spruce, hemlock, oak, maple, cotton- 
wood, ash, dogwood, alder and some of the smaller varieties. 
The amount of the fir exceeds all the other varieties combined, 
and the cedar stands second in quantity. As the fir exceeds all 
other varieties in quantity, so also it does in utility, being valu- 
able for ship-building, house-building, fencing, spars, and indeed 
almost every purpose for which wood is used. 

The quantity of all kinds of lumber produced in the Territory, 
in 1875, was estimated at 250,000,000 feet, valued at ^3,000,000, 
and though the market for it was temporarily depressed, the 
demand is now rapidly increasing. 

The size of the fir trees and the number growing on given 
areas in good timber districts are almost incredible to those who 
have not visited the north Pacific coast. Trees are not uncom- 
mon which measure 300 feet in length, two-thirds of the distance 
being free from limbs. Fifty, sixty, and sometimes eighty good 
timber trees grow upon an acre of ground. It is not seldom that 
200,000 feet of merchantable fir lumber is taken from a single 
acre. The rule with Washington lumbermen has been to work 
no tract of (fir) timber producing less than 30,000 feet per acre. 

Although lumbering has been carried on along the shores of 
the sound for twenty years, up to the present time logs have sel- 
dom been hauled more than a mile — to the estuaries of the sound, 
or some convenient stream where rafts are prepared for towing 
to the mills. The main timber region of the sound and lower 
Columbia has not yet been invaded by the ax. Many rivers and 
arms of the sound extend into the very heart of this vast Forest 
Preserve, and by clearing the river channels of drift the spring 
freshets can be availed of to run out the logs to the mills and 
the lumber to market. 



ARABLE LANDS OF EASTERN WASHINGTON. 12OI 

The regular correspondent of the San Francisco Chronicle, 
writing under date of December i8, 1879, gives the following in- 
teresting account of the soil, situation and productions of Eastei'n 
Washington: Eastern Washington Territory is probably destined 
to become the richest and most renowned wheat-growing region 
in the world. The great body of its arable land is the southern 
portion, known locally as the Walla- Walla, Palouse and Yakima 
countries, which have an unbroken area more than 1 50 miles 
square, extending from the foot-hills of the Cascade Mountains 
'eastward to the Idaho boundary line, and from the Oregon line 
northward beyond the Great Bend of the Columbia river. But 
Eastern Washington in its entirety is distinctively an agricultural 
region of great fertility ; for, in addition to its vast scope of rolling 
prairies and plains in the southern and middle sections, there are 
in its more northerly portion, and extending as far as to the British 
possessions, numerous rich and well-watered valleys, such as the 
Chemakane and Colville Valleys, the latter of long-standing fame. 
Eastern Washineton has been described as the " valley of the 
Columbia river in Washington Territory, lying east of the Cas- 
cade Mountains." The appropriateness of this description will 
readily appear by an examination of the map, showing the courses 
of this river and its numerous tributaries. Here the climate is 
most" favorable to health, the soil yields the largest average re- 
turn of wheat, drought is unknown, the crops never fail, and the 
ultimate capacity for production of cereals of the highest grade 
has been estimated by good judges as high as 1 50,000,000 
bushels per annum. 

The Yakima country is in the southern central portion of the 

Territory, between the Cascade Mountains on the west and the 

Columbia river on the east, and embraces the northern half of 

Klickitat and all of Yakima counties. It is traversed by a river 

of the same name, which, rising in the northern central portion 

of the Territory, flows southeastward, and empties into the 

Columbia a short distance from Ainsworth, at the mouth of the 

Snake river, the present western terminus of the Pend d'Oreille 

division of the Northern Pacific Railroad. The fertility of the 

Yakima country is declared to be not inferior to that of any other 
76 



1202 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

part of this great wheat-field, not even excepting the Walla- Walla 
valley, farther east. The projected line of the Northern Pacific 
Railroad from the Columbia river at Ainsvvorth, across the 
mountains to Puget sound at Tacoma, passes through the heart 
of this region ; and the construction of a road over it is all that 
is needed to fill up the country speedily with a teeming popula- 
tion. It is yet sparsely settled, but new-comers in their prairie- 
schooners are fast encroaching upon its unoccupied lands. Its 
climate and soil are admirably adapted for stock-raising, which 
is the chief occupation of its inhabitants. The food for cattle is 
a very rich, nutritious bunch-grass, almost as strong as grain, 
with which the prairies and hills are covered throughout all 
seasons of the year ; and as the winters, with rare exceptions, 
are mild and dry, there is no need of housing and feeding the 
cattle, but they are without fear suffered to roam at will in the 
winter months, and grow fat on this remarkable grass. This 
bunch-grass is common all over that country, covering the foot- 
hills and plains alike, and sometimes even reaching to the moun- 
tain-tops. 

J. Ross Browne, in an official report, says, " For grazing, these 
table-lands and side-hills of Eastern Washington cannot be ex- 
celled. They are covered with a luxuriant growth of native bunch- 
grass, of nutritious quality. During the rains of spring it seems 
to attain its growth ; and through the dry season which follows, 
it stands to be cured into the best of hay, preserving its strength 
and esculent properties all winter. Stock abandon the green 
grass of the bottom-lands to feed upon it, and on it they keep 
fat the year round." The Yakima country produces the cattle 
for supplying the market on Puget sound and elsewhere in 
Western Washington, as well as in British Columbia, whither 
they are driven through the several passes in the mountains ; 
and large droves of exceptionally fat cattle go annually out to 
the Union Pacific Railroad, and are transported to Chicago. 
Such is the great value of this region for stock-raising ; but, as 
the soil is of a character and productiveness that invite the change, 
the cattle-range on the lowlands must give way before the more 
profitable Vi^heat-field, and confine itself higher up on the foot- 



THE WALL A- WALLA VALLEY. 1 203 

hills and mountain-sides. To the limited extent to which the 
Yakima country has gone in wheat-raising, it may safely chal- 
leno-e the best record of Illinois, Ohio, or any of the other East- 
ern or Middle States ; for it has performed some wonderful feats, 
as well as to quality and size of grain, as to the amount of yield 
per acre. The railroad only is needed. Even thus early in the 
agricultural history of Eastern Washington, it is to be recorded 
that the last crop was of such dimensions as to defy the present 
facilities for moving it to market ; the approach of cold weather 
and low water in the river, finding still on hand, in the store- 
houses at Wallula, a large residue of 20,000 tons — the year's 
production, there to remain until the opening of spring. This 
fact is a very persuasive appeal for the building of a railroad to 
Puget sound. 

Passing eastward from the Yakima across the Columbia, we 
enter the already famous Walla-Walla Valley, which is bounded 
on the south and east by the Blue Mountains, and on the west 
and north by the Columbia and Snake rivers. Its area runs into 
millions of acres, as does that of the Palouse country to the north 
of Snake river, watered by the Palouse river, and extending far 
northward to the Spokane. The Walla-Walla and Palouse coun- 
tries are being rapidly settled by people from all parts of the 
United States. These two regions of Southeastern Washington 
do not materially differ in their general character ; so little, in- 
deed, that a description of the soil, products, and climate of one, 
may answer for all three. The soil is of an appearance likely to 
surprise the average wheat-grower, being, except in the bottom- 
lands, a very light-colored loam, containing an unusually large 
percentage of the alkalies and fixed acids, and covering prac- 
tically the whole of Eastern W^ashington to a depth of from one 
to twenty feet. Near the base of the mountains it is mixed with 
a larger proportion of clay, which renders it somewhat darker in 
appearance; but in no respect does it resemble the black soils 
'of the Mississippi valley. One of the most remarkable features 
of this country is, that the soil on the tops of high hills yields as 
many bushels of wheat to the acre, as does that of the lowlands 
or prairies. This fact is sought to be explained by the theory, 



1204 ^^^^ WESTER A EMPIRE. 

that this soil on both hill and plain was once the bed of a system 
of lakes, and was greatly enriched by volcanic ashes blown from 
the Cascade Range, or thence carried by the streams into the 
lakes, and thus widely distributed over the entire basin, including- 
the hills in question, which are supposed to have been under 
water. In the Walla-Walla and Palouse countries, towns are 
springing up in all directions — mere trading-camps at the outset 
for the farmers who are crowding in round about ; and the hurry 
and flurry of settlement, and bustle and haste of preparation for 
wheat-raising, lends to some of the settlements an appearance 
resembling that of a mining-camp hastily pitched together, with 
many of the incidents common to the latter. The Palouse coun- 
try is traversed about through its centre by the Northern Pacific 
Railroad, Pend d'Oreille division, and extends from the Columbia 
at the mouth of the Snake, northeast to Spokane falls, about a 
hundred and fifty miles. To Dr. Bingham is credited the dis- 
covery that this was valuable agricultural land. Although it was 
subject to entry at a dollar and a quarter per acre, no one thought 
it worth taking, until the doctor got an idea to experiment. He 
planted twelve acres in alfalfa ; and, to the amazement of himself 
and neighbors, it grew more profusely and to a greater height 
than they had ever before known it to grow. Elated at this 
splendid success of his experiment, he at once set about procur- 
ing all the land he was able to buy, and is now said to be one of 
the most prosperous planters in the northwest. He tried wheat 
with a like brilliant result, securing an average yield per acre 
that paid for the land over and over again ; and thus suddenly 
the good people of that region were awakened to the astounding 
revelation that their vast expanse of country known as the Plains 
of the Columbia, and, indeed, the whole of Southeastern Wash- 
ington, instead of being, as it had always been regarded, an almost 
useless waste, had a wealth-producing capacity far exceeding that 
of all the gold and silver mines of California and Nevada. Im- 
mediately scores and hundreds of people jumped into the business 
of wheat-raising ; and the fame thereof went abroad, starting 
westward and northward large numbers of farming people, some 
going through California and by sea, but a larger proportion 



YIELD OF WHEAT IN WASHINGTON TERRITORY. 1205 

arriving- from surrounding Territories in their prairie-schooners 
drawn by oxen. The experience of Dr. Blalock near Walla- 
Walla illustrates what may be done in the way of farming in 
Washington Territory. He began comparatively poor a few 
years back, and has now the largest farm in the Territory. He 
has one large field of nearly two thousand acres, which was partly 
in wheat and partly in barley during the season just closed, and 
the average yield per acre is reported to have been forty bushels. 
At the last harvest, it was not regarded as extraordinary for 
particular fields to yield an average as high as forty-five and fifty 
and even sixty bushels to the acre. 

Of the enormous average yield of wheat on these " Great 
Columbia Plains," Mr. Philip Ritz, for fifteen years a farmer in 
the Walla-Walla valley, wrote in 1869: "I have seen large fields 
of wheat average fifty-six bushels to the acre, and weigh sixty- 
two pounds per bushel ; and have seen fields which yielded forty 
to fifty bushels per acre from a volunteer crop; that is, produced 
the second year from grains scattered out during harvest, sprout- 
ing during the fall and growing even without harrowing." Ten 
years later, in the autumn of 1879, the same gentleman wrote: 
" We are just about finishing our harvest, and such a harvest I 
am sure the world never saw before. Our * Great Columbia 
Plains,' famous for her magnificent wheat crops, has this year 
outdone herself She never had such a crop before. Our small, 
sparsely setded country has this year about two million bushels 
of surplus wheat. The average is reckoned by the best judges 
at from thirty to forty bushels per acre. My own judgment is 
that the whole country will go over thirty-six bushels to the 
^acre. A great many large fields will average over fifty, and a 
held that would not average over twenty-six is hardly considered 
worth cutting. There is probably no country in the world, 
climate and other advantages considered, equal to this for grow- 
ing wheat." In October, 1879, rnoJ'e than 20.000 tons of wheat 
were stored at Walla- Walla and vicinity awaiting shipment, the 
facilities for transportation on the Columbia river being inadequate 
for the carriage to that extent. 

A large part of this production was not on new lands, but on 



I206 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



lands which had been cultivated with the same crop for ten or 
twelve years. The crop of 1880 was still larger, and its net cash 
value to the farmers of Washington Territory is reckoned at over 
$9,000,000. 

Exports. — In addition to the exports of wheat already referred 
to, writes Governor Ferry in October, 1879, there have also 
been large exports of other cereals, wool, Hour, and live-stock 
from Eastern Washington. Large shipments of flour have been 
made direct from Walla- Walla to Liverpool. From the lower 
counties on the Columbia river there have also been exporta- 
tions of grain and canned salmon; of the latter, 160,000 cases, 
of forty-eight cans each. 

From Puget sound the exports have been lumber, coal, fish, 
grain, potatoes, wool, hops, hides, barrels, lime, etc. The export 
of coal for the past year has been 190,000 tons. 

The lumbering interests are somewhat depressed at present, 
owing to a falling off in the foreign demand. This depression 
is regarded as temporary only. 

Mamtfactures 7XXQ., of course, but of moderate extent in so new 
a Territory, and with as yet but a scanty population. The prin- 
cipal is lumber, of which 250,000,000 feet or more are produceci 
annually. There are many flouring mills, establishments for 
canning and barreling salmon and other fish, barrel factories, 
some of them of great extent, etc., etc. The production of man- 
ufactured goods in 1880 was about $8,000,000. 

Population. — The following table gives the population of Wash- 
ington Territory at different periods : 




>• 

c 


c 

.0 

3 
0. 




H 




Females. 




ll 

"■a 

.5 c 

■a " 

_o c 
"o-S 


> 

1 


c 

'I 


>> 

C 

Q 


li 
«i 

c 

"0 








>■ 

iT 
"■^ . 

s 5 



Of MilitaryAge .eigh- 
teen to forty-five, 
males. 

Of Voting Age, twen- 

ly-one and upwards, 

males. 


S 

c 




i860 
1870 
1878 
1879 
1880 


n,594 

37.432* 

64,411* 

72,052* 

89,388* 


8,446 1 3,148 ' 11,138 
M,99ot| 8,965!, 22,195 


456 
15.237 


8,450 ! 3.144 
18,931 j 5.024 


0.06 
0-34 
0.92 
1.03 

1. 28 


106.61 
72.10 
11.86 
24.1,6 


438 
1.307 


2,279' 5.880 
7.060; 7,835 

12,997: 


6,i66 
9,24' 


4,231 
7.9-^2 




16,028 
22,039 






45,977 


29.143 


67.349 


59,259 j 15,861 









* Including 13,477 tribal Indians on reservations in the Territory. 
" 13,960 " " " " " 

14,268 " " " " " 

" 14,268 " " " " " 



t Sex of Indians not gi vea. 



INDIAN TRIBES. 1 207 

The population of the Territory is, to a very large extent, com- 
posed of citizens of the Eastern States, with a moderate propor- 
tion of sturdy and industrious Scandinavians and Germans, and 
some English, Irish, Scotch and British-Americans. 

Indian Tribes and their Reservations. — There were, in the 
autumn of 1879, 14,268 tribal Indians in Washington Territory. 
They were collected on seven reservations, under as many dis- 
tinct agents, and belonged to forty-three or forty-four bands or 
sub-tribes, many of them of most unpronounceable names. All 
of the tribes of this region belong to the Athabascan family, and 
their languages have, for the most part, a sharp click, which dis- 
tinouishes them from most of the other tribes of the West. 
There was a severe war with the Indians in 1855, when they had 
nearly double their present numbers ; but since their defeat at 
that time, they have been generally very quiet and friendly to 
the whites. In May, 1879, the non-treaty Indians in Eastern 
Washington were removed to a reservation on the west side of 
the Okinakane river, in Stevens county. These Indians have 
made e^eater advances in civilization than most of those farther 
east. Of the 14,268, 11,763 wear citizens' dress; 1,548 families 
are engaged in agriculture ; 3,444 male Indians are engaged in 
other civilized pursuits ; 980 houses are occupied by Indians, and 
of these houses 82 were built during the year; 510 of their chil- 
dren, 255 of each sex, were in school in 1879. The government 
spends ^28,783 annually for their education. Of the adult In- 
dians, 802 can read. They have 18 church edifices and 11 mis- 
sionaries among them. The land of all their reservations amounts 
to 3,933,504 acres, of which 145,662 is reported tillable, and nearly 
all the rest good grazing land. A fair proportion of them are 
good farmers. Over 10,000 acres are cultivated, and they raised, 
in 1879, 46,950 bushels of wheat; 3,080 bushels of corn ; 16,265 
bushels of oats and barley ; 36,810 bushels of vegetables ; 3,1 79 
tons of hay ; and they own 23,213 horses and mules (very few of 
the latter) ; 8,1 78 cattle ; 1,182 swine, and 408 sheep. A fair per- 
centage of them earn from one-half to the whole of their living by 
civilized pursuits. 

Education. — The Territory is awake to the advantages oi public 



I2o8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

school education. The school lands have not as yet been sold 
in sufficient amounts to afford anything more than a nucleus for a 
school fund, but a beginning- has been made. We have no offi- 
cial reports of a date later than 1877, since which time education 
as well as population has made a great advance there. At that 
time there were 12,997 children of school age, of whom 5,385 
were enrolled in the public schools. There were 262 school- 
houses and school-rooms, and the average duration of the schools 
in days was 130 days. There were 279 teachers employed, of 
whom 134 were men and 145 women. The average monthly 
pay of the men was ^^40, and of the women ^30. The amount 
received and expended for school purposes was about ^50,000. 
There were graded schools in the principal towns, a normal de- 
partment in Washington University, covering two years' instruc- 
tion ; and schools of higher instruction at Walla- Walla, Seattle 
and some other points. The University of Washington Terri- 
tory, at Seattle, is a part of the public school system, and is aided 
by the Territorial Legislature. It had, in 1879, eleven instructors 
and professors, 120 students, and four courses of study. It has 
the nucleus of a library and museum, and an appropriation has 
been made for necessary apparatus. The Holy Angels' College, 
at Vancouver, in this Territory, is a Roman Catholic institution, 
having, in 1878, four professors and eighty-five students, and a 
library of nearly 1,000 volumes. 

Counties and Principal Towns. — Olympia, the capital, has about 
3,000 inhabitants; Walla-Walla, between 4,000 and 5,000; Se- 
attle and Steilacoom nearly as many; while Port Townsend, 
Vancouver, Kalama, Tacoma, and in Eastern Washington, Ains- 
worth, Wallula, Palouse, Spokane Falls and Colville are thriving 
and growing towns. 

Religions Denominations a?id Public Morals. — No one of the 
States and Territories of "Our Western Empire" has a better 
moral and religious record than Washington Territory. Settled 
very largely by the best people from New England and the 
Middle States, its churches and religious institutions have more 
nearly kept pace with the growth and progress of the population 
than those of any other part of the West. In 1875, ^"^ith a pop- 



RELIGIOUS DE NOMINA TIONS. 



1209 



ulatlon estimated at not more than 36,000, there were 94 church 
organizations, 72 church edifices, 58 clergymen, priests or minis- 
ters, 2,398 communicants, and 21,465 adherent population, and 
church property valued at ^105,700. Since 1875 ^^^ population 
of the Territory has more than doubled, and from the character 
of that increase, and the sacrifices it calories in making to establish 
religious institutions at the earliest possible moment, we are 
warranted in believino- that the churches and religious denomi- 

o o 

nations have kept pace with the population in their growth. Of 
these denominations the Methodists, under two or three distinct 
organizations, are here, as in most of the States and Territories 
of the West, the most numerous. The census of 1870 recognized 
only two, viz.: "Methodists" and "United Brethren in Christ." 
Tt may be, there were no Southern Methodist churches then, but 
there were certainly Protestant and probably Primitive Metho- 
dists there, as well as some Albrights or Evangelical Association 
Methodists there then and now. Of all these, the present num- 
ber cannot be less than 68 churches, with about 50 church edifices, 
about 38 ministers, 3,000 members, and at least 1 5,000 adherents. 
Their church property might safely be reckoned at ^60,000. The 
Catholics were next in 1875, ^^^ ""^S-Y be now, but at a long in- 
terval, with possibly 32 congregations, 30 church edifices, and the 
same number of priests, an adherent population of about 13,000, 
and church property worth ^35,000. The Baptists and the Chris- 
tian Connection come next, with at least 35 congregations, per- 
haps 28 church edifices, and about the same number of ministers, 
a combined membership of about 1,100, and an adherent popu- 
lation of over 6,000, and church property worth about ^18,000. 
After these come in their order Episcopalians, Presbyterians, 
Congregationalists and five or six smaller denominations, the 
whole having an adherent population in all of perhaps 10,000 or 
I 2,000. It is safe to say that five-eighths of the population are 
nominally, at least, the adherents of some religious denomina- 
tion. 



J2IO ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Population and Valuation of Washington Territory in 1878, 1879 and 1880. 



POPULATION. 



Counties. 



Columbia. 
Chehalis . 
Clallam . . 
Clarke .. 
Cowlitz.. 
Island.... 
Jefferson. 
Klickitat 

King 

Kitsap .. 
Lewis. ... 



Mason 

Pacific 

Pierce 

San Juan. . . . 

Skamania. . . . 
Snohomish .. 

Spokane 

Stevens 

Thurston. . . . 
Wakiakum . . 
Walla Walla . 
Wliiitcom . . . 
Whitman. . . . 
Yakima .... 



5,820 
720 
370 

1,288 

'.783 
600 

'.577 

'.999 

5,543 

1,548 

1,806 

520 

1,411 

2,801 

700 

221 

1,042 



Total. 



2,971 

569 

5,701 

2,115 

3-709 
1,711 



1879. 



o,t>94 

808 

469 

4,294 

1,810 

633 

1.427 

2,898 

5.183 

1,799 

2,093 

560 

1,351 

3,051 

838 

495 

1,080 



2,601 

3,246 

504 

6,215 

2.331 
5,290 
1,912 



7.103 
921 
638 
5,490 
2,063 
1,087 
1. 712 
4,037 
6,910 
1.738 
2,600 
639 
1.645 
3,319 
948 
8=9 
1,387 
4,262 
1,245 
3,278 
1,600 
8,716 
3,137 
7.014 
2,811 



57.784 



75,120* 



VALUATION. 



;if292,9i8 00 
132,362 00 
869,173 00 

1,521,434 00 
750,200 00 
391,570 00 
512,025 00 

2,242,804 00 
989,780 46 
570,313 00 
668,897 00 
364,138 00 
362,380 00 

1,736,797 00 
154,268 00 
117,519 00 
382,219 00 



341,652 00 
1,652,848 00 
144,428 50 
2,711,010 00 
612,202 00 
819,142 00 
589,585 00 



1879. 



154,351 00 
924,100 00 

1,948,050 00 
968,170 00 
372,821 00 
468,191 00 

1,997,670 00 

1,044,673 00 
732,737 00 
743,571 00 
570,331 00 
379,258 00 

1,669,444 00 
182,147 00 
143,703 00 
390,754 00 
484,306 00 

1,627,184 00 
158, 6c6 00 

2,971,560 00 
735,003 00 

1,237,189 00 
811,932 00 



18,930,964 96 I 21,019,832 00 



Historical Data. — The region about Puget sound was a favorite 
resort of the Indian tribes for centuries. Both the hunting and 
fishing were such as to render the regular supply of food easy 
and certain. In 1840 there were 25,000 Indians who claimed 
Puget sound as their home. The number in the whole Territory 
is now but a little more than half as many, and the greater part 
of these are now domiciled along the upper Columbia river. As 
we have already said under Oregon, the Straits of San Juan de 
Fuca were first entered by a Greek navigator of that name in 
the Spanish service, in 1592 ; the coast was revisited in 1775 by 
Heceta, a Spanish navigator, and in 1787 and 1788 two English 
captains, Berkeley and Meares, successively entered the straits, 
and the latter revived the name of the old Greek discoverer. The 
priority of discovery of the coast and the straits certainly lay with 
the Spanish. In 1789 an American, Captain Robert Gray, in the 
sloop " Washington," discovered and entered several of the 
smaller bays and harbors along the coast, both in the Straits of 
San Juan de Fuca and below; and in 1790 Captain Kendrick, in 



♦Tribal Indians not included. 



HISTORICAL DATA. 12 n 

the same vessel, passed through the entire length of the Straits 
of San Juan de Fuca. In 1791 Captain Gray returned to the 
coast, and discovered and explored and gave his name to Gray's 
Harbor. It was in this same year also that he discovered and 
ascended the Columbia river about thirty miles. In 1805 Lewis 
and Clarke reached and explored the coast from the land side, 
having crossed the continent for that purpose. Meanwhile the 
tide of the United States to the whole region watered by the Co- 
lumbia river was further fortified by the settlement of Astoria, at 
the mouth of that river, by Mr. J. J. Astor, in 181 1, and the dtle 
was perfected as against any European power by the treaty of 
Florida with Spain In 18 19, which expressly ceded to the United 
States all the rights, claims and pretensions of the King of Spain 
to any Territory north of the forty-second parallel of north lad- 
tude. The Hudson's Bay Company attempted to take possession 
of it between 1825 and 1830, and from 1828 to 1841 it was held 
in joint occupancy by Great Britain and the United States, with- 
out prejudice to the tide of either. The Ashburton Treaty of 
1845 finally setded the right of the United States to the Territory 
up to the line of 49° north ladtude, except at the Straits of San 
Juan de Fuca and the Gulf of Georgia. It was understood by 
that treaty that the American tide took to the middle of the chan- 
nel of those waters ; but as there were several channels and some 
valuable islands in controversy, the matter was definitely and 
finally setded by arbitration In 1873, the Emperor of Germany 
being arbiter. American setders began to come Into the Terri- 
tory in 1845. It was originally a part of Oregon Territory, but 
was organized as a separate Territory In 1853, and had a severe 
Indian war In 1855. From 1859 to 1863 it included most of 
Idaho Territory, but since that time it has had its present bound- 
aries. 

Conclusion. — It may be inferred from our sketch of Washing- 
ton Territory that we regard it as a very desirable region for 
immigrants who desire to engage in farming, stock-raising, the 
preparation of dmber or lumber for the market, or the packing 
and exportadon of fish. Its mining districts are not yet developed 
to such an extent as to justify any immigration to diem, but for 



I2I2 ^*^'^' WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the Other pursuits, and for many of the trades, there is certainly 
no section of "Our Western Empire" which offers greater 
opportunities for success to an enterprising and energetic man. 
As to the best route thither there is some room for an honest 
difference of opinion now, and will be more in a few months. 
Probably the best plan now is to take passage for San Francisco 
either by rail or by the Isthmus of Panama. From San Francisco 
a steamer may be taken for Portland, Oregon, and if by the 
Oregon Railway and Navigation Company's line, and it is desired 
to go to Eastern Washington Territory the immigrant can pur- 
chase a through ticket to Walla-Walla, or to any point on the 
Pend d'Oreille division of the Northern Pacific, or to the termini 
of the narrow gauge railroads from Ainsworth, Walla-Walla or 
Wallula, If, on the other hand, his destination is to any point in 
Western Washington, he should not go on to Portland, Oregon, 
but land at Kalama some forty miles nearer the mouth ot the 
Columbia river, and take the Northern Pacific thence to Olympia, 
Tacoma or Wilkeson. If his destination is to Western Wash- 
ington he may, if he chooses, take the Puget sound steamer 
from San Francisco and land at Bellingham bay, Port Townsend, 
Seattle, Tacoma or Olympia. These routes are long and some- 
what wearisome, but safe and without other difficulties. There 
will soon be two other routes available. The best and most 
direct will be by way of the Northern Pacific, either from Duluth 
or Chicago, through Minnesota, Dakota, Montana and Idaho, 
which will traverse Eastern Washington diagonally from north- 
east to southwest, cross by one branch (the Cascade Mountain 
division) from Eastern to Western Washington, and make its 
terminus at Tacoma on Puget sound, while the Columbia River 
division will follow the north bank of the Columbia, and sending a 
branch to Portland. Oregon, traverse by the Pacific division the 
greater part of Western Washington. More than one-half of 
this long route is already completed, and with the ample funds 
they have at command this company will probably have the whole 
in operation by the spring of 1883. 

The other route by the Union Pacific and Utah and Northern, 
in connection with the Oregonian railway (limited), is not yet fully 



SITUATION OF WYOMING TERRITORY. 



I213 



laid out, but will probably penetrate Southeastern Washington, 
and its principal connections will be with Portland, Oregon. 
With the completion of these lines Washington Territory will 
be as easily and readily accessible as Utah, Nevada, New Mexico 
or Arizona, and for a quiet and pleasant home much more 
desirable. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

WYOmm TERRITORY. 

Situation — Boundaries — Length and Breadth — Form — Area — Topography 
— Mountains — Elevation of various Points — Rivers, Lakes, etc. — Re- 
markable Character of its Drainage— Its Waters Discharged into the 
Pacific by the Columbia River, into the Gulf of California by the 
Colorado, into the Salt Lake Basin by the Bear River, into the Upper 
Missouri by the Madison and Gallatin, into the Middle of Missouri 
by the Yellowstone and Big Cheyenne, into the Lower Missouri by 
the Niobrara and Platte, and into the Gulf of Mexico by all these — 
Geology and IMineralogy — Coal — Petroleum — Gold and Silver — Other 
Metals — Mining of Precious Metals not much Developed— ^Marble and 
OTHER Mineral Products — Forests, Soil and Vegetation — Zoology — 
Climate — Meteorology of Cheyenne — Agricultural Productions and 
Stock-raising — Manufactures and Mining — Mining Products — Rail- 
ways, Existing and Projected — Population and its Distribution — 
Education — Religious Denominations — Counties — Area — Population in 
1880, AND Valuation in 1877 — Principal Towns — Objects of Interest — 
The Yellowstone National Park made a Separate Chapter — Historical 
Notes — Early Spanish Occupation of Wyoming — Discovery of Arastras 
AND Spanish Buildings — Father de Smet — Captain Bridger— His Occu- 
pation running back to a time " When Laramie Peak hadn't begun to 
Grow" — Organization of the Territory — Indian Conflicts — The Cus- 
ter Massacre — Advantages of Wyoming for certain Classes of Immi- 
grants — Prospects in the near Future. 

Wyoming Is one of the central Territories of '* Our Western 
Empire," both in its position on an east and west line, and in its 
relations to the States and Territories north and south of it. It 
lies between the 41st and the 45th parallels of north latitude, 
and between the 104th and iiith meridians of west longitude 
from Greenwich. It is bounded on the north by Montana, on 



1 2 14 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the east by Dakota and Nebraska, including in the northeast a 
considerable portion of the Black Hills region ; on the south by 
Colorado and Utah ; and on the west by Utah, Idaho and 
Montana. Its length from east to west is 335 miles, its width 
from north to south is 276 miles. It is a perfect parallelogram, 
all its boundaries being astronomico-geographical lines. Its area 
is 97,883 squares miles, or 62,645,1 20 acres, of which, up to June, 
1879, only about one-seventh had been surveyed. 

Topography. — The main divide of the Rocky Mountains, which, 
after traversing Northwestern Montana, turned suddenlv south- 
westward and formed the southeast boundary of Idaho, separates 
again into two chains at the Yellowstone park, and enters Wyom- 
ing from the northwest in two distinct and nearly parallel ranges, 
the easternmost being known as the Shoshone range, and the 
westernmost as the Wind River range. Near the forty-third 
parallel, the Big Horn Mountains, a somewhat lower range from 
the north-northeast, meets them almost at a right angle, and from 
this point to the Colorado line both ranges break into a number 
of mountain groups extending in all directions, and rendering it 
difficult to define which has the best right to the name of the 
main range of the Rocky Mountains. Among the groups of this 
confused mountain mass may be named, beside the Big Horn 
range already mentioned, the Owl Creek Mountains, a spur of 
the Shoshone range, the Rattlesnake Mountains, and the Laramie 
Mountains, still farther east; the Sweet- Water and the Seminole 
Mountains, which seem to be continuations of the Wind River 
range. Near the forty-second parallel these mountain ranges 
subside into an elevated plateau from 8,000 to 9,000 feet above 
the sea, with occasional elevated summits, risino- a^ain to hi<Ther 
elevations on either side of the North Park in Colorado. This 
elevated plateau extends westward and southwestward to the 
foot-hills of the Bear River range on the west, and the Uintah 
Mountains on the south, both in Utah Territory. In the south- 
east there are the Medicine Bow Mountains, and some isolated 
peaks, like Laramie Peak, Iron Mountain, the Red Buttes, etc.; 
and in the northwest the Heart Mountains and the isolated peaks 
of the Yellowstone Park. In the northeast, east of the Big Horn 



MOUNTAINS, RIVERS AND LAKES. 121 < 

and north of the Laramie Mountains, there is an extended plateau 
of 4,000 to 7,000 feet elevation, rising at the east into the Black 
Hills, and in the northeast and north to the Powder River ranee 
and the Wolf Mountains. 

The highest elevation in the Territory is probably Snow's 
Peak, in the Wind River Range, which is reported as 13,570 
feet; the next is Gilbert's Peak, 13,250; Cloud Peak probably 
exceeds 13,000; and Lake Carpenter, in the Big Horn Moun- 
tains, is 11,000 feet above the sea. The average elevation of 
Yellowstone Park is 7,403 feet. The highest summit in the 
Wyoming portion of the Black Hills is Harney's Peak, 7,700 
feet, while Red Buttes, in the southeastern part of the Territory, 
is 7,336 feet, and Laramie City, 7,123 feet. Laramie Peak is 
10,000 feet and possibly a little more. 

Rivei's and Lakes. — No State or Territory of "Our Western 
Empire," or of the United States, is drained by streams which 
find their way to such widely separated seas, as Wyoming. In 
the northwest and west the Shoshone lake and its outlet through 
Jackson lake, the Gros Ventres creek, and the John Gray river, 
are all tributaries to the Lewis fork of Snake river, itself one of 
the constituents of the Columbia river, and these waters find 
their way to the Pacific by that route. In the southwest Bear 
river traverses Uintah county for fifty miles, and, flowing north- 
northwest around the range of the same name, turns suddenly 
south and discharges its waters into the Great Salt lake of the 
Utah Basin. Far up in the Wind River range the Green river 
has its sources, and receiving ten or a dozen affluents, flows 
southward through Northwestern Colorado and Eastern Utah to 
its junction with the Grand river, with which it forms the Rio 
Colorado of the West, and discharges its waters into the Gulf of 
California. In the northwest of the Territory we find the Madi- 
son and Gallatin, two of the sources of the Missouri, both rising 
in the Yellowstone National Park; the Yellowstone river, the 
largest tributary of the Missouri, rising in the Wind River Moun- 
tains, and traversing Yellowstone National Park and the Yellow- 
stone lake ; East fork, Clarke's fork, the Big Horn river and 
its numerous branches; the Tongue river, the Powder river and 



I2i6 O^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

its tributaries, all affluents of the Yellowstone ; while the Little 
Missouri, the North fork or Belle Fourche river, and the Big 
Cheyenne with its forks and branches ; the Eau qui Court or 
Niobrara and the North fork of the Platte river, which traverses 
half the Territory, are all affluents of the Missouri below the 
mouth of the Yellowstone, watering the northern, eastern and 
southeastern portions of the Territory. All of these carry their 
waters to the Gulf of Mexico. 

There are two lakes of considerable size, Yellowstone and 
Shoshone, in the Yellowstone National Park, and several of 
somewhat smaller dimensions, in the southern and central por- 
tions of the Territory. 

Geology and Mineralogy. — The crests, and, Indeed, the bulk 
of the mountain masses of all the ranges of the Territory are 
eozoic, being composed mainly of red feldspathic granite and 
syenite and gneiss, while the lower slopes are silurian, forming 
narrow belts around the higher mountain slopes. To these suc- 
ceed the more distinctly fossiliferous formations, Devonian, car- 
boniferous, triassic, Jurassic and cretaceous rocks, succeeding 
each other in regular order. Between the Big Horn and Wind 
River Ranges, the plateau is mainly carboniferous, triassic and 
Jurassic, with a small tract of cretaceous groups in the centre. 
The elevated plains are mostly cretaceous, but overlaid with ter- 
tiary sands, gravel and drift, with occasionally extensive deposits 
of lignite or brown coal. The coal beds aloncj^ and near the 
Union Pacific Railway, near Evanston, at Rockspring, from Point 
of Rocks to Table Rock, at Carbon Station, and, indeed, all along 
that road, are probably lignite, as they occur in tertiary deposits, 
but they differ in appearance and quality from the European lig- 
nites, containing from fifty to seventy-six per cent, of fixed carbon, 
and are equal to most of the best bituminous coals for all pur- 
poses of combustion. Some of them are true coking coals. They 
are used not only on the Union and Central Pacific Railways, but 
in the villaofes and towns on the line of those roads between 
Omaha and San Francisco. Recently the coal of Utah and Col- 
orado has come in competition with them, and that of New Mexico 
will do so. The consumption of Wyoming coal in 1876 was 



GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY OF WYOMING. 12 17 

524,000 tons, and has since largely increased. But if these coal 
beds in Southern Wyoming are lignite, there is undoubtedly an 
abundance of true coal, from the coal measures of the carbonif- 
erous era, on the North fork of Platte river, above and below Fort 
Fetterman, at the head waters, and, indeed, along the whole line 
of Powder river, on the North fork or Belle Fourche river, and 
on the Big Cheyenne. There is also reason to believe that it 
will be found on the plateau between the Wind river and Big 
Horn Mountains. 

At numerous points throughout the Territory there have been 
found petroleum springs, and wells have been sunk which have 
proved moderately profitable. These springs have been found 
on the Bear river, in the extreme southwest of the Territory, at 
several points on the North fork of Platte river, particularly near 
South Pass City, and near Fort Casper, and on the branches of 
the Big Cheyenne. The petroleum springs, near South Pass 
City, are said to yield a very large supply, and are adding mate- 
rially to the freight receipts of the Union Pacific. 

The precious metals are found at many points in the Territory, 
gold predominating, either in placers or in quartz veins in most 
cases, though in a few instances silver and gold occur together. 
On Crow creek, twenty miles west of Cheyenne, in the Seminole 
Mountains, and on the eastern slope of the Big Horn Mountains, 
and at some other points, silver (argentiferous galena) has been 
discovered in proximity to the gold. In the Bear Lodge Range, 
in the Black Hills, at Inyan Kara and other points in that region, 
in the vicinity of Laramie Peak, directly north of the North Park 
in Colorado, in the Sweet Water Mountains, on the Wind river, 
and at the sources of Crazy Woman's fork, quartz mines, yielding 
fair amounts of gold, as well as rich placers, have been found. 
Doubtless these deposits are not as rich nor as actively worked 
as those of some of the other States and Territories adjacent; 
for all of the mining enterprises of Wyoming have been but lan- 
guidly pushed, either from the want of men, of means, of water, 
or of yield sufficient to stimulate active enterprise. The whole 
gold and silver production of Wyoming, which was known to 
have been deposited in the mints and assay offices of the United 

77 



J2i8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

States from the first discovery of gold and silver there to June 
30, 1880, was but ^728,760.33. Doubtless considerable amounts 
were sent through other States and Territories, and some was 
not deposited; but even if we allow as much more for these con- 
tingencies, the amount would be but litde more than ^125,000 
per year. 

Of other metals and minerals, several ores of iron, particularly 
haematite, magnetic oxide, and red oxide of superior quality, occur 
in immense quantities. The red oxide, at Rawlins' Springs, is 
used for making a mineral paint of great excellence. Copper 
and lead are found in paying quantities, but are not as yet de- 
veloped. Near Laramie City are a cluster of lakes which yield 
a pure sulphate of soda, many feet in thickness; and about sixty 
miles north of Rawlins are two soda lakes, estimated to contain 
125,000 tons of carbonate of soda of great purity. There are 
also soda springs near Fort Bridger and at other points in the 
Territory. 

Sulphur deposits and sulphurous springs occur at many points. 
Wyoming claims that she has the finest beds of statuary marble 
in the United States, twenty-five miles north of Laramie, and 
easily accessible by way of Cooper Lake Station, on the Union 
Pacific Railway. 

Forests, Soil and Vegetation. — The explorations of Professor 
Hayden and his party, and those of still later surveyors and ex- 
plorers, justify the estimate that there are not less than 6,000,000 
acres of arable lands, and that the grazing lands are not far 
from 35,000,000 acres. Most of the arable lands require irrigation 
for successful culdvadon, but this is easily obtainable in all the 
lands fit for cultivation ; and under its influence, even the alkaline 
and sage brush lands yield bountiful crops. 

The grazing lands are very generally covered with buffalo 
grass, and even the desert lands have an abundance of the white 
sage brush, which, after it is touched with the frost, is preferred 
by cattle to almost any other food. The mountains are clothed 
with a thick growth of pine, spruce and hemlock trees, of large 
size ; the foot-hills have some pine, spruce, aspen, walnut, elm, 
ash, box-elder, hackberry, and red cedar of smaller growth, while 



ZOOLOGY AND CLIMATE. 1 2 19 

the river bottoms are abundantly supplied with two species of 
Cottonwood and thickets of willows. There are considerable 
tracts of alkaline lands among them. The United States Ex- 
ploring Expedition, under Professor Hayden, described and 
named 195 species of plants, many of them peculiar to the 
Territory. 

Zoology. — The wild animals of Wyoming are : the grizzly bear 
(not very common), black bear, gray wolf, prairie wolf, or coyote, 
badger, wolverine, otter, fisher, porcupine, mink, skunk, little 
ermine, buffalo, elk (more abundant in Wyoming and Colorado 
than anywhere else in the West), mule, or black- tailed deer, the 
common deer, bighorn, or mountain sheep, prong horn antelope, 
the Rocky Mountain goat, or goat antelope, four species of hare 
or rabbits, four of squirrels, two of prairie dogs, gopher, muskrat, 
two species of mouse, etc. In all, more than thirty species of 
mammals have been described in the Territory, and 1 24 species 
of birds, including twelve or thirteen birds of prey ; many game 
birds, including a dozen or more of the duck and teal family, six 
species of grouse, ptarmigan, etc., and a large number of song 
birds ; there are more than eighty species of mollusks. Reptiles 
are not numerous. Trout are abundant in the mountain streams, 
and other fresh water food fishes are plentiful. 

Climate, — The average mean temperature of the whole Terri- 
tory is about 44° Fahrenheit. In the mountains it is, in some years 
as low as 36°, while on the plains in the east it averages 45° to 
46°, and in the Green river region, in the southwest, it is about 
42°. The summers are, for the most part, cool and comfortable, 
though in some years the temperature rises to 103° in the hottest 
part of the day. The nights are cool. The cold of winter is at 
times intense, the winds and snow sweeping over the vast plains 
with almost irresistible fury. The "blizzard" is a painfully fami- 
liar term in the winter months. The mercury falls from 15° to 
25° below zero. Stock requires to be sheltered for two or three 
months, though stock-raisers too often neglect this, to their great 
loss. The annual rainfall ranges from 8 to 13.5 inches, and it is 
an objection, though not an insuperable one, to the settlement of 
the Territory, for irrigation can be resorted to at less expense 



I220 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



and with as much certainty of good crops resulting as in any 
State or Territory of "Our Western Empire." We give below 
the meteorology of Cheyenne, which is nearly a fair average of 
that of the whole Territory. 

Meteorology of Cheyenne, Wyoming Territory. 

Latitude, 41° 12' north. Longitude, 104° 42'. Elevation above sea, 6,057.25 feet. 



Date. - 

Months. 



1877. 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

1878. 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

Totals for year 

1878. 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

.879. 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

Totals for year 



Temperature. 



u.ii 

u S 

B ° 



70.2 
67.9 
56.2 
40.0 
30.1 
28.9 



25-3 
30-9 
38.7 

43-5 
47-9 
58.6 



44-8 



45-8 



96 



92 I 32 

92 1— 15 



Barom- 
eter. 



039 
.073 

993 
973 
,942 

■953 



29.S76 
29.780 
20.868 

29773 
29.907 
30.025 



Winds. 





B 


_s 







e-6 
















tn 


s 




-as 


u >. 










S " 


•^^ 




u,-^ 




■SH 


c u 




= j: 






5* 




1- 






29-933 



049 

094 

023 

976 



s. 
s. 
w. 
w. 
w. 
w. 



N.W. 
N.W. 
N.W 

N.W. 
N.W. 
N.W. 



N.W. 



S. 
N.W. 

N.W. 
N.W. 
N.W. 
N.W. 



896 I N.W. 

876 W. 

957 i N.W. 

925 N.,N.W.,&W 
947 S. 

q6i W. 



N.W. 



6,621 
6,398 
6,654 
7,005 
8,970 
7,15s 



8,707 

4,857 
5,288 



Humidity. 









o u 
E-S 
< 



1^ 



™ u 
•O o 



inches. 

43 

.83 
02 

99 
17 
33 



0.19 
4.46 
1.71 



'•43 
2.50 

0.7s 
0.04 
0.00 
0.19 



0.32 
0.20 
0.44 
1.66 
1.30 
0.07 



8.90 



perct 
31 

36 



52.1 
48.4 
58.9 
48.9 
58.3 
57-9 



50.8 



52.1 

59-2 
5J.4 
46.6 
55-3 
65.9 



61.3 

52-5 
44.2 
52.1 
41.6 

33-4 



51-3 



Agricultural Productions and Stock- Raising. — It is impossible 
ro give any very definite estimates of the amount of agricultural 
productions of Wyoming Territory, until the census report on 
that subject is made public. There is very litde land in the Ter- 
ritory which at the present time will produce good crops without 
irrigation, and the poorest arable lands of the Territory lie along 



STOCK-RAISING IN WYOMING. 1 22 I 

the route of the Union Pacific. The valleys in the Big Horn 
and Wind River Mountains, especially the former, are very fertile 
and easily irrigated. Probably not more than 300,000 acres of 
the 6,000,000 acres of fertile lands are as yet under cultivation, per- 
haps even less than that. Good crops of the cereals, except In- 
dian corn ; potatoes and other root crops, and some of the varieties 
of sorghum, can be grown here; and when once the tide of devel- 
opment begins, Wyoming will be able to provide breadstuffs and 
vegetables for her own markets, and very possibly a surplus for 
the general market. 

Her live-stock production is more encouraging. More than 
one-half of the area of the Territory is well adapted to grazing, 
and the buffalo-ofrass and bunch-orrass are the best and most 
nutritious food for cattle to be found anywhere on the continent. 
The stock-growers have not given so much attention as they 
should to improving the breeds of their cattle and sheep, pur- 
chasing^ Texas cows and steers and fatteninor them for market, 
though some of them are now introducing Durham. Devon and 
Holstein bulls, and improving their poor and scrawny Mexican 
sheep by an infusion of the best Merino, Southdown, Cotswold 
or Lincoln blood ; but a large majority content themselves with 
raising Texan steers, which, at four years old, sell for ^28, when, 
at an expense of not more than fifty cents per head more, they 
might raise a grade Devon or Durham steer, which at the same 
age would bring ^45 ; or, if they are sheep-farmers, will rear the 
Mexican sheep, which will yield from two and a half to three and 
a half pounds of long, coarse wool, when they might, for fifteen 
cents a head more, raise a grade Cotswold or Merino, which would 
yield from five to seven pounds of better wool. In 1877 a careful 
examination indicated that there were 150,000 cattle and 100,000 
sheep in the Territory. General Brisbin thinks that in 1880 
there were about 250,000 cattle and over 200,000 sheep there. 
The cattle sent to Chicago and St. Louis from Wyoming in 1880 
brought a little more than ^2,000,000, and the wool about $250,- 
000. The number of horses is rapidly increasing, and several 
wealthy stock -growers have gone into this business very largely. 
There are probably 100,000 horses and mules in the Territory. 



1222 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



The Territory is less favorable for swine-breeding, and there has 
not been much done in that line. 

Manufactures and Mining. — Manufactures are yet in their in- 
fancy in the Territory. In 1870 the products of manufactures 
were stated in the census as $874,824. In 1877 Mr. Robert E. 
Strahorn, after careful inquiry, estimated the amount of products at 
$3,9 1 8, 1 20. The largest items were machinery, railroad repairing, 
etc., which amounted to $1,429,420; railroad ties, poles, posts, 
etc., $455,360; sawed lumber, $345,000; sales of tanned robes, 
hides and furs, $295,000; charcoal, $240,000; and milled quartz, 
$215,000; and blacksmithing, $235,500; in all, about $3,200,000 
of the $3,900,000 in manufactures, requiring very little skilled 
labor. Some branches of manufacture have been largely devel- 
oped since 1877, and the amount of products is not now probably 
less than $4,500,000. Mr. Strahorn estimated the mining pro- 
duct in 1877 at $2,911,000, of which the greater part was coal. 
There are now some iron mines and petroleum wells, which had 
not then been discovered or worked, and the mining product, 
though there has been some falling off in gold, has probably in- 
creased in all to about $3,500,000. 

Railways. — The Union Pacific Railway traverses the southern 
part of this Territory from east to west, having a length of 470 
miles in it. There is no other railway in operation in the Terri- 
tory except five or six miles of the Colorado Central, extending 
from Cheyenne to Denver. Two or three other railways have 
been projected, but none of them are yet built. One was pro- 
posed to the Black Hills from the Union Pacific; but if it is ever 
built, it will probably start from Sidney, Nebraska, and may not 
enter Wyoming at all. Another was proposed from Point of 
Rocks or Green River City to the Yellowstone Park, but this has 
been forestalled by the construction of the Utah and Northern 
Railroad, which now proposes to build a branch from Market lake 
or some other point in that vicinity to Shoshone lake, in the 
Park, and in that case will not enter Wyoming. Lastly, the 
Northern Pacific has projected a branch from the point where its 
Yellowstone Division crosses the Yellowstone river, to follow that 
river up to Yellowstone lake, in the Park. This road may be 
built before the close of the present year (1881). 



POPULATION AND EDUCATION. 



1223 



Population. — The following' table gives the particulars of the 
population of Wyoming in 1870 and 1880, the only years in 
which anything like an enumeration has been had: 

Population, 



Census Year. 


Total. 




a 


> 
1 


Foreign, 


4) 


Colored. 




1870 
1880 


11,518* 
22,938t 


7,219 
14,157 


1,899 
6,637 


5,605 
14,943 


3,513 
5.845 


8,726 
19,436 


183 
299 


2,466 
2,289 



i 

(/I 

CO 

C 

■u 




'Tn 

<u 

Q 


Ratio of 
Increase. 


Illiteracy. 


Of School 
Age, 5-18. 
Both Sexes. 


Of Military 
Age, 18-45. 
Males. 


Of Voting 
Age, 21 years 
and upward. 
Both Sexes. 




1870 
1880 


143 
914 


0.09 
0.18 




602 


856 


6,056 


7,156 


5-297 


99.8 



Educatio7i. — The educational statistics of Wyoming are not so 
late as could be wished. There were in the Territory in 1877, 
which is the latest report which we have been able to obtain, 16 
school buildings, 27 schools, a school population of 1,690 children, 
1,543 pupils enrolled in the schools; the amount of wages paid 
to teachers was ^18,169; the value of school property, ^^60,500. 
All the counties had surplus school funds, and some of them were 
arranging to erect new buildings and make other improvements. 
There are good schools at Cheyenne, Laramie and one or two 
other points. There are no collegiate schools, colleges or univer- 
sities in the Territory. Provision is made at the expense of the 
Territory for deaf mutes and the blind. 

Religious Denojniuations. — There were, in 1875, 20 church 
organizations, 17 church edifices, 11 clergymen, ministers or 
priests, 427 communicants, 3,570 adherent population, and ^56,- 

* Including 2,400 tribal Indians. f Including 2,150 tribal Indians. 



1224 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



500 of church property. Among these there were 2 Baptist 
churches, i ordained minister, 50 members, 300 adherent popu- 
lation, and ^7,000 church property ; the CongregationaHsts had 
about the same numbers throughout. There were: 4 Episcopal 
churches, with 3 church edifices, 2 clergymen, 116 communicants, 
696 adherent population, and ^12,000 church property. The 
Methodists had just about the same numbers, but their church 
property was not estimated at more than ^9,000 ; the Presbyte- 
rians had almost the same figures, and ^i 2,000 of church property. 
The Roman Catholics had 3 churches and 10 stations, 2 priests, 
about 1,000 adherent population, and ^10,000 of church prop- 
erty. There were two or three of the minor dtnominations, with 
one church each. Since 1875 these numbers have materially in- 
creased, but we cannot give exact figures. 

Counties. — There are seven counties. The following table gives 
the names, area, population and assessed valuation of each : 



Counties. 



Albany 

Carbon 

Crook 

Laramie.... 

Pease 

Sweetwater 
Uintah 






10,400 
22,080 

new 
16,800 

new 

29.532 
17,064 



95,876 



3 
ex, 
o 



4,625 

3,438 

239 

6,409 

637 
2,561 
2,879 



20,: 



i> 00 
^3 



$1,850,000 
1,900,000 

3,500,000 

1,918,449 
800,000 



Principal Towns. — Cheyenne, the capital, has a good location 
and good trade. The population probably exceeds 4,000. Lar- 
amie, fifty-six miles farther west, is a thriving town of over 3,000 
inhabitants. Rawlins and Evanston have each over 1,000, and 
Green River City, Rock Springs, Hilliard, South Pass and At- 
lantic City are growing towns. 

* Without tribal Indians. 



HISTORICAL NOTES ON WYOMING. 1225 

Objects of Interest. — There are many of these In the Territory, 
some the results of erosion, others of volcanic action, and others 
still of subterraneous convulsions and chemical action in the great 
laboratory of nature. But the greatest wonder of all — rather the 
o^reatest collection of wonders — the Yellowstone National Park — 
deserves and shall have a consideration more full than can be 
given to it In a single paragraph, for it is unrivalled in the variety 
and grandeur of Its attractions by any other known tract of the 
earth's surface. But before proceeding to portray as vividly as 
we may this wonderland In the heart of the continent, we must 
give a little space to the early history of this Territory and its 
natural wonders. 

Historical Notes. — Wyoming Territory, and especially the Big 
Horn region and the country about Yellowstone lake and the 
sources of the Yellowstone, was probably known to the Spanish 
adventurers of the early part of the seventeenth century. That 
they were cut off by the Indians some time between 1650 and 
1680 Is a matter of tradition among the Mexican priests. More 
than a century later (In 1781), an expedition, accompanied by 
Jesuit missionaries, set out for this region from Santa Fe, but did 
not return. In 1866 the remains of an old Spanish arastra — a 
contrivance for crushing quartz, which we have elsewhere de- 
scribed — was found near Lake de Smet, in the Big Horn Moun- 
tains, and subsequently other Spanish ruins of houses and 
fortifications were found in the same vicinity. The m.ore recent 
discoveries in Wyoming are due mainly to two men. Father Peter 
John de Smet, a Jesuit priest and missionary, who visited and 
explored much of the Territory in 1838 and 1839, and Captain 
James Bridger, who, with his partner, Vasquez, built a trading 
fort near the present site of Fort Laramie. There had been, 
however, a fur-trading post established in that vicinity as early 
as 1834, and rebuilt by the American Fur Company in 1836. 
Captain Bridger says, with the Western habit of humorous exag- 
geration, that he was there when Laramie Peak hadn't begun to 
grow, and was a hole in the ground (Laramie Peak being now 
10,000 feet above the sea), but he probably does not much ante- 
date 1839. Fort Bridger was held by Messrs. Bridger and Vas- 



1226 ^^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

quez till 1854, when they sold it to the Mormons, who burned it 
in 1857, but it was rebuilt by the United States in 1858. Several 
forts and camps, six in all, have since been built for the protection 
of the Union Pacific Railway and the mining settlements. The 
Territory was organized by Act of Congress, approved July 25, 
1868. Its growth has been slow, partly because the Indians were 
troublesome, and partly because the land was not as easily or 
successfully cultivated as in some of the other Territories. There 
had been no serious fighting with the Indians until 1876, when 
the Sioux, in the extreme northeast of the Territory, in the Black 
Hills, attacked General Custer's command and completely de- 
stroyed it. The Sioux have since been expelled from the Terri- 
tory, and there are now only a band of the Eastern Shoshones, 
numbering 1,250 and partially civilized, and a smaller band of 
the Northern Arapahoes, numbering 900, in the Territory. These 
are both on the Shoshone Reservation, which contains 1,520,000 
acres, with a fair proportion of tillable land, and are peaceable 
and quiet. 

The Territory is deserving of a better reputation than it has 
had in the past, and will be found desirable for those who are 
disposed to engage in stock-raising or the breeding of horses ; 
while parties who have some means can invest them very profit- 
ably in some of the rich valleys of the Big Horn or Wind River 
Mountains, and with a moderate irrigation can produce abundant 
crops, for which they will find a ready home market. The con- 
struction of railways, to render the Yellowstone National Park 
readily accessible, will not only call many thousands to Wy- 
oming, but will greatly increase the demand for agricultural 
products, which ought to be supplied by Wyoming farmers. 



BOUNDARIES OF YELLOWSTONE PARK 



1227 



CHAPTER XXII. 

rm YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK. 

Situation — Boundaries and Area — Its Recent Discovery and Exploration 
— The Act of Congress setting it apart as a National Park — The Park 
drained into the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico — Its Volcanic Char- 
acter — Not of much Value as an Agricultural Region — Inaccessible 

EXCEPT FROM THE NORTH AND WeST EASTERN PaRF NOT FULLY EXPLORED — 

No Mineral Wealth yet Discovered exceptinthe Northeast Corner — 
The Approach to the Park at the North — The Canon of the Yellow- 
stone, outside the Park — Cinnabar Mountain — " The Devil's Slide " — 
Entrance to the Park — Rapid Review of the Objects to be Visited — • 
Sepulchre Mountain — Canon of Gardiner's River — Mammoth Hot 
Springs — Tower Creek and Falls — The Columns and Towers of Tower 
Creek Canon — Mount Washburn — The Grand Canon of the Yellow- 
stone — Yellowstone Lake — The Lakes of the Southern Tour, Heart, 
Lewis and Shoshone — The Cross Cut which avoids these — The Upper 
and Lower Geyser Basins of the Fire Hole or Upper Madison River — 
The Geyser Basins of Gibbon's Fork — The Wonders of Beaver Lake 
and the Obsidian Cliffs — Return to Mammoth Hot Springs — Time in 
WHICH THE Trip can be made — The Wonders in Detail — Mammoth Hot 
Springs — Mr. Strahorn's Description — The Route to Tower Creek 
Falls and Canon — Hon. N. P. Langford and Lieut. Doane's Eulogy of 
them — The Ascent to Mount Washburn — Rev. Dr. Hoyt's Eloquent 

PiCl'URE OF THE ViEW FROM ITS SUMMIT — ThE DESCENT FROM MoUNT WaSH- 

BURN — The Old and the New Trail — The Grand Canon of the Yellow- 
stone — Its Bed Inaccessible at most Points — The Upper and Lower 
Falls of the Yellowstone — The Latter at the Head of the Grand 
Canon — Dr. Hoyt's Eloquent Description of the Falls and the Canon 
— The Trail to Yellowstone Lake — The Lake Itself — Its Shape Com- 
pared to the Human Hand — Professor Raymond's Criticism of the 
Comparison — The Elevation of the Lake — Professor Hayden's State- 
ment ONLY Correct if applied to Large Lakes — Height of Colorado 
Lakes — The Yellowstone River Flows through the Lake — The Lake 
not its Source — Affluents of the Lake — Mineral and Hot Springs on 
its Banks — Its Waters generally very Pure and Sweet — The Trout 
infested with Worms — Beauty of the Lake — Marshall's Description 
— Strahorn's Poetical Picture — Professor Raymond's Eulogy — Rev. Dr. 
Hoyt's Pen Portraiture of it — Moving Forward — The Upper and Loweji 
Geyser Basins — Explanations in regard to Geysers — Those of Iceland 



J228 ^^'^^' WESTERN EMPIRE. 

THE ONLY OTHERS OF NOTE IN THE WORLD CHARACTER OF THE GeYSER 

Eruption — Old and Recent Geysers — The Upper Geyser Basin — Rev. 
Edwin Stanley's "Parade of the Geysers " — The Geysers not all in 
Action at once — Lieutenant Barlow on the Fan and Well Geysers — 
The Grotto — Mr. Norton's Description — Lieutenant Doane on the 
Grand Geyser — Professor Raymond on the Lower Geyser Basin — The 
Langs or Extinct Geysers — Geyserdom not Paradise— Dr. Hoyt's De- 
scription OF THE Desolation — The Geysers and Hot Springs of Gib- 
bon's Fork — Beaver Lake — The Obsidian Cliffs — Mountains of Glass — 
Review of the whole — Accessibility of the Park — Its Future Attrac- 
tions — Its Quiet and Beautiful Valleys and Glades — Distances within 
the Park. 

The Yellowstone National Park is a region about sixty-five 
miles long by fifty-five miles wide, situated mostly in the northwest 
corner of Wyoming Territory, but on its north and west sides 
stretching a few miles into the adjacent Territories of Montana 
and Idaho. It covers an area of about 3,578 square miles, or 
:>, 298,920 acres, having an extent a little greater than that of the 
combined States of Rhode Island and Delaware. In this region 
there are assembled so many grand, sublime and picturesque 
natural objects, and such a variety of unique and marvellous 
phenomena, that when an account of some of the most remarkable 
of these wonders was brought before Congress in the report ol 
the United States Geological Survey, under Professor Hayden, 
an act was passed by the unanimous vote of both Houses, and 
approved by the President, March i, 1872, withdrawing from 
sale and occupancy, and setting apart as a National Park, or 
perpetual public pleasure ground, for the use and enjoyment of 
the people, the area above described, with boundaries designed 
to include the chief wonders of the region, and described as fol- 
lows : "Commencing at the junction of Gardiner's river with the 
Yellowstone river, and running east to the meridian passing ten 
miles to the eastward of the most eastern point of Yellowstone 
lake ; thence south along said meridian to the parallel of latitude 
passing ten miles south of the most southerly point of Yellowstone 
lake ; thence west along said parallel to the meridian passing fifteen 
miles west of the most western point of Madison lake ; thence 
north along said meridian to the latitude of the junction of the 



BOUNDARIES FIXED BY CONGRESS. j22q 

Yellowstone and Gardiner's rivers ; thence east to the place of 
beorinninsf." 

The region, thus bounded, stretches a few miles east of the me- 
ridian of I io°, and about as far west of the meridian of 1 1 1° west 
longitude from Greenwich, and a few miles north of the parallel 
of 45°, and not quite so far south as 44° north ladtude. These 
boundaries show at once that this National Park is not like the 
parks of Colorado, which are strictly natural divisions of land, 
being great areas, level or slightly undulating, enclosed by a rim 
of lofty mountains, whereas the boundaries of the National Park 
are purely ardficial, merely referring to certain natural objects 
for their location. 

" Situated," says Professor William I. Marshall, who has 
made this great wonderland a special subject of study, " along 
the highest part of that great culminating area of North America 
which has been apdy termed 'The Crown of the Condnent,' and 
from which pour down to the Gulf of Mexico on the southeast, 
to the Gulf of California on the southwest, and to the open Pa- 
cific on the northwest, the mighdest rivers of both coasts of 
the condnent, the Park embraces within its boundaries, on the 
west side of the main range of the Rocky Mountains, the country 
about some of the headwaters of the Lewis or Snake river, the 
great southerly fork of the Oregon or Columbia, the greatest 
river of the Pacific slope, which no longer 

" ' Hears no sound 

Save its own dashings,' 

since the steamer's wheels now vex its waters, the hum of varied 
industry rises from its fertile valleys, and the roar of the railroad 
stardes the echoes along its dales. Most of the Park, however, 
is on the east side of the main range, and embraces the country 
about the headwaters of the Madison and Gallatin rivers, which 
are the middle and eastern of the three streams which unite to 
form the Missouri river, and much of the upper valley, though 
not the extreme headwaters of the Yellowstone river, which is a 
stream as long as the Rhine or the Ohio, far surpasses them in 
the sublimity of its scenery, and is the greatest tributary of the 
upper part of the Missouri river. 



1230 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

" Being a volcanic region, the Park (except a little of the north- 
east corner of it, where silver mines exist) is valueless for mining 
purposes, except for sulphur, and as that exists in unlimited quan- 
tities at points nearer the main line of the Union Pacific, notably 
at a point forty miles -southeast of Evanston, the extra freiL^ht on 
it will make the Park deposit economically valueless. As the 
lowest valleys of the Park are more than 6,000 and most of them 
from 7,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea, its altitude and latitude 
make it worthless for farming purposes, there being few nights 
without frosts. Though not adapted for a permanent residence 
of any considerable population, the Park, with its opportunities 
for sailing, and rowing, and fishing, and hunting, with the grandest 
of mountains within it and upon its borders, and the purest of air 
ever sweeping over it, and with the inducements to open air life 
and exercise offered by its unique and enchanting scenery, is pre- 
eminently fitted for a public pleasure ground, from June to Oc- 
tober, and especially from about the first of August to the middle 
of October. Though a volcanic region, there is nowhere in the 
Park any opening from which flame, smoke, ashes or lava issues 
now, or, as far as known, has issued for ages past, the only mani- 
festations of the volcanic forces now being limited to eruptions 
of steam and hot water ; though almost everywhere in the Park, 
and outside its boundaries in many directions, are vast beds and 
streams of ancient lava, showing how terrific was the former in- 
tensity of the volcanic forces, whose declining activity now only 
suffices to produce steam and spout boiling water, instead, as 
anciently, of melting down into indistinguishable ruin the ada- 
mantine framework of the continent, and spreading it, as a foam- 
ing torrent of fiery devastation, over the surface of mountains 
and plains for an area of scores of thousands of square miles." 

The Park is not readily accessible from Wyoming ; on its east- 
ern side the Wind River Range presents an impassable barrier 
of lofty walls of rock, through which none of the exploring parties 
have ever been able to find a practicable pass even for pack 
animals; on the southern side a stage road extends from Green 
River City to Camp Brown, a distance of 155 miles; thence a 
tolerable wagon road exists to the head of Wind river, a distance 



APPROACHES TO THE PARK. 1 231 

of 1 10 miles more ; but from thence to Yellowstone lake, a dis- 
tance of fifty miles, is a difficult trail, which can be traversed only 
on foot with pack animals and with considerable danger. On 
the west side, by way of the Utah and Northern Railway, from 
Ogden, Utah, stopping at Pleasant Valley, there is a wagon road 
by way of Red Rock and Henry lakes, which reaches the Upper 
Geyser basin by about sixty-five miles travel. A still better 
route is that by the Utah and Northern Railway to the vicinity 
of Bozeman, Montana, from thence a wagon road by way of 
Boteler's Ranche, only about thirteen miles distant from the Park, 
with a good wagon road to Gardiner's river and the mammoth 
Hot Springs. Before the close of the present year (1881), the 
Northern Pacific Railway will undoubtedly be completed to Fort 
Ellis or beyond, and probably its branch to the Park, so that this 
great wonderland will then be for the first time easily accessible 
by the shortest and swiftest route. 

It should be said that that portion of the Park lying east of 
the Yellowstone river and lake is so rough and mountainous and 
possesses so few attractions, that it is not often visited. The 
lofty mountain chain which extends from the southeastern arm of 
Yellowstone lake to Slough creek and the Tower creek falls 
of the Yellowstone, has but a single and very difficult pass 
over it. 

The elevated plateau enclosed between this mountain range 
and the Yellowstone lake and river affords a fine pasture-ground 
for the elk, black buffalo, deer, bighorns and moose, which, on the 
other side of the Park, are so ruthlessly slaughtered by wanton 
tourists, and after being deprived of their skins, antlers, or horns, 
and tongues, are left to be the prey of wolves, panthers and 
coyotes. Amid these lofty pasture-grounds specimens at least 
of our great game animals might be kept. In the extreme north- 
east corner of the Park, on Clark's fork of the Yellowstone, are 
some mines of gold and perhaps silver, which might better be 
ceded to the miners than suffered to encroach on the Park. 

The attractive features of the Park are all on the west side of 
the Yellowstone river, and west of the east or southeast shores of 
the Yellowstone lake. Approaching the Park from the north, from 



1232 ^'^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Bozeman and Boteler's Ranche, the road passes first along what 
is called outside the Park the Upper Canon of the Yellowstone, 
a narrow passage of that river between perpendicular, rocky 
walls, from 2,000 to 3,000 feet in height. This extends for about 
three miles. Ten miles farther on. Cinnabar Mountain, so called 
from its surface of brilliant red clay (the color being due, how- 
ever, to red ochre and not to cinnabar), is passed, with its im- 
mense " Devil's Slide," a huge stone trough, which extends to its 
summit, with smooth, dark, nearly vertical parallel walls, thirty 
feet apart and 200 feet in height. A short distance beyond this 
we enter the Park, passing between Sepulchre Mountain, the 
northern terminal mountain of the Upper Madison Range, on 
the right hand, looking south, and the canon of Gardiner's river, 
an affluent of the Yellowstone, which here has a course nearly 
west by south, through deeply worn banks. Shortly after leaving 
Sepulchre Mountain we come to a terraced hill, quite steep and 
of various colors, in which are situated the Mammoth Hot 
Springs, whose wonderful forms and character we will allow an 
eye-witness to describe presently. Crossing at the foot of these 
terraces the Gardiner river at the point where its canon com- 
mences, we ride along by the side of a succession of cascades of 
one of its eastern affluents, and striking due east, at a distance 
of twenty miles, reach Barronette's bridge over the Yellowstone, 
and a little above, just where the Yellowstone emerges from its 
Grand Canon, Tower creek comes in from the west, plunging 
down 156 feet, and within the next two hundred yards by a suc- 
cession of rapids leaping into a dark and dismal gorge, 260 feet 
in depth. Basaltic tufa cones and columns, in the form of towers, 
turrets, pinnacles and cathedrals, in the vicinity of the falls, have 
suggested its name. At these falls the Grand Caiion of the Yellow- 
stone, twenty miles in length, and one of the great wonders of the 
Park, terminates. Southward from the Tower falls commences the 
long, rolling, and somewhat difficult ascent to Mount Washburn, 
the Pisgah of the Park, from the summit of which can be seen, in 
near or distant view, all its glories. Descending from the moun- 
tain, the trail takes us again to the Yellowstone and to the great 
falls which precede its plunge into the Great Canon. Reserving 




I' 1 , 



1 ' , # mm 




FALLS OF THE YKLL< >\vsTnNH — [(Tn'scrs of the Yellpwstone). 



PRINCIPAL OBJECTS OF INTEREST IN THE PARK. 1233 

a description of these for the poetic language of an eye-witness, 
we follow the course of the river to Sulphur Mountain, with its 
boiling springs of sulphuretted water, then four miles farther to 
the Mud Volcano, or Mud Geysers, spouting springs, which 
throw up mal-odorous mud instead of water, and one of which, 
from its preternatural activity, is named "The Devil's Work- 
shop." Eight miles farther on, we reach the northern extremity 
of the beautiful Yellowstone lake, at the point where the Yellow- 
stone river leaves it. This lake, the surface of which is 7,788 
feet above the sea, is twenty-two miles in its greatest length, and 
about fifteen miles in width, and has a shore line of more than 
300 miles, from its very irregular form. There are a number of 
islands in it, and its beauty is too great for description. To com- 
prehend its loveliness several days should be spent in camping 
on its borders. From this lake we may take either of two trails, 
the one going nearly south, past the Geysers of the Yellowstone 
lake, on the east side of the great divide of the Rocky Mountains, 
and across a spur of that divide to Heart lake, at the foot of 
Mount Sheridan, where there are other geysers, and thence by a 
new trail westward past Lewis lake and Shoshone lake, where 
there are more geysers and a lake four feet higher than the Yel- 
lowstone, and thence northward by a difficult pass over the Rocky 
Mountains to the Upper Geyser basin, on the Upper Madison 
river, from which point there is a good road (the Norris road) 
to the Midway Springs and the Lower Geyser basin, on the Fire 
Hole river. Or, we may go from the geysers on the Yellowstone 
lake by a shorter though difficult trail directly west to the Upper 
Geyser basin, without visiting Heart, Lewis and Shoshone lakes. 
From this Upper Geyser basin we pass by the Norris road, as we 
have said, to the Midway Springs, the Lower Geyser basin, in 
the Fire Hole river, the Gibbon's Fire Hole basin and geysers on 
the Howard road, the falls and canon of Gibbon's fork, the Mon- 
ument Geyser basin, the Norris and Fire Hole basins, of geysers 
and craters of spent volcanoes, the remarkable formation of Pine 
and Beaver lakes, the Obsidian or volcanic glass cliffs, and the 
road of glass over them, and so back to the Mammoth Hot 
Springs at the entrance to the Park. 
78 



1234 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

We have purposely avoided in this mere itinerary any descrip- 
tion of these wonders, that we might do them better justice in 
the vivid portrayal of eye-witnesses. The tour of the Park thus 
described covers 164 miles, and cannot well be gone over in less 
than twelve days. 

Turning now to these various points of interest, let us go over 
them in detail, using the descriptions of those who have studied 
them most thoroughly, and been most deeply impressed with 
their grandeur and beauty. 

Let us begin with a description of the Mammoth Hot 
Springs of Gardiner river, from the facile and skilful pen of 
Robert E. Strahorn, Esq. : " The first impression of these Springs 
which the beholder receives is that of a snowy mountain beauti- 
fully terraced, with projections extending out in various direc- 
tions, resembling frozen cascades, as though the high, foam-crested 
waves, in their rapid descent over the steep and rugged declivit}', 
were suddenly arrested and congealed on the spot in all their 
native beauty. There are fifty or sixt}^ of these springs of greater 
and smaller dimensions, extending over an area of about a mile 
square ; though there are remains of springs of the same kind for 
miles around, and mountains of the same deposit, overgrown with 
pine trees, perhaps hundreds of years old. Most of the water is 
at boiling heat, and contains in solution a great amount of lime, 
sulphur and magnesia, with some soda, alumina and other sub- 
stances, which are slowly deposited in every conceivable form 
and shape as the water flows along in its course down the moun- 
tain side. 

"On each level, or terrace, there is a large central spring, which 
is usually surrounded by a basin of several feet in diameter, and 
the water, after leaving the main basin at different portions of the 
delicately-wrought rim, flows down the declivity, step by step, 
forming hundreds of basins and reservoirs of every size and 
depth, from a few inches to six or eight feet in diameter, and 
from one inch to several feet in depth, their margins beautifully 
scalloped with a finish resembling bead-work of exquisite beauty. 
Underneath the sides of many of the basins are beautifully ar- 
ranged stalactites, formed by the dripping of the water ; and, by 



MAMMOTH HOT SPRINGS— R. E. STRAHORN'S DESCRIPTION. 123c; 

digging beneath the surface at places where the springs are in- 
active, the most deHcate and charming specimens of every char- 
acter and form can be obtained — stalactites, stalaemites, o-rottos, 
etc., all delicately arranged as the water filtrates through the 
crevices and perforations of the deposit. It is a scene sublime in 
itself, to see the entire area, with its numerous and terraced 
reservoirs, and millions of delicate little urns, sparkling with 
water transparent as glass, and tinged with many varieties of 
coloring, all glistening under the glare of a noonday sun. 

" The largest spring now active, situated about half way up the 
mountain on the outer edge of the main terrace, has a basin about 
twenty-five by forty feet in diameter, in the centre of which the 
water boils up several inches above the surface, and is so trans- 
parent that you can, by approaching the margin, look down into 
the heated depths many feet below the surface. The sides of the 
cavern are ornamented with a coral-like formation of almost every 
variety of shade, with a fine, silky substance, much like moss, of 
a bright vegetable green spread over it thinly, which, with the 
slight ebullition of the water keeping it in constant motion, and 
the blue sky reflected in the transparent depths, gives it an en- 
chanting beauty far beyond the skill of the finest artist. Here 
all the hues of the rainbow are seen and arranged so gorgeously 
that, with other strange views by which one is surrounded, you 
almost imagine yourself in some fairy region, the wonders of 
which baffle all attempts of pen or pencil to portray them. 

"Besides the elegant sculpturing of this deposit, imagine, if 
you can, the wonderful variety of delicate and artistically arranged 
colors with which it is adorned. The mineral-charged fluid lays 
down pavements here and there of all the shades of red, from 
bright scarlet to rose tint, beautiful layers of bright sulphur-yellow, 
interspersed with tints of green, all elaborately arranged in Na- 
ture's own order. 

"At the foot of the mountain are several springs whose waters 
have effected remarkable cures in cases of chronic rheumatism, 
eruptive diseases, etc. The medicinal properties of each fountain 
seem to be different, and the invalid can find which are best 
adapted to his or her own case." 



1236 <^<^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

On leaving the Hot Springs to make the circuit of the Park, 
the favorite course is that leading eastward to the Yellowstone 
Canon. The route passes up Gardiner's river, with its three 
falls, through a pleasant country, twenty-two miles, to Tower 
creek, a rapid, snow-fed brook, twelve or fifteen feet wide, and 
one or two feet deep, which here joins the Yellowstone. Tower 
creek rises in the high divide between the valleys of the Missouri 
and Yellowstone, and flows for about ten miles through a canon 
so deep and gloomy that it has earned the appellation of the 
" Devil's Den." About two hundred yards above its entrance 
into the Yellowstone, the stream pours over an abrupt descent 
of 156 feet, forming one of the most beautiful falls to be found in 
any country. These falls are about 260 feet above the level of 
the Yellowstone at the junction, and are surrounded with columns 
of volcanic breccia, rising fifty feet above the falls, and extending 
down to the foot, standing like gloomy sentinels, or like gigantic 
pillars, at the entrance of some grand temple. Of these column.s 
the late Hon. N. P. Longford, the first superintendent and his- 
torian of the Park, said: " Some resemble towers, others the spires 
of churches, and others still shoot up as little and slender as 
the minarets of a mosque. Some of the loftiest of these forma- 
tions, standing upon the very brink of the fall, are accessible to 
an expert and adventurous climber. The position attained on 
one of these narrow summits, amid the uproar of waters, and at 
a height of 260 feet above the boiling chasm, as the writer can 
affirm, requires a steady head and strong nerves ; yet the view 
which rewards the temerity of the exploit is full of compensa- 
tions." Below the fall the stream descends in numerous rapids 
with frightful velocity, through a gloomy gorge, to Its union with 
the Yellowstone. Its bed is filled with enormous boulders, 
against which the rushing waters break with great fury. Many 
of the capricious formations wrought from the shale excite mer- 
riment as well as wonder. Of this kind, especially. Is a huge 
mass, sixty feet in height, which, from Its supposed resemblance 
to the proverbial foot of his Satanic Majesty, Is called the "Devil's 
Hoof" The scenery of mountain, rock and forest surrounding 
the falls Is very beautiful. The name of "Tower Falls" was, of 



TO WEE CREEK FALLS— LANG FORD AND DOANE. 1327 

course, suggested by some of the most conspicuous features of 
the scenery. The sides of the chasm are worn into caverns, lined 
with variously tinted mosses, nourished by clouds of spray which 
rise from the cataract ; while above and to the left, a spur from 
the great plateau rises over all with a perpendicular front of 400 
feet. 

"Nothing," says Lieutenant Doane, "can be more chastely 
beautiful than this lovely cascade, hidden away in the dim light 
of overshadowing rocks and woods, its very voice hushed to a 
low murmur, unheard at the distance of a few hundred yards. 
Thousands might pass by within a half mile and not dream of its 
existence ; but once seen, it passes to the list of most pleasant 
memories." 

A fine view of Tower falls can be had from an easily ascended 
cliff above them, but a better one, a prospect that is simply en- 
chanting, can be obtained by walking down to the mouth of 
Tower creek, 200 yards, and following up stream, through the 
beautiful gateway, to their foot. Two hundred yards above the 
falls is a finely sheltered, picturesque camp, with grass, wood and 
water abundant. 

From Tower creek and falls we have a choice between two 
routes, one leading along the western bank of the Yellowstone 
river, and overlooking the Grand Canon for twenty miles, the 
other ascending by a long and wearisome climb the northern 
slope of Mount Washburn, 10,388 feet above the sea, from whose 
summit all the points of interest in the Park can be discerned 
with a good field-glass in the clear and transparent summer air. 
Most visitors prefer this ascent first, as giving them a more com- 
prehensive idea of the magnificence of the Park. We will follow 
their example, in imagination at least, and will allow Rev. Way- 
land Hoyt, D. D., of Brooklyn, who visited the Park in 1878 in 
General Miles' party, to describe to us the glorious vision : * 

"Let us take our stand for a little now upon Mount Wash- 
burn. Its rounded crest is more than 10,000 feet above the level 

* This glowing picture of the view from Mount Washburn, as well as some other eloquent 
passages farther on, are copied, by the kind permission of the author, from an address on the 
Yellowstone Park, which Dr. Heyt prepared after his return, but which is as yet unpublished. 



1238 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of the sea, and perhaps 5,000 feet above the level of the valley 
out of which it springs. Its smooth slopes are easy of ascent. 
You need not dismount from your horse to gain its summit. 
Standing there you look down upon the whole grand panorama, 
as does that eagle yonder, holding himself aloft upon almost mo- 
tionless wincrs. I doubt if there is another view at once so ma- 
jestic and so beautiful in the whole world. Your vision darts 
through the spaces for 1 50 miles on some sides. You are stand- 
ing upon a mountain lifting itself out of a vast saucer-shaped 
depression. Away yonder, where the sky seems to meet the 
earth, on every side, around the whole circumference of your 
sight, are lines and ranges of snow-capped peaks shutting your 
glances in. Yonder shoots upward the serrated peak of Pilot 
Mountain, in, the Clark's Fork Range. Joined to that, sweep 
on around you, in the dim distance, the snowy lines of the Madison 
Range. Yonder join hands with these the Stinking Water Moun- 
tains, and so on and on and around. Do you see that sharp, 
pinnacle-pointed mountain, away off at the southwest, shining, in 
its garments of white, against the blue of the summer sky ? — that 
is Mount Everts, named after the poor lost wanderer, who for 
thirty-seven days of deadly peril and starvation sought a way of 
escape from these frowning mountain barriers, which shut him 
in so remorselessly, and it marks the divide of the continent. 

" Take now a closer view for a moment. Mark the lower 
hills, folded in their thick draperies of pine and spruce like dark 
green velvet, of the softest and the deepest ; notice, too, those 
beautiful park-like spaces, where the trees refuse to grow, and 
where the prairie spreads its smooth sward freely toward the sun- 
light. And — those spots of steam, breaking into the vision every 
now and then, and floating off like the whitest clouds that ever 
graced the summer sky — those are the signals of the geysers at 
their strange duty, yonder in the geyser basins, thirty miles away. 
And — those bits of silver, flashing hither and thither on the hill- 
sides amid the dense green of the forests — these are waterfalls 
and fragments of ice-glaciers, which for ages have been at theij' 
duty of sculpturing these mountains, and have not yet completed 
it. And — that lovely deep blue sheet of water, of such a dainty 



APPROACH TO rilE GREAT FALLS AND GRAND CA/^ON. i2rn 

shape, running its arms out toward the hills, and bearing on its 
serene bosom emeralds of islands — that is the sweetest sheet of 
water in the world — that is the Yellowstone lake. And — that 
exquisite broad sheen of silver, winding through the green of 
the trees and the brown of the prairie — that is the Yellowstone 
river, starting on its wonderful journey to the Missouri, and 
thence downward to the gulf, between six and seven thousand 
miles away. But, nearer to us, almost at our feet, as we trace 
this broad line of silver, the eye encounters a frightful chasm, as 
if the earth had suddenly sunk away, and into its gloomy depths 
the brightness and beauty of the shining river leaps, and is 
thenceforward lost altogether to the view — ^/lai is the tremendous 
canon or pforgfe of the Yellowstone." 

Contrary to the Latin adage, "■Facilis descenstcs Averniy' the 
descent from Mount Washburn to the Grand Canon of the 
Yellowstone is one of considerable difficulty by the old trail ; but 
by a new one traced by Mr. P. W. Norris, the present superin- 
tendent of the Park, it is much easier. The old trail, more than 
twenty miles in length, followed the Washburn Range at a 
considerable distance from the river, throuofh tangled forest and 
along rocky and precipitous passes, to the upper and lower falls 
of the Yellowstone, just where Cascade creek discharges its 
waters into the river. This is above the Grand Canon, or, rather, 
at the point where it commences; for these two falls, the upper of 
about 150 feet, and the lower of 350 feet, with the rapids which 
follow, constitute a part of the tremendous depth to which the 
Grand Canon sinks, and which it maintains to the point of emer- 
gence at Tower creek falls, twenty miles below. At one or two 
points near its lower terminus daring and adventurous spirits 
have reached the floor of the canon, but have found it extremely 
perilous and difficult to clamber out of it ; they describe it as 
having its full share of disagreeable sounds, sights and smells, 
from the great number of hot springs of sulphur, sulphate of cop- 
per, alum, etc. The water is warm and impregnated with a vil- 
lanous taste of alum and sulphur, and along the dark margin of 
the river are numerous chemical and corrosive springs, some 
depositing craters of calcareous rock, and some casting up vol- 



1 240 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



umes of mud or muddy waters. The greater part of the Grand 
Canon, however, and especially its upper two-thirds, had always 
been regarded as entirely inaccessible, till the summer of 1878, 
when Messrs. Hoyt and Rouse, of Cleveland, Ohio, succeeded 
at the imminent peril of their lives, in descending to it, a little 
below the Great falls. They describe it as fearfully gloomy 
and uncanny. Rev. Dr. Hoyt and his party took the old trail and 
approached the river at the mouth of Cascade creek, between 
the upper and lower or Great falls, at the point where they could 
look down into the Grand Canon at the place of its greatest 
magnificence, and of the many descriptions of this great wonder 
of the world, that which he has given may justly be esteemed 
the most graphic and beautiful. It is as follows : 

"Well, we have reached Cascade creek at last ; and a beautiful 
grove of trees, beneath whose shade sparkles a clear stream, 
whose waters are free from the nauseous taste of alkali, furnishes 
a delightful place in which to camp. Now — dismounting and 
seeing that your horse is well cared for, while the men are un- 
loading the pack-mules and pitching the tents — walk up that 
trail, winding up that hillside ; follow it for a litde among the 
solemn pines, and then pass out from the tree-shadows, and take 
your stand upon that jutting rock — clinging to it well meanwhile, 
and being very sure of your foodng, for your head will surely grow 
dizzy— and there opens before you one of the most stupendous 
scenes in Nature — the lower falls and the awful canon of 
THE Yellowstone. 

"And now, where shall I begin, and how shall I, in any wise, 
describe this tremendous sight — its overpowering grandeur, and 
at the same time its inexpressible beauty? 

"Look yonder — those are the lower falls of the Yellowstone. 
They are not the grandest in the world, but there are none more 
beaudful. There is not the breadth and dash of Niagara, nor is 
there the enormous depth of leap of some of the waterfalls 
of the Yosemite. But here is majesty of its own kind, and 
beauty, too. On either side are vast pinnacles of sculptured 
rock. There, where the rock opens for the river, its waters are 
compressed from a width of 200 feet, between the upper and 



REV. DR. HOYT'S DESCRIPTION OF THE GRAND CANON. 1241 

lower falls, to 150 where it takes the plunge. The shelf of rock 
over which it leaps is absolutely level. The water seems to wait 
a moment on its verge; then it passes with a single bound of 350 
feet into the gorge below. It is a sheer, unbroken, compact, 
shining^ mass of silver foam. 

•' But your eyes are all the time distracted from the fall itself, 
great and beautiful as it is, to its marvellous setting — to the sur- 
prising, overmastering canon into which the river leaps, and 
through which it flows, dwindling to but a foamy ribbon there in 
its appalling depths. 

"As you cling here to this jutting rock, the falls are already 
many hundred feet below you. The falls unroll their whiteness 
down amid the canon glooms. Hold firmly on, and peer over 
the rock to which you cling and gaze down ; that apparently 
narrow stream is the large river flowing nearly 2,000 feet below 
you ; it is sheer that distance ; these rocky sides are almost per- 
pendicular — indeed in many places the boiling springs have 
gouged them out so as to leave overhanging cliffs and tables at 
the top. Take a stone and throw it over — you must wait long 
before you hear it strike. Nothing more awful have I ever seen 
than the yawning of that chasm. And the stillness, solemn as 
midnight, profound as death ! The water dashing there as in a 
kind of agony against those rocks, you cannot hear. The mighty 
distance lays the finger of its silence on its white lips. You are 
oppressed with a sense of danger. It is as though the vastness 
would soon force you from the rock to which you cling. The 
silence, the sheer depth, the gloom burden you. It is a relief to 
feel the firm earth beneath your feet again, as you carefully crawl 
back from your perching place. 

"But this is not all, nor is the half yet told. As soon as you 
can stand it, go out on that jutting rock again, and mark the 
sculpturings of God upon those vast and solemn walls. By dash 
of wind and wave, by forces of the frost, by file of snow plunge 
and glacier and mountain torrent, by the hot breath of boiling 
springs, those walls have been cut into the most various and 
surprising shapes. I have seen the middle age castles along the 
Rhine ; there, those, castles are reproduced exactly. I have seen 



1242 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the soaring summits of the great cathedral spires, in the country 
beyond the sea ; there they stand in prototype, only loftier and 
sublimer. 

"And then, of course and almost beyond all else, you are fasci- 
nated by the magnificence and utter opulence of color. Those 
are not simply gray and hoary depths and reaches, and domes 
and pinnacles of sullen rock. The whole gorge flames. It is as 
though rainbows had fallen out of the sky and hung themselves 
there like glorious banners. The underlying color is the clearest 
yellow ; this flushes onward into orange. Down at the base the 
deepest mosses unroll their draperies of the most vivid green ; 
browns, sweet and soft, do their blending ; white rocks stand 
spectral ; turrets of rock shoot up as crimson as though they 
were drenched through with blood. It is a wilderness of color. 
It is impossible that even the pencil of an artist tell it. What 
you would call, accustomed to the softer tints of nature, a great 
exaggeration, would be the utmost tameness compared with the 
reality. It is as though the most glorious sunset you ever saw 
had been caught and held upon that resplendent, awful gorge ! 

"Through nearly all the hours of that afternoon, until the sun- 
set shadows came, and afterwards amid the moonbeams, I waited 
there, clinging to that rock, jutting out into that overpowering, 
gorgeous chasm. I was appalled and fascinated, afraid and yet 
compelled to cling there. It was an epoch in my life." 

But we must hasten forward. The trail above the upper falls 
follows closely the right or west bank of the Yellowstone to the 
Yellowstone lake, a distance of eighteen or nineteen miles. On 
the way Sulphur Mountain is passed on the right, and the Sulphur 
Hills on the left, east of the river, though neither of them are more 
sulphurous than many other hills and mounds in the Park. Eleven 
miles from the Great Falls is the Mud Volcano, an interesting 
though somewhat dirty object. Eight miles more bring the 
traveller to the Yellowstone lake, one of the most beautiful sheets 
of water in "Our Western Empire," and hardly surpassed in 
beauty by any lake on our globe. It is twenty-two miles in 
length, and from twelve to fifteen in breadth. Its shape is pecu- 
liar, several long peninsulas extending into ij; from the southern 



THE- YELLOWSTONE LAKE. 1 243 

shore, so that it has been compared to the human hand, though 
as Professor R. W. Raymond humorously suggests, " the imagi- 
native orentleman who first discovered this resemblance must 
have thought the size and form of fingers quite insignificant, pro- 
vided the number was complete. The hand in question is afflicted 
with elephantiasis in the thumb, dropsy in the little finger, hornet 
bites on the third finger, and the last stages of starvation in 
the other two." The shore line of the lake is over 300 miles 
in length ; its superficial area is nearly 300 square miles ; its 
greatest depth, by a series of careful soundings, is found to be 
300 feet. Its elevation above the sea, by repeated observations, 
has been ascertained to be 7,788 feet. Professor Hayden very 
enthusiasdcally declares that "only four lakes are known to have 
so great an elevation in any part of the world, up to this time, 
namely. Lakes Titicaca, in Peru, and Uros, in Bolivia, which are 
respectively 12,874 and 12,359 feet above the sea-level; and 
Lakes Manasasarowak and Rakastal, in Thibet, Asia, both of 
which lie at the great height of 1 5,000 feet." With all due respect 
to the Professor, we think that this statement should be taken 
with some reservation as to the size of the lakes ; for in the very 
article from his pen which describes the Yellowstone Park and 
contains this sentence, we find that Shoshone lake has an eleva- 
tion of 7,870 feet (Mr. Norris' report of 1879 makes this 7,792 
feet, four feet higher than Yellowstone lake), and Madison lake, 
8,301 feet. Both these are in the Park, and though smaller than 
Yellowstone lake, they are entitled to be called lakes. Moreover, 
we find in " Whitney's Survey of Colorado " the following eleva- 
tions assiorned to some of the lakes of that mountainous State : 
Chicago lakes, 11,500 feet; Green, 10,000 feet; Grand, 8,153 
feet; Mary or Santa Maria, 9,324 feet; San Miguel, 9,720 feet; 
Twin lakes, 9,357 feet; San Cristoval, 9,000 feet; and Osborn's, 
8,821 feet. Lake Carpenter, in the Bighorn Mountains, is about 
1 1 ,000 feet. 

We might enumerate some others, but these will suffice. They 
are none of them as large as Yellowstone lake, though all of 
sufficient size to be properly denominated lakes. One other 
popular nodon, which is often repeated in the descriptions of 



J 244 ^^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Yellowstone National Park, may as well be corrected in this 
place: the Yellowstone lake is in no sense the source of the Yel- 
lowstone river. That river rises by two forks at least forty-five 
or fifty miles southeast of the Yellowstone lake, one affluent 
having its source in a small lake in the Shoshone Mountains, 
presumably higher than Yellowstone lake, and the other in the 
elevated plateau between the Shoshone and Wind River Moun- 
tains. One of these sources is in about latitude 43° 45', and the 
other in about 43° 50'. The Yellowstone river Hows through 
the Yellowstone lake, just as the Rhine Hows through Lake 
Geneva. 

But let us return to our lake itself. Situated upon the 
very crown of the continent, the lake receives but few tributa- 
ries of any considerable size, the upper Yellowstone being much 
the largest, and Beaver Dam creek and Pelican creek, both on 
the eastern side, the next in importance. There are, in all, six- 
teen or eighteen small streams from the mountain ranges, on the 
north, east, south and southwest sides, which bring to the lake 
their tribute from the snow-line ; several of these afl^uents are 
strongly charged with sulphur, alum or alkalies, and these and 
the springs on the banks of the lake render its waters near the 
shore, at some points, turbid and unpleasant; but at a little dis- 
tance from the shore, at all points, and at the very brink of the 
lake at many, the water is clear, pure and sweet. It abounds 
with fish, mainly trout, as does the Yellowstone above the Great 
falls ; but it is a most remarkable fact, that very many of the 
trout, both in the lake and river, above the falls, are infested by 
an intestinal worm, of a species not hitherto known as a parasite 
of any of the salmonidce. In some cases the worms eat their way 
out, and the fish, if not too severely injured, recovers, but with 
deep scars. It is said that the larger fish sometimes have from 
five to fifty of these parasites, and that their presence makes the 
fish very voracious, snapping viciously at the hook, " which is 
strange," as Professor Raymond remarks, "when one considers 
that they have already more bait in them than is wholesome." 
Of course, not all the trout are thus infested, and usually the 
visiting parties, after rejecting the diseased fish, find enough that 



MESSRS. MARSHALL AND STRAHORN'S DESCRIPTION: 1245 

are sound to supply their demand. Below the Great falls the fish 
are not diseased, and there are grayling and white fish in almost 
as great numbers as the trout. 

The remarkable beauty of the lake cannot be too highly ex- 
tolled. All the visitors to it have been charmed by its loveliness. 
Mr. Marshall, who is not given to sentimental writing, says: "It 
contains several beautiful islands, is surrounded by some of the 
grandest mountains in North America, and is of so irregular a 
form as to give an uncommon beauty alike to its bold bluff shores 
and its stretches of sandy, pebbly beaches. Its waters, pure and 
cold, in places 300 feet deep, shine with the rich blue of the open 
sea, swarm with trout, and are the summer home of countless 
swans, white pelicans, geese, brant, snipe, ducks, cranes and other 
water fowl, while its shores, sometimes grassy, but generally 
clothed with dense forests of pine, spruce and fir, furnish coverts 
and feeding grounds for elk, antelope, black and white-tailed deer, 
bears and mountain sheep. Scattered along the shores of the 
lake, and on the mountain slopes which overlook it, are many 
clusters of hot springs, solfataras, fumaroles and small geysers. 
At one point a hot spring, boiling up in the edge of the lake, has 
deposited the mineral carried in solution by its waters, and built 
up a rocky rim about itself, so that wading out into the lake you 
can climb on the rim of the spring, and standing there can catch 
trout out of the cold water of the lake, and without detaching 
them from the hook, plunge them into the boiling spring and 
cook them." 

The more poetic Strahorn thus eulogizes it : 

" In the early part of the day, when the air is still and the bright 
sunshine falls on its unruffled surface, its bright green color, 
shading to a delicate ultramarine, commands the admiration of 
every beholder. Later in the day, when the mountain winds 
come down from their icy heights, it puts on an aspect more in 
accordance with the fierce wilderness around it. Its shores are 
paved with volcanic rocks, sometimes in masses, sometimes 
broken and worn into pebbles of trachyte, obsidian, chalcedony, 
cornelians, agates and bits of agatized wood; and again ground 
to obsidian sand sprinkled with crystals of California diamonds." 



1246 ^^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

The enthusiastic Langford * says : 

" Secluded amid the loftiest peaks of the Rocky Mountains, 
possessing strange peculiarities of form and beauty, this watery 
solitude is one of the most attractive objects in the world. Its 
southern shore, indented with long, narrow inlets, not unlike the 
frequent fiords of Iceland, bears testimony to the awful upheaval 
and tremendous force of the elements which resulted in its erec- 
tion. The long pine-crowned promontories, stretching into it 
from the base of the hills, lend new and charming features to an 
aquatic scene full of novelty and splendor. Islands of emerald 
hue dot its surface, and a margin of sparkling sand forms its set- 
ting. The winds, compressed in their passage through the moun- 
tain eorofes, lash it into a sea as terrible as the fretted ocean, 
covering it with foam. But now it lay before us calm and un- 
ruffled, save as the gentle wavelets broke in murmurs along the 
shore. Water, one of the grandest elements of scenery, never 
seemed so beautiful before." 

Besides its entrancing shore line, the lake is dotted with nu- 
merous islands, which lend rare beauty by their luxuriant vege- 
tation. Fish abound in the lake, game of all kinds inhabit the 
surrounding forests, and the placid surface of the water and 
grassy margins render this mountain-locked sheet the earthly 
paradise for myriads of water-fowl. 

Professor Rossiter W. Raymond, the man of facts and figures, 
"with no nonsense about him," felt himself constrained to say: 

" The scene presented to our eyes by this lake, as we emerged 
from the thick forests on the western side and trod with exulta- 
tion its sandy shore, was, indeed, lovely. The broad expanse of 
shining water, the wooded banks and bosky islands, the summits 
of lofty mountains beyond it faintly flushed with sunset, the deep 
sky, and the perfect solitude and silence, combine to produce a 
memorable impression." 

We add a paragraph or two from Rev. Dr. Hoyt's eloquent 
address, from which we have already quoted so largely : 

*' From a gentle headland, at last we overlooked the lake. It 
was like the fairest dream which ever came to bless the un- 



* Late Superintendent of the Park. 



DR. HOYT ON THE YELLOWSTONE LAKE. 1247 

troubled slumbers of a child. How still it was ! What silence 
reigned ! How lovingly it laid its hush upon you ! I cannot tell 
you of it better than in those words of Scripture — ' for they rest 
from their labors.' To me that vision must henceforward be the 
best illustration of the unvexed, transparent sea of glass, and the 
rest of the Beyond. 

"And yet it was not a stillness and a rest devoid of music and 
of motion. You could hear the murmur of the breezes through 
the tree-tops ; you could see where they roughened the lake's 
surface, and strewed new brightness on its waters. Fleets of 
pelicans, white-breasted and white-winged, with swans, large and 
inexpressibly graceful, sailed majestically out upon the waves. 
Birds sang in the edges of the groves; eagles and wild fowl filled 
the upper air. The whole scene was redolent of a glad and 
happy life." 

But we must move forward, or our exploration will occupy too 
much time and space. As it is, we must forego any tour into the al- 
most wholly unexplored region east and north of the Yellowstone 
lake, and must also postpone to another season our hoped-for visit 
to Heart, Lewis, Shoshone and Madison lakes, all of which have 
small geysers, or, rather, spouting springs, on their banks. Very 
fair and beautiful are these lakes, set as gems in the rocky and 
frowning heights of the " Great Divide," and in the not distant 
future they will be among the most interesting of the many 
attractions of the Park ; but until they are rendered more 
accessible by good, or at least passable, roads, we must neglect 
them. 

There are two routes, both as yet only trails, from the Yellow- 
stone lake and river westward to the basins of the Upper Madison 
and its largest branch, the Fire Hole river — the home of the gey- 
sers. The southernmost takes us from the geysers or boiling 
springs, on the banks of the lake, over two arms of the Great 
Rocky Mountain Divide (which here takes a horseshoe form, 
enclosing Shoshone lake), directly to the Upper Geyser basin, 
on the Upper Madison river. This trail is more difficult, and 
crosses the mountains at a greater elevation than the other, but 
it is shorter, not exceeding fourteen miles, and it does not require 



1248 '^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

any retracing of our course. The northernmost requires a return 
over the route along the Yellowstone river, already travelled for 
about fifteen miles, to the mouth of a small creek, and then a 
journey along the valley of that creek to Mary's lake, the source 
of the East Fork of Fire Hole river, and along the valley of that 
stream to the Lower Geyser basin, which is situated at the Forks 
of the Fire Hole river. This trail is about twenty-three miles in 
length, and involves a retracing of our course several times — 
first, as we have seen, in the descent of the Yellowstone river 
from the lake to the base of Sulphur Mountain ; next, a journey 
to the Upper Geyser basin, and from it back to the Lower 
basin. We will, therefore, take the southern trail in our imaginary 
journey. 

Before attempting a description of the wonders of these and the 
other geyser basins, a few words of explanation in regard to geysers 
may be desirable. From our childhood we have all been familiar 
by name at least with the geysers of Iceland, and have read of their 
performances with wonder. There have been reports of geysers 
in other countries, and in other portions of our own country ; 
but on examination all the reputed geysers of California and 
elsewhere have proved to be ov\y fumaroles, solfaiaras or boiling 
springs, and the only true geysers known are those of Iceland and 
of our own Yellowstone National Park ; and as between Iceland 
and our Park, our geysers are in number as fifty to one of theirs; 
and as to power and beauty altogether beyond them. " Here," 
says Mr. William I, Marshall, " are more geysers than in all the 
world beside, and they spout columns of boiling-hot water, of 
sizes varying with the dimensions of their orifices, from a few 
inches to twenty feet in diameter, and to heights ranging all the 
way from ten or fifteen up to 250 or 275 feet, the eruptions being 
accompanied by a constant succession of miniature earthquakes, 
by a terrible noise like almost continuous underground thunder, 
and by the evolution of immense masses of steam, which tower 
hundreds of feet above the water. The subterranean explosions, 
from twenty to seventy a minute, sounding and jarring the 
ground like a heavy artillery duel, manifest themselves in mighty 
pulsations along the column, shooting it upwards and outwards 



YELLOWSTONE GEYSERS THE FINEST IN THE WORLD. 



1249 



in jets, rising to ever-varying heights, and constantly dividing and 
subdividing, and shivering into milk-white spray. 

"A geyser eruption is not at all like the play of an artificial 
fountain, in which the water is pushed up by pressure to a uniform 
height, or if made to vary must do so with a regularity which 
soon becomes wearisome, but is like a cataract of crystal-clear, 
boiling-hot water — not falling in despair of resistance to gravity, 
but, as if instinct with life, leaping towards heaven, shivering up- 
wards (precisely as a cataract does downwards) into rockets of 
milk-white spray, each as it ceases to rise emitting a litde puff 
of steam, which proclaims what was the force which lifted it, and 
which now, like the soul deserting the body, leaves it, no longer 
able to triumph over gravity, but, unsupported, to fall to the 
steaming mound below in showers of shining pearls and flashing 
diamonds, while the central portions of the column drop down in 
immense volumes that strike the mound with a roar like a cata- 
ract, or like the thunder of distant surf. Every instant the 
column is changing its height and shape, as the mighty and mys- 
terious forces of the under world, shaking the mountains in their 
struggles for freedom, pulsate along it; and it is always enveloped 
and surmounted by vast banks and lofty pillars of steam, ever 
swaying with the wind, constantly assuming fantastic forms, and 
crowned and fringed with rainbows. These indescribably mag- 
nificent displays occur with some geysers at fixed periods, as in 
the case of Old Faithful, which spouts from an orifice seven feet 
long by two feet wide, every sixty-seven minutes, its eruptions last- 
ing from four to six minutes. It is the only large geyser known 
in the world, which spouts so frequently and with such unfailing 
regularity; whence its name. In more than one hundred erup- 
tions of it, which I witnessed during my two visits to the Park in 
1873 and 1875, ^ never knew it to be more than three minutes 
behind its appointed time. Most of the great geysers, however, 
spout at very irregular intervals, varying from three or four hours 
to several days, or even two or three weeks, their eruptions last- 
ing from fifteen or twenty minutes to two or three hours, and 
sometimes even as longr as nine hours. 

" No geyser spouts constantly, though some of the small ones 
?9 



1 2 CO ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

spout most of the time. Between eruptions, some pour out from 
their beautifully ornamented craters great puffs of steam, like im- 
mense high pressure engines, little jets of scalding spray being 
constantly thrown to the top of the crater, or a little above it, 
while there is all the time a sound of fierce boiling below, and in 
others the hot water stands, a wonderfully transparent pool, in 
vast saucer-shaped basins, from ten to seventy-five feet across, 
within each of which is the well or tube from which the eruption 
occurs, at which the water slowly boils. No language can ade- 
quately describe the gracefully curved and scalloped forms in 
which the silicious rock deposits on the bottoms and margins of 
these basins, nor the beauty of the countless vivid and delicate 
colors with which they are dyed. 

" Standing or lying all about the geyser craters and hot springs 
are trees, killed by the hot silicious waters or by their mineral 
deposits. Nothing in nature can be more spectral than these 
naked trunks of trees, stripped of bark and bare of branches, and 
bleached white as snow, seeming like the ghosts of the groves 
and forests buried beneath these mounds. When the wood falls 
in the immediate line of overflow of spring or geyser, the hot 
water soon soaks it soft and petrifies it. . Immense quantities of 
wood may be seen here in all stages of petrifaction. 

"It is plain that while the amount of hot spring and geyser 
action in the Park has been about the same for ages past, its cen- 
tres of activity have always been, and are now, constantly 
changing. Several of the largest geysers, whose age we do not 
know, are plainly of very recent origin — notably 'Old Faithful' 
and the 'Castle' — since high up on the mounds of each are 
lying, partially imbedded in the rock, and not yet wholly petrified, 
the trunks of large pine trees, which, had they been there very 
many years, must have been completely buried by the rapid de- 
posit of the rock, while alike in the woods and in the open ground 
are numerous extinct craters, and many others which are plainly 
dying out. Two of the greatest among the geysers of the Upper 
Geyser basin of the Fire Hole are certainly of very recent origin, 
having broken out between the autumn of 1873 and the spring 
of 1874; and many pulsating and boiling springs, which do not 
spout, are plainly but a few years old. 



NUMBER OF THE GEYSERS. 1 251 

"No one knows how many geysers and hot springs there are 
in the Park, Dr. Hayden estimates that in the two Fire Hole 
River Geyser basins, within an area about equal to that of an 
ordinary township, say thirty-five or forty square miles, there are 
at least 2,000, and in the whole Park there are supposed to be at 
least 10,000 hot springs, steam jets, geysers and mud springs. 
The solfataras, fumaroles and salses, of which some are found 
scattered through the geyser basins, but most of which are in 
groups here and there outside the Geyser basins, especially at 
Brimstone Mountain, on the summit of the divide between the 
Yellowstone and Fire Hole Valleys ; at numerous points about 
Yellowstone lake, on Pelican creek, at Crater Hills, and at Mud 
Volcanoes, on the west bank of the Yellowstone river ; on Alum 
creek, along the Grand Canon, and on the slopes of the Sierra 
Shoshone and the Elephant's Back Mountains, follow naturally 
in our catalogue of attractions. These from thousands of vents, 
pour out sulphurous hot water, or steam charged with sulphu- 
retted hydrogen and other gases commonly emitted from volcanic 
craters, or boil and spout mud, slate-blue, or white, or pink, or 
lavender, or blackish green, or brown, some thin as mush, some 
thick as hasty pudding, with much puffing and rumbling and 
hissing of steam escape-pipes, and often with much trembling of 
the ground. 

"About many of them are deposited beautiful incrustations of 
sulphur and silica, of a light buff-color, or solid sheets or delicate 
feathery, frost-like crystals of bright yellow sulphur, together with 
alum and other volcanic products. Some of the larger of these 
sulphurous steam jets, pouring out of openings several feet in 
diameter, keep up a continual roar, like a hoarse fog- whistle; 
others, night and day, maintain a steady series of explosions, like 
distant thunder, from twenty to fifty peals a minute, audible for 
miles around, and each jarring the ground, so that you may, ia 
.some cases, plainly feel it, sitting on your horse, a half a mile 
away from them. 

" Some of these, also, are plainly of quite recent origin ; for, 
walking about among them at Brimstone Mountain, where, over 
many acres, the vegetation is utterly destroyed, and the surface 



1252 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

of the earth blasted and burned, and streaked red, and yellow, 
and white, seems a mere heap of ashes mixed with sulphur, 
near the centre of the great area of desolation, we saw the pros- 
trate trunks of several pine trees not yet entirely destroyed by 
the corrosive, stifling vapors, but so far decayed that we could 
kick them to pieces easily. The waters of this cluster flow 
towards the Yellowstone, and in a hollow have formed a minia- 
ture Dead sea, whose steaming, sulphurous, heavy, green waves 
support no form of life, and beat sullenly on a shore whose -deso- 
lation is in marked contrast to the luxurious, grassy slopes 
which stretch for miles to the east towards and across the 
Yellowstone," 

We shall not attempt in this place any explanation of the phi- 
losophy of the geyser, for two reasons : one, that scientists are 
not agreed in their views of it; the only thing fully ascertained 
in regard to it is that the hot water (from whatever source it may 
be derived) passes up through long tubes or pipes of different 
diameters ; and the other, that their explanations are too ab- 
struse to be understood by the masses, even if (which is doubtful) 
they understand them fully themselves. 

Let us, then, turn to a contemplation of these geysers, and espe- 
cially of those of the Upper Geyser Basin, where, though some- 
what fewer in number than in the Lower basin, they are of much 
greater power and magnificence. And, first, let us follow Rev. 
Edwin Stanley, a visitor to the Park, whose *' Rambles in Won- 
derland " gives a very interesting account of this Upper basin, as 
he marshals the geysers in a grand parade : 

"Let us imagine ourselves for once standing in a central posi- 
tion, where we can see every geyser in the basin. It is an extra 
occasion, and they are all out on parade, and all playing at once. 
There is good Old Faithful, always ready for her part, doing her 
best — the two by five feet column playing to a height of 150 feet 
— perfect in all the elements of geyser action. Yonder the Bee- 
hive is sending up its graceful column 200 feet heavenward, while 
the Giantess is just in the humor, and is making a gorgeous dis- 
play of its, say, ten feet volume to an altitude of 250 feet. In 
the meantime the old Castle answers the summons, and putting 



"THE PARADE OF THE GEYSERSr 1 25 3 

on Its strength with alarming detonations is belching forth a gi- 
gantic volume seventy feet above its crater ; while over there, just 
above the Saw-mill, which is rallying all its force to the exhibition, 
rustling about and spurting upward its six-inch jet with as much 
self-importance as if it were the only geyser in the basin, we see 
the Grand, by a more than ordinary effort, overtopping all the 
rest, with its heaven-ascending, graceful volume, 300 feet in the 
air. Just below here the Riverside, the Comet, the complicated 
and fascinating Fantail, and the curiously-wrought Grotto, are 
all chiming in, and the grand old Giant, the chief of the basin, not 
to be left behind, or by any one outdone, is towering up with its 
six feet fountain, swavingr in the brio-ht sunlio-ht at an elevation 
of 250 feet. In the meantime a hundred others of lesser note, 
we will say, are answering the call at this grand exposition, and 
coming out In all their native glory and surpassing beauty. Just 
listen to the terrible, awful rumblings and deafening thunders, as 
if the very earth would be moved from its foundation — the thou- 
sand reports of rushing waters and hissing steam, while Pluto is 
mustering all his forces, and Hades would feign disgorge Itself 
and submerge our world. But then look upward at the Immense 
masses of rising steam ascending higher and still higher, until 
lost in the heavens above ; while every column is tinseled over 
with a robe of silver decked with all the prismatic colors, and 
every majestic fountain is encircled with a halo of gorgeous 
hues." 

As a matter of fact, however, the geysers are never all In 
action at the same time. Their periods of activity are different 
at different times, and with some of them are at increasingly long 
intervals, and probably they will eventually cease to act, as so 
many others have done. New geysers are constantly forming, 
and may take the places of the silent ones. Some of the most 
remarkable of the number are so uncertain that parties have re- 
mained at the basins for two or three weeks without witnessing 
their action, and again perhaps soon after they have sent up a 
magnificent column twice or thrice in twenty-four hours. One 
explorer. Lieutenant Barlow, tells us that near the edge of the 
basin, where the river makes a sharp bend to the southeast, is 



1254 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

found the initial geyser — a small steam vent — on the right. 
Soon on either side of the river are seen the two lively geysers, 
called the " Sentinels," because of their nearness to the gate of 
the great geyser basins. The one on the left is in constant agi- 
tation, the waters revolving horizontally with great violence, and 
occasionally spouting upward to the height of twenty feet, the lat- 
eral direction being fifty feet. Enormous masses of steam are 
ejected. The crater of this is three feet by ten. The opposite 
Sentinel is not so constantly active, and is smaller. About 250 
yards from the gate are three geysers acting in concert. When 
in full action the display from these is very fine. The waters 
spread out in the shape of a fan, in consequence of which they 
have been named the Fan Geysers. One hundred yards farther 
up the side of the stream is found a double geyser, a stream from 
one of its orifices playing to the height of eighty or ninety feet, 
emitting large volumes of steam. From the formation of its crater 
it was named the Well Geyser. 

Still above are found some of the most interesting and beau- 
tiful geysers of the whole basin. First are two smaller geysers 
near a large spring of blue water, while a few yards beyond are 
seen the walls and arches of the Grotto. This is an exceedingly 
intricate formation, eight feet in height and ninety in circumfer- 
ence. It is by many called the gem of all the geysers. It is 
absolutely magnificent — a sight of resplendent beauty, that greets 
the eyes nowhere outside of the region of the National Park. It 
is simply a miniature temple of alabaster whiteness, with arches 
leading to some interior Holy of Holies, whose sacred places 
may never be profaned by eye or foot. The hard calcareous 
formation about it is smooth, and bright as a clean swept pave- 
ment. Several columns of purest white rise to a height of eight 
to ten feet, supporting a roof that covers the entire vent, forming 
fantastic arches and entrances, out of which the water is ejected 
during an eruption fifty or sixty feet. The entire surface is 
composed of the most delicate bead-work imaginable, white as 
the driven snow, massive but elaborately elegant, and so peerlessly 
beautiful that the hand of desecration has not been laid upon it, 
and it stands without fiaw or break in all its primal beauty — a 
grotto of pearls, "the beautiful princess of all the realm." 



THE GIANT AND OLD FAITHFUL GEYSERS. J255 

Proceeding 150 yards farther, and passing two hot springs, a 
remarkable group of geysers is discovered. One of these has a 
huge crater, five feet in diameter, shaped something like the base 
of a horn — one side broken down — the highest point being fifteen 
feet above the mound on which it stands. This proved to be a 
tremendous geyser, which has been called the Giant. It throws 
a column of water the size of the opening to the measured altitude 
of 130 feet, and continues the display for an hour and a half 
The amount of water discharged is immense, almost equal in 
quantity to that in the river, the volume of which during the 
eruption is doubled. But one eruption of this geyser was ob- 
served. Another large crater close by has several orifices, and 
with ten small jets surrounding it, formed probably one connect- 
ing system. The hill built up by this group covers an acre of 
ground, and is thirty feet in height. 

Harry J. Norton, Esq., formerly of Virginia City, made the 
rounds of all the geysers, and describes the leading ones as fol- 
lows : "In our opinion, there is no geyser in the entire region 
that is so richly deserving of mejition as our ancient-looking, 
steadfast friend, Old Faithful ; for its operations are as regular 
as clock-work, of most frequent occurrence, and of great power. 
Standing sentinel-like on the upper outskirts of the valley, at 
regular intervals of sixty-seven moments, the grim old vidette 
sounds forth his 'all's well ' in a column of water five or six feet 
in diameter, throwing it skyward to a distance of 150 feet, and 
holding it up to that height for eight or ten minutes' duration. 
The stream is nearly vertical, and in descending the water forms 
a glittering shower of pearl-drops, plashing into a succession of 
porcelain-lined reservoirs of every conceivable shape and many- 
colored tints. The mound is not far from twenty feet in height, 
and gradually slopes down to the south in regular terraces to a 
neighboring hot spring. One of the artistic reservoirs nearest 
the crater is half-filled with irregularly shaped, perfectly polished 
white pebbles, which must have been thrown out at the different 
eruptions. When the eruption ceases the water recedes, and 
nothing is heard but the occasional escape of steam until another 
exhibition occurs. Old Faithful will ever be the favorite of 



J 256 O^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

tourists, as it never fails in regularly giving a display of its 
powers, 

"Crossing the river, and proceeding down its east bank an 
eighth of a mile, we come to the Beehive. Early in the afternoon 
an eruption took place without a moment's warning. The column 
of water ejected filled the full size of the crater, and shot up at 
least 200 feet. So nearly vertically does the stream ascend that 
on a calm day nine-tenths of the volume would fall directly back ■ 
into the aperture. From this cause, probably, there is no mound 
of any consequence built around it. At the time we witnessed 
its action, the ascending torrent was interposed between us and 
a bright, shining sun, and through its cloud of spray there 
was formed a rainbow of magnificent proportions, lending the 
fountain a crowning splendor and glory that it could not other- 
wise possess. 

"To the right, and down stream a few hundred yards from the 
Beehive, is the Giantess, with a crater eighteen by twenty-five 
feet. We came upon it during one of its lucid intervals, and 
looking down into the gaping chasm could just discern the water 
a. great distance below, as in a state of apparent tranquillity. 
Presently, however, there came up from its gloomy depths a 
dismal groan, quickly followed by a dense volume of steam and 
a rumbling sound beneath our feet, as of terrific underj^round 
thunder. In a moment more the seething elements below were 
in wildest commotion. The rolling and clashing of waves, the 
terrible steam-clouds rushing to and fro under the frail crust, the 
thunder of the raging waters, as, lashed into fury by the pur- 
suing steam, they sought to burst apart their prison wall and 
escape — all were but too distinctly heard and felt. Spell-bound 
we stood, and, with enraptured awe, silently awaited the result of 
this terrible confusion. Spasm succeeded spasm ; the agitated 
flood boiled up to the surface of the crater, and with a deafening 
report the immense body of water was hurled into the air over 
a hundred feet. Like some gigantic fountain impelled by an 
engine power that could have revolved a world, the boiling jet 
continued to play for several minutes. Surrounding this majestic 
liquid dome is a circle of smaller jets issuing from the same 



THE FAN AND THE GRAND GEYSERS. 1257 

crater, but from lesser apertures below, giving the main column 
the appearance of a fountain within a fountain. Playing hither 
and thither in the mellow sunlit mist, miniature rainbows were 
seen, and the air glistened with the falling water-beads as if a 
shower of diamonds were being poured from the golden o-ates 
of the Eternal City. 

" Suddenly, just below us on the opposite bank of the river, a 
vast column of steam burst forth and ascended several hundred 
feet. On the qui vive for new wonders, we hurried over a slight 
knoll in that direction, and arrived just in time to witness the Fan 
Geyser getting up steam for an eruption. It requires more in- 
side machinery to operate this geyser than any of the others. In 
fact, it is a massive natural engine, 25 by 100 feet, with two small 
valves, two escape pipes, and at the extreme upper end a large 
smoke-stack — five separate and distinct craters. When we ar- 
rived, we could hear a sound as of cord-wood beine thrown into 
a mammoth furnace. This continued several seconds, ceased, 
-and was followed by great quantities of steam from the smoke- 
stack ; then the two valves opened, shooting out swift, hissing 
jets of steam. The next moment there would be an unearthly 
roar from the double craters ; both would fill, and from each aper- 
ture a column of water two feet in diameter shot upward over 
eighty feet, one ascending nearly vertical, and the other at an 
angle of about forty-five degrees, thus forming the ' fan.' The 
eruption would continue from two to four minutes, then the flow 
cease for eight or ten seconds, and then the entire movement 
would be repeated. These repetitions continued for about 
twenty-five minutes, then ceased altogether. It requires no great 
flight of fancy to see in this marvellous natural mechanism a vast 
engine running under the guidance of a ghosdy engineer, and 
being 'stoked' from Pluto's wood-pile by a thousand goblin 
firemen." 

Near the middle of the Upper Geyser basin is the "Grand 
Geyser," the most remarkable in many respects in the world. 
Lieutenant Doane, U. S. A., who spent several days in Its imme- 
diate vicinity in 1877, thus describes it: "Opposite camp, on the 
other side of Fire Hole river, is a high ledge of stalagmite, 



1258 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



sloping from the base of the mountain down to the river. Nu- 
merous small knolls are scattered over its surface, the craters of 
boiling springs, from fifteen to twenty-five feet in diameter; some 
of these throw water to the height of three and four feet. On 
the summit of this bank of rock is the grand geyser of the world, 
a well in the strata, twenty by twenty-five feet in diametric meas- 
urements (the perceptible elevation of the rim being but a few 
inches), and when quiet having a visible depth of lOO feet. The 
edge of the basin is bounded by a heavy fringe of rock, and sta- 
lagmite in solid layers is deposited by the overflowing waters. 
When an eruption is about to occur, the basin gradually fills with 
boiling water to within a few feet of the surface, then suddenly, 
with heavy concussions, immense clouds of steam rise to the 
height of 500 feet, and the whole great body of water, twenty by 
twenty-five feet, ascends in one gigantic column to the height of 
ninety feet; from the apex of this column five great jets shoot up, 
radiating slightly from each other, to the unparalleled altitude of 
250 feet from the ground. The earth trembles under the de-' 
scending deluge from this vast fountain ; a thousand hissing 
sounds are heard in the air; rainbows encircle the summits of the 
jets with a halo of celestial glory. The falling water plows up 
and bears away the shelly strata, and a seething flood pours 
down the slope and into the river. It is the grandest, the most 
majesdc, and most terrible fountain in the world. After playing 
thus for twenty minutes, it gradually subsides, the water lowers 
into the crater out of sight, the steam ceases to escape, and all is 
quiet. This grand geyser played three times in the afternoon, 
but appears to be irregular in its periods, as we did not see it in 
eruption again while in the valley. Its waters are of a deep 
ultramarine color, clear and beautiful. The waving to and fro 
of the gigantic fountain, in a bright sunlight, when its jets are at 
their highest, affords a spectacle of wonder of which any descrip- 
tion can give but a feeble idea. Our whole party were wild with 
enthusiasm ; many declared it was 300 feet in height ; but I have 
kept, in the figures as set down above, within the limits of abso- 
lute certainty." 

" In some of the elements of beauty and interest," says Pro- 



THE LOWER GEYSER BASIN AND ITS LAUGS. 1250 

fessor R, W. Raymond, " the Lower Geyser basin is superior to 
its more startling rival. It is broader and more easily surveyed as 
a whole; and its springs are more numerous, though not so pow- 
erful. Nothing can be lovelier than the sight, at sunrise, of the 
white steam-columns, tinged with rosy morning, ascending 
against the background of the dark pine woods and the clear sky 
above. The variety in form and character of these springs is 
quite remarkable. A few of them make faint deposits of sulphur, 
though the greater number appear to be purely silicious. One 
very large basin (forty by sixty feet) is filled with the most beau- 
tiful slime, varying in tint from white to pink, which blobs and 
spits away, trying to boil, like a heavy theologian forcing a laugh 

to please a friend in spite of his natural specific gravity 

The laugs or extinct geysers are the most beautiful objects of all. 
Around their borders the white incrustations form quaint ara- 
besques and ornamental bosses, resembling petrified vegetable 
growths. The sides of the reservoir are corrugated and indented 
fancifully, like the recesses and branching passages of a fairy 
cavern. The water is brightly but not deeply blue. Over its 
surface curls a light vapor; through its crystal clearness one may 
gaze, apparently, to unfathomable depths ; and, seen through 
this wondrous medium, the white walls seem like silver, ribbed 
and crusted with pearl. When the sun strikes across the scene, 
the last touch of unexpected beauty is added. The projected 
shadow of the decorated edge reveals by contrast new glories in 
the depths ; every ripple on the surface makes marvellous play 
of tint and shade on the pearly bottom. One half-expects to 
see a lovely naiad emerge with floating grace from her fantasti- 
cally carven covert, and gayly kiss her snowy hand through the 
blue wave. 

"In one of these laugs\!(i^ whitened skeleton of a mountain buf- 
falo was discovered. By whatever accident he met his fate there, 
no king or saint was ever more magnificently entombed. Not 
the shrine of St. Antony of Padua with its white liiarbles and 
its silver lamps, is so resplendent as this sepulchre in the wilder- 
ness." 

Did space permit we might give a score of other testimonies. 



I26o ^^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

to the beauty of these vast and exquisitely sculptured and jew- 
eled cups filled to the brim with scalding water, yet so entran- 
cingly beautiful that you cannot resist the temptation to thrust in 
your hand and pluck the silver flowers and gather the gleaming 
jewels — but we are compelled to desist. 

Yet Geyserdom is not a paradise. "The Geyser basins in 
themselves," says Rev. Dr. Hoyt, "are very ghastly places. 
Save the jeweled cups, and the upward plunge of the white 
water, there is little beauty in them that we should desire them. 
Where the geysers spurt up their hot and hissing waves, and 
scatter them about, and then deposit as the scattered waters cool, 
the lime, and magnesia, and sulphur, with which they are charged, 
nothing green can grow. The aspect is that of a desert, except 
only that the sand instead of being brown is white. It seems 
more like a place of death than life — your horse's feet are 
scalded in the hot streams — you must be very careful where you 
Iread, lest the thin crust break beneath you, and let you down 
into the boiling pools, and sudden death below. The air is 
stenchful with the breath of noxious gases. Flowers do not 
bloom ; grass cannot spread its greenness ; trees, if they come 
within the circle of the geyser action, stand bleached, leafless, 
lifeless. It is the terrible side of nature which you see." 

Turning our faces northward we follow the Firehole or Upper 
Madison river for four or five miles from the Lower Geyser basin, 
till at a point opposite a forty foot fall of the river we enter upon 
the New Norris road, constructed by Superintendent Norris 
in 1878, which leads to new wonders of various kinds. The 
Gibbon's fork of the Firehole or Madison river, which has its 
source in or near Beaver lake, in the upper Madison Range, 
from its source to its mouth abounds in geysers, hot-springs, and 
fumaroles. These are not only found on its banks, in its canons, 
and in the vicinity of its numerous water-falls, but along the 
slopes of the mountains adjacent there are four or five of these 
Geyser basins. The southernmost of these, near the mouth of 
the fork known as Gibbon's Firehole Basin, is on the Howard 
road. Norris's road is some miles east of this, and passes 
through a valley till it strikes Gibbon's fork just at the foot of the 



GIBBON'S FORK—FIREHOLE BASIN. 1261 

loner and deep canon of that river. In that canon and on a 
branch or creek which unites with it there are numerous water- 
falls from eighty to one hundred feet in height. The canon itself, 
though not so deep and carrying less water than that of the Yel- 
lowstone, is full of romantic beauty and wildness. Along its bed 
and near it are pulsating geyser cones of both yellow and crim- 
son, paint springs, and. rivulets of nearly every color, geysers, 
throwing their jets, some at least loo feet at angles of from 40° 
to 60°, instead of vertically, as in the old basins, and in the open 
basin along the road, beside many small but beautiful geysers, 
is a large crater formed so recently that many pine trees in and 
around it still retain their seared and mud-laden leaves. 

Ascending the Grand Canon of the Gibbon, we find at its 
head, upon the crest of the western mountain spur, which rises 
nearly vertically full 1,000 feet above the highest point of the 
Canon Walls, a geyser basin of not more than five acres in ex- 
tent, which is one of the most beautiful and interesting in the 
park. To this basin, as its first discoverer, Mr. Norris has given 
the name of Monument basin. In this there is at least one pow- 
erful and active geyser — a hissing fumarole plainly audible for 
miles ; two other fumaroles, one tall and pulsating like the exhaust 
pipe of a huge Corliss engine, and the other with the orifice and ter- 
minal of its cone horizontal instead of vertical. There are also 
twelve pulsating geyser cones, from two to thirty feet in height, 
and similar in appearance to the famous Liberty Cap. A part of 
these are now extinct and slowly wearing away. Mingled with 
these are numerous hot springs and spouting geysers. A short 
distance above this Monument basin we come to another, at the 
upper canon of the Gibbon, and here after ascending the inevit- 
able water-fall come to the Norris and Firehole basins of the 
Norris fork of the Gibbon. Here is a beautiful grassy park, and 
sunny glades five or six miles in extent, and the whole dotted 
and begirt with huge boiling springs, sputtering paint-pots, spout- 
ing geysers, and several extensive craters, with some active gey- 
sers which throw up their waters with great frequency and reg- 
ularity. One of these has been named " the Minute Man." 
Three miles more brine: the traveller to Beaver and Pine lakes, 



1262 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the former, though of considerable extent, being artificial in the 
sense of having been formed by a succession of beavers' dams. 
These lakes abound with feathered game, and on their banks are 
fumaroles and hot springs heavily charged with alum. 

On the bank of Beaver lake there is a wall of vertical columns 
of obsidian or volcanic glass, many hundred feet In height and 
for two miles in length. There are gliffs of Impure obsidian 
elsewhere in the Park and in this and other countries, but no- 
where has there been found any of this volcanic glass so pure 
and perfect as this, or in such vast quantity. The columns are of 
black, yellow, mottled, and banded obsidian, but as regular in form 
as the basaltic columns of the Giant's Causeway. Great masses 
of this volcanic glass had fallen from the columns and formed 
a barricade some 250 or 300 feet In height, at an angle of 45° to 
the margin of Beaver lake. Mr. Norris had large fires kindled on 
this sloping barricade, and then, suddenly cooling It by throwing 
cold water on it, broke it In pieces and then with great labor 
crushed it and made a good wagon road over this barricade of 
glass. 

From the obsidian cliffs there is a good wagon road to the 
Mammoth Hot Springs, and thence to the northern entrance to 
the Park. We have thus completed our tour of the most im- 
portant objects of interest in the Park at the present time. What 
new wonders will be brought to light when the whole region east 
of the Yellowstone river and lake shall be thoroughly explored, 
when the southern portion, now almost wholly unknown, shall 
have been carefully investigated, and when even the northwest 
portion, drained by the Gallatin river, shall become better 
known, remains for other and future travellers and tourists to 
describe. What is already known, stamps it as the most remark- 
able region on the globe. 

"This whole region," says Dr. Hayden, "was, in comparatively 
modern geological times, the scene of the most wonderful vol- 
canic activity of any portion of our country. The hot springs 
and geysers represent the last stages — the vents or escape pipes — 
of these remarkable volcanic manifestations of the Internal forces. 
All these springs are adorned with decorations more beautiful than 



ACCESS TO THE PARK. 1 263 

human art ever conceived, and which have required thousands 
of years for the cunning hand of Nature to form." "It is prob- 
able," he remarks elsewhere, " that during the Pliocene period, 
the entire country, drained by the sources of the Yellowstone and 
the Colorado, was the scene of volcanic activity as great as that 
of any portion of the globe. It might be called one vast crater, 
made up of a thousand smaller volcanic vents and fissures, out 
of which the fluid interior of the earth, fragments of rock and 
volcanic dust, were poured in unlimited quantities. Hundreds 
of the nuclei or cones of these vents are now remaining, some 
of them rising to a height of 10,000 to 11,000 feet above the 
sea. 

Up to the present time the access to the Park has been only 
by long and difficult journeys, involving too great fatigue for any 
but the most robust, and almost entirely excluding, by its very 
wearisomeness, the visits of the gentler sex. Moreover, the 
necessary absence of any considerable hotel accommodations, or 
other provisions for a stay of at least ten or twelve days in the 
Park, and the frequent presence of hostile bands of Indians 
within it, have prevented any very large influx of visitors to it. 
These difiicultles are now almost wholly obviated. The Utah 
and Northern Railway is within fifty miles of Yellowstone lake, 
and swift coaches over good wagon roads traverse the remainder 
of the way. Before the opening of the next season (the season 
is from the middle of August to the middle of October), the 
Northern Pacific Railway will be running through trains from 
Chicago and St. Paul to Fort Ellis, and not impossibly to the 
Park itself The hardships of the journey will all be gone, and 
the time of reaching there will be reduced to about eight days, 
and the expense to one-half what it is at present. The Indians 
have gone for good, and the era of fast coaches, good hotels, 
restaurants and bathingf-houses is coming on. 

The impression that there is little of interest in the Park except 
the phenomena we have described should be carefully and for- 
ever dispelled from the minds of the public. "Few, I suppose," 
says Mr. William I. Marshall, "would care to live long among 
spouting geysers and boiling springs, or even upon the banks of 



1264 '^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

the brilliantly colored Grand Canon of the Yellowstone ; but 
these cover only a small part, probably not more than two or 
three per cent., of the surface of the Park, which embraces 3,578 
square miles, or 2,298,920 acres, an area almost one-half as large 
as the State of Massachusetts, and, of course, extensive enough 
to contain an immense variety of scenery. There are scores of 
miles of beautiful valleys traversed by rivers of the purest water, 
swarming with trout, grayling and whitehsh, and furnishing the 
finest hunting-grounds for ducks, geese, swans, and other water- 
fowl. These valleys are generally covered with fine grass, on 
which numerous antelopes pasture, while the greater part of the 
mountains which bound them is covered with the forests (inter- 
spersed with those great grassy slopes which are so marked a 
feature of the timbered areas of the Rocky Mountains) in which 
those fond of rifle-shooting can find elk and black-tailed deer and 
white-tailed deer and mountain sheep, and occasionally a band 
of mountain buffalo and other large game. There are countless 
quiet nooks where one can camp under the fragrant pines, besides 
green meadows gemmed with lovely wild flowers and watered 
by bubbling brooks, across which the beaver still builds his cun- 
ning dam, and beneath whose banks and in whose deep pools the 
dainty little speckled brook-trout watches for his prey. Not only 
are there scores of grand mountains lifting their craggy sides and 
rugged summits (few of which have ever felt the tread of civilized 
man) far up among the clouds, but innumerable sunny glades and 
shady dells, charming bits of quiet, picturesque scenery, where 
one will see nothing of the striking, but only the gently beau- 
tiful. 

" I presume the head-quarters for tourists, when the Park shall 
be made a little more accessible, will be established on the shores 
of the lovely Yellowstone lake, which, lying at an altitude of 7,778 
feet above the sea, or 1,500 higher than the summit of Mount 
Washington, in New Hampshire, covers 300 square miles with 
cool, clear water, which in places is 300 feet deep, and rolls its 
waves, of as deep a blue as the open sea, on 300 miles of shore 
line, now of loveliest beauty, and now of wildest grandeur. With 
its opportunities for rowing and sailing and fishing and hunting, 



YELLOWSTONE PARK FOR A SUMMER HOME. £265 

with the grandest of mountains bordering it and the purest of air 
ever sweeping over it, and with the inducements to open-air Hfe 
offered by its surroundings, it is surely destined to become a most 
delightful summer resort for those who love nature, and who, 
when they wish to see her strangest and most wonderful phases, 
can sail or ride in a few hours to the spouting geysers, the boil- 
ing springs, the stifling solfataras, the roaring mud volcanoes, the 
lofty cataracts, and the gorgeous Canon of the Yellowstone ; and 
when they would enjoy her quieter and more subdued aspects 
can find them on every hand in endless profusion. Those who 
travel to see the triumphs of industry and the treasures of art, 
to behold the ruins of an ancient era or splendor of modern cities ; 
those who wish to revive historical associations, or to survey the 
beauty of the earth as affected by human effort, and connected 
with human life, will, of course, go to the old world ; but there 
are many, and the number seems to be constantly increasing, 
who, for a longer or shorter time, love yearly to leave behind them 
the bustle of towns and the roar of cities, the vexations of business 
and the conventionalities of society, and live face to face with na- 
ture, resting in her solitudes or communing with her ceaseless 
health-giving activities, and to these the endless features of the 
Park will offer varied attractions and constant charms." 
80 



1266 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

CHAPTER XXIII. 
ALASKA. 

Relation of Alaska to Our Western Empire — Another Kamschatka — 

Absurdity of the Stories told of its Present or Prospective Produc- 
tiveness — Its Furs, Fisheries, and Timber, somewhat valuable — Pecu- 
liar Form of the Territory — The Bull's Head with two long Horns — 
Its three Divisions, Sitka, Yukon, and the Islands — Area — Population 
— Topography — Mountains — Rivers — The Limits and Area of each Di- 
vision — Geology — Volcanoes and Glaciers — Mineralogy — Coal — Me- 
tals — Minerals — Gold and Silver — Recent Discoveries — Zoology — The 
Divisions in detail — The Sitkan Division — Its Fur Trade, Fisheries, 
AND Timber — Its Agricultural Productions confined to a few Vegeta- 
bles — 2. The Yukon District of little Value, except for its Fur 
Trade, Whale and other Fisheries on the Coast — 3. The Island District 
— Some Arable Land on the larger Islands, and a possibility of fu- 
ture Dairy-farms there, though at too great Cost for muck Profit—^ 
The Capture of the Fur Seal on the Pribyloff Islands the principal 
Industry, though Fisheries may Increase — Detailed Account of the 
Fisheries — The Population, Nationalities, and Character — The Na- 
tives — KoLOSHiAN Tribes — Kenaian Tribes — The Aleuts — The Eskimo — 
Principal Towns and Villages — Meteorology of Fort St. Michael's and 
Unalashka — Objects of Interest to the Tourist — Historical Notes — 
Can it be Commended to Immigrants? 

Alaska, the unorganized Northwestern Territory of the United 
States, bears about the same relation to "Our Western Empire" 
that Eastern Siberia and Kamschatka do to the Russian Em- 
pire ; it is remote from the rest of the Empire, of vast territorial 
extent, but desolate and cold to the last degree, and can never 
become very populous, or of any remarkable economic value, 
until the plane of the ecliptic changes, and what is now an Arctic 
climate becomes torrid, or at least temperate. 

We know very well what is said about the ameliorating effect 
of the Kuro-Siwo or Japan current upon the climate of tho^e 
high latitudes ; but the Gulf stream, a similar but more powerful 
current, has not rendered Iceland a paradise, or Novaya Zemla 
a fit habitation for men, though both are in quite as low latitudes 



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ALASKA NOT A PARADISE. 1 267 

as most of Alaska. We hope for some return of the national 
outlay from the fisheries, the fur trade, and the timber of Alaska. 
The precious metals may be found there — probably they will ; 
and it may be possible on some favored spots to raise oats and 
barley, though not, to any extent, wheat or corn ; but in a climate 
which is " nine months winter and the other three months late in 
the fall" how can either mining or agriculture be expected to pros- 
per? As to the absurd prediction, that within a few years it will 
become the principal region of our country for dairy products, it 
is sufficient to say that Mr. Walker Blaine, son of the Senator, 
after a careful exploration of Alaska in the spring and summer 
of 1880, wrote to the New York Tribune on the 20th of June, 
1880, that there was not a single cow in the whole of Alaska. 
Even the ice, which is always abundant, does not prove profitable 
as an article of export, the manufacture of ice by machinery hav- 
ing been so far perfected that it can be produced in San Fran- 
cisco as cheaply as it can be imported from Alaska. No ice is 
now exported from the Territory. 

That we may do no injustice to this great northwestern land, 
let us proceed to say what can justly be said in its favor. 

Alaska is not, as is supposed by those who have given but 
little attention to the subject, a vast compact tract of territory. 
It has been not inaptly compared to the head and horns of a 
Texas bull — Yukon district forming the massive head, the Sitkan 
shore and archipelago forming one horn, and the Aliaskan penin- 
sula and the Aleutian Islands the other. The tips of the two 
horns are 60° of longitude or 3,000 miles apart ; and from the 
southernmost of the islands of the Aleutian group to Point Bar- 
row in the Arctic ocean, the northernmost point of Yukon is a 
little more than 20° of latitude, or about 1,400 miles. 

The area, according to the last report of the Land Office, is 577,- 
390 square miles, or 369,529,600 acres. The shore lines around 
the islands and peninsulas are roughly estimated at 25,000 miles, 
lor the entire circumference of the globe. The entire population 
of this Territory at the time of its acquisition from Russia was 
said to be about 29,000, of which 26,800 were said to be Indians 
and the remainder Caucasians and Creoles. It has not materially 
increased since. 



1268 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Topography — Mountains. — The Alaskan range, which seems to 
be a combination of the Coast, Cascade and Rocky Mountain 
Chains, passes northwestward through British Columbia a little 
east of the Sitkan Division of Alaska, enters the Yukon Division 
between the sixtieth and sixty-second parallels, and keeping a 
course parallel with and at a little distance from the left bank of 
the Yukon river, extends north nearly as far as Fort Yukon in 
latitude 66°, turns sharply south and forming the backbone of the 
Aliaskan peninsula and the Aleutian islands, each of which is a 
peak and generally a volcanic peak of the range, till finally its 
summits are all sunk in the deepest part of the northern Pacific 
ocean. This range has the loftiest peaks in North America 
outside of Mexico. Among these are Mount St. Elias, 19,500 
feet in height; Mount Cook, 16,000 feet; Mount Crillon, 15,900; 
Mount Fairweather, 15,500; while of the partially submerged 
volcanic peaks, Sheshaldin is 9,000 feet above the water ; Una- 
lashka, 5,691 feet; Atka, 4,852 feet; Kyska, 3,700 feet; while poor 
Attn, the westernmost of the group, can only lift its head 3,084 
feet above the deep valley of the Pacific. 

In addition to the Alaskan range, there are several other 
mountain ranges of less elevation : among them are the Shakto- 
lik and Ulukuk Hills, near Norton's sound ; the Yukon and Ro- 
manzoff Hills, north of the Yukon river ; the Kayiuh and Nowika- 
kat mountains east and south of the river, and a low range of 
hills bordering on the Arctic coast. 

Rivers. — The great river of the Territory is the Yukon, whose 
sources are in the Chippewayan and Alaskan range, in British 
America. It is more than 2,000 miles in length, and is navigable, 
when not frozen over, for 1,500 miles. The delta across its five 
mouths is seventy miles wide, and the river itself is from one to 
,five miles wide for the first 1,000 miles of its course. One of its 
largest tributaries, the Porcupine river, has most of its course 
above the Arctic circle. The Tananah, 250 miles in length, and 
the Nowikakat, 1 1 2 miles, are also tributaries of the Yukon. 
The Inland river, which flows into Kotzebue sound, and the Col- 
ville, which discharges its waters into the Arctic ocean, are the 
only other rivers north of the Yukon. South of it are the Kons- 



TOPOGRAPHY OF ALASKA. 1 269 

koquim, about 600 miles in length, the Nushagak, the Sushitna, 
the Atna or Copper river, and in the Sitkan division the Chilcat, 
the Takou and the Stickine. The last is about 250 miles in 
length. 

It is divided by natural lines into three grand divisions, varying 
each from the other in natural characteristics and value : 

1. The Sitkan Division, triangular in shape with the latitudinal 
line of 54° 40' north for the southern boundary, and the longitu- 
dinal line of 141° west for the western, and on the north and east 
i olio wing the summits of the Coast Range of mountains between 
these points, with a proviso that this strip of shore shall never 
exceed ten marine leagues in width. 

2. The Yukon Division, consisting of all the continent west of 
141° as far north as the Frozen Ocean. 

3. The islands not included in the Sitkan Division, comprising 
all the important islands of the Pacific Ocean north of 54° 40', 
from Alaska to Kamschatka, known generally as the Aleutian 
islands, and also the Aliaskan peninsula and the Kodiak or Ka- 
diak Islands, east of that peninsula, and the Pribyloff group, which 
are remarkable for the vast numbers of the fur-seal caught 
there. 

In the first or Sitkan Division, there were in 1867 about 800 
natives and some 800 whites and Creoles ; in the Yukon, 8,000 
natives, and 100 whites and Creoles; and in the remainder of 
Alaska, the Island Districts, 17,300 natives and 1,300 whites and 
Creoles, 

This meagre population is grouped entirely around the sea- 
board and large rivers. A glance at the best map will show that 
of the interior of the Yukon District geographers know very 
little. What rivers and lakes are traced upon the maps are usu- 
ally located upon slight and inaccurate information, derived from 
the natives. The interior of the islands and coasts longest peo- 
pled by a civilized race is almost altogether ignota teri^a. The 
coast line of BaranofT Island, on which Sitka is located, is well 
known and accurately defined upon the charts, but the interior is 
entirely unexplored. The only road at Sitka runs into the woods 
to the distance of a mile, and then stops before a wall of dense 



1270 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

forest and undergrowth. The growth of stunted trees all along 
the shores of the islands and main land of the Sitkan Division is 
so thick as to be almost impenetrable. There is one instance, at 
least, of a man's having given an entire day to the work of pene- 
trating inland, and at the end of his labor finding himself less 
than a mile from the shore. 

Geology. — The greater part of this vast Territory has under- 
gone changes from volcanic eruptions which have completely 
altered the character of its rocks. This is particularly the case 
in the Sitkan and Aleutian Divisions, in which there are sixty-one 
volcanoes which have been active within 1 50 years. The violence 
of the volcanic action seems to be decreasing, and of these sixty- 
one only ten are now in a condition of active and constant erup- 
tion. There are also very many extinct volcanoes in the Sitkan 
Division, and several are known in Yukon. 

The immense shore line and the mountain slopes are crowded 
■with glaciers ; some of these are the most stupendous in the 
world. One of these is described as fifty miles in length, and 
terminating on the sea-coast in a perpendicular ice-wall 300 feet 
high and eight miles broad ; another, thirty-five miles above 
Wrangell, on the Sti'ckine river, is said to be forty miles long at 
the base, four or five miles across, and variously estimated at 
from 500 to i,cxDO feet in thickness. 

Mmeral Wealth. — Alaska is known to possess coal beds of 
good quality and of great extent. Most of the coal beds are in 
the tertiary, and are properly lignite, though of the best quality. 
That in the Sitkan District has been so far changed by volcanic 
action that it is in some places a semi-anthracite. Petroleum is 
said to have been found of excellent quality and nearly odorless 
near the Bay of Katmai and on Copper river. 

Copper, native, or very rich copper ores, have been found on 
Copper river, at Kasa-an bay, at Whale bay, below Sitka, and in 
Kadiak Island. 

Iron exists all over the Territory, and graphite in several 
places. There is bismuth of fine quality on Vostovia Mountain, 
and gypsum, kaolin, marble, and the more common of the pre- 
cious stones, agate, carnelian, amethyst, etc., are sufficiently 
plentiful. 



G OLD-MINING. \ 27 1 

Gold undoubtedly exists in the Territor>', and probably at sev- 
eral points. In the Sitkan District there are several mines which 
.have been worked to some extent on Baranoff (or Sitka) Island; 
two or three formerly worked on the streams falling into Ste- 
phen's passage, about seventy-five miles north of Fort Wrangell, 
at the mouth of the Stickine river. Mr. Walker Blaine says : 

" The gold mines of the Stickine river are all located in British 
Columbia, and as the stores from which the most of the miners' 
supplies are furnished are upon the river, the business is diverted 
to the British possessions. Very many miners, however, winter at 
Wrangell, and freight bound to points on the Stickine river is at 
this place transferred to the small river steamers. Some gold 
claims have been located near Sitka, and specimens of ore sent 
to the assay office at Victoria have been found to contain a fair 
quantity of the precious metal. A quartz mill was erected during 
1878, and it was intended to develop one of the mines, but the 
unpleasant weather and short days of winter will render it ex- 
tremely difficult to carry on operations during more than six 
months of the year. No sufficient amount of capital has as yet 
been invested, nor have the mines been sufficiently worked to 
determine the mineral wealth of the Territory. Many who have 
given the subject great attention are fully convinced that valuable 
deposits of the precious metals exist. Mr. Francis, now and for 
many years past our Consul at Victoria, is sanguine in the belief 
that considerable quantities of gold will yet be mined, and his 
son, who was until recently the Deputy Collector at Sitka, speaks 
in still more confident terms of the value of the ore beds." 

As we write a report comes from Sitka, dated December 22, 
1880, saying that about two months previous a report was cir- 
culated that gold had been discovered at Tahon, an Indian set- 
tlement on the river of the same name, about 150 miles north of 
Sitka, and near the border of British Columbia. Further reports 
only increased the excitement, and when specimens of the ore 
were brought to Sitka, which yielded ^200 of pure gold to 300 
pounds of ore, the excitement became so intense that the people 
began to migrate thither in such numbers that the town was 
almost depopulated. It remains to be seen whether these mines 



1272 ^'^'^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

prove as rich as they seem to promise. If they do, they will be 
profitable, although they cannot be worked more than four or five 
months in the year. The Alaskan Mountains curve southwestward 
in the District of Yukon, and extend along the Aliaskan peninsula 
and through the Aleutian Islands. They seem to be the consoli- 
dation of the Rocky, Cascade and Coast Ranges. These moun- 
tains, according to all analogies, should contain both gold and 
silver, and in all probability they do. If the lodes are very rich, 
it may pay to work them, though the expense will be mucl 
ofreater than that of workingf mines farther south. 

Zoology. — The animals of Alaska belong rather to the fauna 
of the Arctic than the Temperate Zone. The musk ox is found 
in Yukon District, and the reindeer, though of a different species 
from the European. The polar bear frequents the shores of the 
Arctic Ocean, and sometimes ventures as far south as Kotzebue 
sound. The elk and moose are seen, though rarely ; the Rocky 
Mountain goat and sheep (the bighorn), several species of fox, 
the mink, beaver, marten, lynx, otter, sea-otter, black bear, wol- 
verine, whistler, ermine, marmot, skunk, muskrat and wolf. Of 
amphibia^ the seal, sea-otter, whale, porpoise, narwhal, etc., are 
abundant. Its birds are largely game birds, the ptarmigan, 
grouse, wild geese, teal, ducks, brant, etc., at certain seasons, and 
eagles, fishhawks, gulls, the great owl, etc., etc. Of the fish we 
speak elsewhere. 

Let us now take up the divisions in detail, and endeavor to 
ascertain what each can produce with profit. And, first, of the 

Sitkan Division. — " Here," says Mr. Blaine, " no grass has 
been grown, and the small gardens at Sitka and Wrangell pro- 
duce only a few of the hardiest vegetables. So great is the 
moisture that hay cannot readily be cured, wheat ripened, nor 
potatoes raised. Even cabbages will not head. While our 
troops were in the Territory, a few cattle were with great difficulty 
kept in the District, but there is not at present a cow in the whole 
military Division of Alaska. Beef is a luxury most highly prized, 
the only meat being an occasional haunch of venison, and, in the 
proper season, small game. The mountains as a rule descend 
abruptly to the sea, and the small patches of level land are few 



THE SITKAN DIVISION OF ALASKA. 1273 

and far between. In a word, agriculturally this whole district is 
absolutely worthless. There is no fodder for cattle, and the 
ground under the most careful cultivation yields nothing but the 
poorest varieties of the most insignificant vegetables. The hand 
of man can do little to add to the value of the Sitkan Division. 

"The Sitkan Division does, however, possess a great abun- 
dance of most valuable ship-timber. The wood, known as 
yellow cedar, and sometimes called camphor-wood, which is the 
most durable of all woods for purposes of ship-building, is found 
in large quantities, and the Sitka spruce, inferior to this, but of 
very great value, is most plentiful. Logs of either of these woods 
can be easily procured at very small expense. Lumber has been 
sawed at a total cost of three dollars per thousand, which would 
easily command from twelve to fifteen dollars in San Francisco. 
There has been for some time a small saw-mill in Sitka, and 
another has recently been built in Klahwoch, but only trifling 
quantities of lumber have as yet been sawed at either place. 
The vast tracts of timber land in Oregon, Washington Territory 
and Northern California will, for many years, supply the market 
of the Pacific coast. 

" The fur trade of the Sitkan Division is at present the most 
important interest. The small amount of business now trans- 
acted at Sitka is entirely dependent upon the exchange of com- 
modities for furs and peltries. For the past few years there has 
not been a sufficient demand for furs to make high prices or 
large gains. Fashion has frowned, at the dictation, perhaps, of 
the hard times, and competition among traders has assisted in 
reducing the profits. All the merchants profess to have lost 
money, and it is the general opinion that none have made any. 
The fur-seal is not found in the waters adjacent to Sitka, but 
large quantities of other valuable furs are brought to this place 
and to Wrangell by the Indians and accumulated by traders. 
Fur-trading is in its very nature little suited to the permanent 
prosperity of a country. It demands the frontier and the wilder- 
ness as the seat of operations, and is perforce killed, as a country 
is settled and its resources developed. It is the enemy of civili- 
zation, and the more profitable it is, the sooner does it come to 



1274 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

an end. Year by year, as the circle of population widens, the 
trappers are driven farther to the north. Astoria, for years the 
centre of the trade, long ago yielded its supremacy, and today 
no furs are sold in that market at first hand. A large part of the 
world's supply must henceforth come from Alaska. She has no 
rival on this continent, and in the most important branches no 
formidable competitor on the globe. 

" The fisheries of the Sitkan waters will perhaps ultimately 
prove the most valuable resource. They have, however, until 
very recently been of but little practical value. A few barrels of 
salted fish have been annually exported, and the inhabitants have 
to a large extent sustained life on the products of the sea. 
Within the past two years two salmon canneries have been built, 
and quite a large amount of money invested in this enterprise, 
but lack of information does not permit me to say whether the 
venture has proved successful. 

"It was said in support of the Alaskan purchase that all the ice 
of the Pacific coast was imported from that Territory ; but the 
value of the export was never in a single year more than ^30,ock), 
and the successful introduction of machinery for the production 
of ice artificially has caused the business to rapidly decline and 
disappear. No ice is now exported from any portion of the 
Territory." 

2. The Yukon District. — Of this region the massive head of 
the bull, whose left horn, the Sitkan Division, we have just been 
considering, it has been the fashion with some writers to speak in 
the most glowing terms. It was " the garden of Alaska." Here 
wheat and all the other cereals except corn, and all the tubers and 
vegetables required in the market gardens or the markets of the 
Pacific coast, could be raised in the greatest profusion. In the 
hot, short summer, everything, it was said, grew so rapidly that a 
vast population could be sustained here. The later commis- 
sioners and explorers do not corroborate these glowing accounts. 
"The second division, called the Yukon," says Mr. Walker Blaine, 
"has been less explored than either of the others. There were 
formerly a few Russian posts in the Territory, but these have now 
been abandoned. At Cook's Inlet, at the mouth of the Sutchino 



THE YUKON DISTRICT OF ALASKA. ^21 < 

river, and at many points on the Yukon river, sufficient grass is 
found to afford the best of fodder for cattle, and wild berries and 
smaller fruits flourish in abundance. The range of the thermom- 
eter at a distance from the sea-coast is far greater than in Sitka, 
or near the sea-line, and the summers are so warm as to produce 
the most luxuriant vegetation. On the Yukon river the sun has 
been known in the month of July to burst a spirit thermometer, 
graduated up to 1 20°, and the winters are Arctic in severity. 
There is no trouble in curing hay at these points, and there is 
said to be good grazing land for cattle. It will of course be ne- 
cessary to shelter the herds during more than half of the year, 
and fattening for market will not therefore be profitable. Fruit- 
trees will not flourish, and while some experiments have been 
made with barley and oats, which are said to have been satisfac- 
tory, not a grain of wheat has ever been brought to maturity. 
South of the Alaskan Range, save at Cook's Inlet and on the 
peninsulas, there is no good land, and north of the mountains 
only persistent and careful cultivation will enable the farmers to 
reap satisfactory results. The only evidence which we have as 
to the land is from experiments made by the Russians and the 
scientific officers of the Western Union Telegraph Company. 
They are both very unsatisfactory, especially those of the former, 
as they were intrusted to Indians, who, being utterly ignorant of 
agriculture and cattle-breeding, conducted them most unskilfully. 
There are also said to be valuable coal-beds, but as no examina- 
tion was ever made by competent geologists, this cannot be 
safely affirmed. Undoubtedly there is considerable free copper 
in the district, as the natives formerly employed this metal in the 
manufacture of wagons and domestic articles, but its location is 
at present unknown. Fur animals abound, especially those liv 
ing upon the land. Fort St. Michael was formerly one of the 
chief trading posts of the Russians, and many of the fox and 
beaver skins now sent from the north Pacific are trapped upon 
the Yukon, Good timber is also found in many portions of 
the division, but it is not so accessible nor so valuable for ship- 
building as that about Sitka. Fish of all kinds, especially cod and 
halibut, are very abundant at Cook's Inlet and along the entire 
coast. 



,276 ^^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

3. The Island Distiict, which includes the Aliaskan peninsula, 
the large island of Kadiak and the group of islands which surround 
it, the Aleutian Archipelago, comprising the three groups of the 
Fox, the Andreanowsky, and the Blijnie or Rat Islands, the whole 
constituting the right horn of the bull ; and with these the Priby- 
loff group (the home of the fur seal), Nounivak, Lawrence, and 
the St. Matthew group, come next in review. " These islands," 
says Mr. Blaine, "are the most valuable portion of our Russian 
purchase. The island of Kadiak and others of the Aleutian group 
contain very good arable land. The cattle distributed by the 
Russian Commercial Company succeeded here far better than 
in any other part of the Territory. There is good pasture land, 
and hay can be made with greater ease than at the mouth of the 
Columbia river. There is also an encouraging report that a 
good variety of potatoes can be grown, although ' the tubers are 
said to be small.' There is not much timber of good quality 
upon these islands, but the fisheries are of very great value. 
The Aleuts, who are the chief native race, are by nature the 
most honest people in the world. On the islands where there 
are no forests, driftwood furnishes the principal supply of fuel, 
and it is said that the unwritten law with reference to the rights 
of property is so strong that, should an Indian discover a log of 
wood which it is not then convenient for him to carry away, he 
may, by carrying it above high-water mark and placing it at 
rio-ht angles to the line of the beach, leave it with full assurance 
that it will not be disturbed until his convenience warrants the 
removal. 

"The chief sources of our revenue from Alaska are in what is 
known as the Pribyloff Islands. St. Paul and St. George, two of 
the group, now furnish almost all of the seal-skins used in the 
world. These islands abound with seal, and being the property 
of the United States, are leased by the government to the Alaska 
Fur Company. The number of seals killed each year is limited 
by law to 100,000, and for these a royalty of two dollars each 
is paid. If the law restricting the number of seals annually killed 
is strictly enforced, this industry will for many years furnish the 
chief part of the revenue from Alaska, and constitute the most 
valuable product of the Territory." 



FISHERIES OF ALASKA. 1 277 

A correspondent of the Portland Oixgonian, writing from Sitka 
in the summer of 1880, gives the following account of the fish- 
eries: 

"Alaska is destined to supply the world with fish. Its waters 
abound in halibut, herring, cod, and salmon; indeed there is hardly 
a species of which representatives cannot be found. While 
those above named exist here in endless profusion, flounders, 
black bass, rock-cod, trout, and the dehcious eulocous, with other 
varieties, appear in vast schools, supplying the natives with 
abundant food at all seasons of the year. 

"At Klowak, sixty miles from Fort Wrangell, the North Pacific 
trading and packing company have a large fishery in operation, 
where during the present year especial attention has been paid 
to herring. The catch this spring was very successful, the fish 
being in prime condition, and not only larger in size but of better 
flavor than ever before sent to market. 1 70 barrels were sent 
to Pordand for the purpose of introducing the fish to dealers, 
and if desired ten times that amount could have been secured. 

" Five miles from the town of Sitka the firm of Cutting & Co. 
have a large cannery erected where thousands of salmon are 
put up every year to meet the demand made for Alaska salmon 
from the Eastern markets. While the salmon from these waters 
have not the gustable richness, and lack the savory flavor of 
Columbia river salmon, there are many that prefer the Alaskan 
species, particularly in the Eastern States and foreign countries. 
This may be, perhaps, accounted for, in part, for the reason that 
Columbia river salmon labels find their way on thousands of cans 
of what is purported to be the genuine article, while in fact their 
contents are dog-fish. The establishment of Messrs. Cutting & 
Co. is complete in every detail, and is under the superintendency 
of Mr. A. Hunter. A large number of white men and Indians 
find steady employment at the cannery during the summer, and 
it is remarkable to witness the proficiency attained by some of 
the Indian boys in making cans. Some idea of the extensive 
business of this establishment may be had by the shipments made, 
and this year the superintendent will send 40,000 cases of fish 
to San Francisco and the Eastern markets. 



J 278 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

"The catching of cod-fish in Alaskan waters is becominor yearly 
a more prosperous pursuit, and this season Mr. James Haley, of 
Fort Wrangell, secured a schooner-load of cod at the Knout-Znu 
bank, in Chatham straits. He found the bank swarming with 
fish, but the Indians of that locality, the Knout-znous, are ' hiyu 
sullux,' over the coming of white men in their waters, refusing to 
allow the men to fish, performing that work themselves and 
charging one cent for each and every fish caught. In this way 
a full load was secured, which is now in process of curation at 
Wrangell. A ready market for the fish is found at home for 
supplying the mining camps, the entire cargo being readily dis- 
posed of at ^100 a ton, delivered at Wrangell. The Alaska 
cod, when once fairly introduced to Oregon and California mar- 
kets, will rapidly become a favorite with all lovers of that fish, 
and in time supplant the eastern-caught fish." 

Population^ its Nationalities and Character. — We have already 
stated the probable number of the population, though as no cen- 
sus has been taken, it is impossible to fix it accurately. Of the 
2,200 whites and Creoles reported in 1867 nearly one-half were 
half-breeds with Indian mothers. The number of whites and 
Creoles has increased, perhaps, 500 since that time ; but the in- 
crease has been almost wholly in the half-breeds. The native 
tribes were divided by General Halleck's report of 1869 into four 
groups — I. The Koloshian tribes, which occupy the Sitkan Divi- 
sion, and extend as far as the Atna or Copper river. These 
tribes, which have been variously estimated at from 800 to 1 5,000 
(the latter estimate, however, including the coast Indians of 
Northwestern British Columbia), are those with which our people 
have been brought most in contact. They are, like the other 
Indian tribes of this coast, of the Athabascan family, and origi- 
nally probably of Mongolian or Northern Tartar stock. They 
are as a rule more intelligent and possess more mechanical skill 
than the Dakota or Sioux family, but are more superstitious 
and idolatrous, and quite as low morally as any of the Indian 
tribes. Some of these tribes have been hostile to the whites, and 
have murdered the crews of vessels, but they are now generally 
peaceful, except when they are intoxicated. They distil a fiery 



PRINCIPAL TOIVA'S AND VILLAGES. 1270 

and wretched rum, which they call " Hoochinoo," from refuse 
molasses brought there by some of the ships, and become very 
fiendish and violent under its influence. Missionaries are now 
laboring among them, and a considerable number have been 
converted. 

2. The Kenaian Tribes, who occupy the whole of the Yukon 
Division south of the Yukon river. They are more numerous 
than the preceding, ranging from 1 5,cxx) to 20,000. They are 
said to be peaceful, quiet and well disposed, though there is not 
much known of them. 

3. The Aleuts. These are the Indians of the islands and the 
Aliaskaii peninsula. They strongly resemble the Eskimo, and 
are industrious, honest, peaceable and ready for instruction. 

4. The Eskimo, who inhabit the region north of the Yukon 
river. These, like their fellows of Greenland and the eastern 
coast, are very industrious, patient and hospitable. General 
Halleck estimated their number at about 20,000. Later writers 
think there are not more than 5,000. » 

Want of Laws and a Legal Government. — There is to-day no 
legal government in Alaska, and only two laws in force in the 
Territory, one the revenue law for the collection of customs and 
the prevention of smuggling, and the other a law prohibiting the 
importation of liquor into the Territory. There are no efficient 
means of enforcing even these laws. There is no provision for 
arresting or punishing a murderer, highway robber or pirate. A 
few simple laws would be sufficient, but though the attention of 
Congress has been repeatedly called to the matter by the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury, nothing has been done. 

Principal Towns and Villages. — In the Sitkan Division, Sitka, 
the present capital of the Territory, and Fort Wrangell, are the 
only important settlements. They have about 1,300 and 800 
inhabitants respectively. In the Island Division, St. Paul's, on 
Kadlak Island, the former capital under the Russians, and Una- 
lashka, the refitting station and trading post of the Alaska Com- 
mercial Company, are small villages. In the Yukon District, 
Fort St. Michael's and Cook's Inlet are the only places of any 
importance. 



i28o 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



We have given some notes of the climate of Sitka. Perhaps 
a few items from the Signal Service reports in relation to a sta- 
tion at Fort St. Michael's, in Yukon, and Unalashka Island, in the 
Aleutian Archipelago, may be worth noting : 



FORT ST. MICHAEL'S, Yukon District, Alaska. 
Latitude 63° 48'. 
Longitude 161° o'. 
Elevation 30 feet. 



Year 

AND 

Months. 



1S78. 

Year 

July 

August . . 
September 
October . . 
November 
December 

1879. 
January. . 
February. 

March 

April 

May 

June 



Temperature. 



— 21 
—30 



21.9 
St. I 
524 
46.0 
29.1 
15.6 
16.6 

14 9 
3-5 
13-6 
19.0 
31-5 
46.3 



Humidity. 



15-6^ 
3-48 
2.16 



per ct. 

87 
77 



—r^^ 

Barometer. 



.2 


29. 


•3 


29. 


•4 


29. 


•4 


29. 


•9 


29. 


.0 


29, 


•3 


29. 


.1 


30- 


•7 


29. 


.0 


29. 


4 


29. 



inches. 

734 
778 
695 

707 
659 
278 

763 

642 
179 

751 
677 

945 



UNALASHKA ISLAND, Alaska. 
Latitude 53° 25'. 
Longitude 166° 49'. 
Elevation ab. 20 feet. 



Temperature. 



48.0 
40.8 
33-5 
35-' 



34 
29,2 
32.2 
331 



Humidity. 



8mon. 
30-74 



The Attractions of Alaska to the summer tourist are very great. 
At Sitka and its vicinity the midsummer night is almost as attrac- 
tive as at Tromsoe or the North Cape. At Kotzebue sound it 
is quite as beautiful. Later in the season the brilliant aurora 
borealis, or Northern lights, are of unsurpassed beauty and 
magnificence. 

Mr. Blaine thus describes the voyage from Nanaimo, the last 
port of British Columbia, to Sitka: 

"The picturesque parts of the voyage are found between Na- 
naimo and Sitka. The steamer sweeps through a narrow strait 
guarded on either hand by snow-capped mountains, and so nar- 
row that despite all your knowledge of perspective it seems as 
if the shores meet as you look up the channel from the bow of 



CAN ALASKA BE COMMENDED TO IMMIGRANTS? 128 1 

the ship. On either side mountains, green at the base and white 
at the summit, overhang the water. A patch of marble cropping 
through the trees forms an occasional and welcome spot of color 
In the monotonous green, and the ripple of a cascade agreeably 
breaks the stillness which everywhere reigns supreme. For days 
not a living thing is seen ; no animal upon the land, no Indian on 
the water, no bird In the air. The waves, washed by the wheel 
I against the shore, tremble Into silence; the hills which echoed the 
whistle sullenly grow calm once more, and you seem shut in by 
the forces of nature, and in th^ power of the genii of sea and 
strand. There is apathy everywhere, activity nowhere. High 
up In the sky the sun rolls lazily along, completing the task in 
twenty hours which elsewhere he accomplishes In fourteen. The 
nights glitter with weird light. The sunset Is reflected by the 
sunrise. The west yet glimmers with the streaks of day, while in 
the east jocund morn stands tiptoe on the misty mountain-top. 
At 10 at night the finest print Is read with ease, and at 3 in the 
morning the sun streaming Into the state room wakens you from 
sleep." 

We can hardly commend Alaska as a favorable point for emi- 
grants, unless it be those hardy Norsemen whose constant 
encounters with the Arctic climate have rendered them proof 
against its hardships ; but development, though slow in coming, 
will yet surely reach this far-off land of ice. There will probably 
be no great change in the climate. Neither wheat nor dairy 
products will be exported In any large quantity, but the seal and 
sea-otter furs, and the furs and pelts of land animals, will Increase 
In value and perhaps In numbers ; the magnificent forests will 
supplement the fast diminishing timber product of the Pacific 
coast, and the fisheries will furnish abundant and healthful food 
to millions who to-day hardly know that Alaska exists. Then 
there will be a place there for the hardy and adventurous emi- 
grant, and his toil will be rewarded. 
81 



PART IV. 

THE LANDS OUTSIDE OF "OUR "WESTERN EMPIRE." 



CHAPTER I. 

THE NORTHWESTERN PROVINCES OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 

1. British Columbia — Boundaries — Area — Islands — Soil of Islands and 
Coast — Soil and Surface of the Interior — Mountains — Rivers — Geol- 
ogy and Mineralogy — Coal — Gold, Silver, etc. — Fisheries — Timber — 
Fur-Trade — Population — Indians — Chief Towns — II. The Northwest 
Territories — Extent — Recent Division — Lakes — Rivers — Mountains — 
Soil — Climate Warmer than Manitoba — Wild Animals and Game Plenty 
— Rivers and Lakes Stocked with Fish — Population — Indians — Reli- 
gion — III. Keewatin — The New Territory — Not much known of it — IV. 
Manitoba — Its Territory too Small — No Good Reason for this — Its 
Boundaries — Its Rivers — The Province nearly a Dead Level — Climate 
— Rainfall — Meteorology of Fort Garry — Agriculture — Conflicting 
Accounts — Report of an " English Farmer " — Reply of "a Canadian" 

■ — Climate very Severe in Winter — Mr. Vernon Smith's Description of 
THE Rivers and Lakes and their Future Usefulness — Earl Dufferin's 
Description — Mr. Vernon Smith on the Crops — Later Statistics not 
available — Transportation — The Canadian Pacific — Its Present Con- 
dition AND Prospects — Religion — Education, etc. — Principal Towns — 
Historical Notes — The Red River Settlement — Pembina — Assiniboia — 
Riel's Revolution — The rapid growth of the Province since it became 
A Part of the Dominion. 

I. British Columbia. — This is the most western province of 

the Dominion of Canada, lying- between the 48th and the 60th 

parallels of north latitude, and the 114th and the 139th meridians 

of longitude west from Greenwich. It is bounded on the north 

by the Arctic portion of the Northwest Territory ; on the east by 

the same ; on the south by the United States (the Territories of 
(1282) 



TOPOGRAPHY OP BRllISIl COLUMBLA. 1283 

Washington, Idaho and a small part of Montana) ; on the west 
by the Pacific Ocean and the Territory of Alaska. Its area is 
variously stated at from 220,000 to 293,000 square miles. It in- 
cludes several important islands, as well as many smaller ones. 
The largest of these, Vancouver Island, was itself at one time a 
separate province. Among the other important islands are those 
of the Queen Charlotte group, which contain mines of excellent 
anthracite coal. The whole coast forms an archipelago, which is 
continued along the Sitkan Division of Alaska. There is a com- 
plete sheltered waterway, navigable for the largest steamers, 
between these islands and the coast, and many of the rivers of 
the province have extensive estuaries or Jioi'ds, called by the 
inhabitants " canals," which penetrate far into the interior, walled 
in by lofty and often perpendicular cliffs. 

The soil of the islands and of the lands near the sea is very 
good, and the climate mild, though rainy. In the interior, the 
surface is extremely rugged and barren, and the climate severe. 
The main chain of the Rocky Mountains forms the eastern 
boundary between this and the Northwestern Territory, while the 
Cascade and Coast Ranges, which unite farther north, here form 
separate chains of mountains. There are several elevated sum- 
. mits, ranging from 10,000 to 13,000 or 14,000 feet, but none 
approaching very near to the Alaskan peaks. The rivers are 
numerous, and some of them of o-reat size. The Columbia river 
and its affluents, the Okinakane and the Kootanie, drain the 
southeastern part of the province, the former flowing through 
several small lakes in its course ; the Frazer river, rising from 
two sources, one in the Rocky Mountains, and the other in the 
Cascade Range, drains the central portion of the province, and 
discharo-es its waters into the Gulf of GeorLria. On the west side 
ot the province, a half-dozen considerable streams, among which 
are the Salmon, the Simpson and the Stickine, find their way 
from the Cascade Range into the Archipelago. In the north, 
two important tributaries of the Mackenzie river traverse the 
valleys between the mountains, and one of them crosses the 
Rocky Mountains by a low-lying pass from west to east. In the 
northeast the Finley branch of the Peace river, which falls into 



1 2 84 OCR I VES TERN EMPIRE. 

the Athabasca lake, has its source in the Cascade Mountains, and 
crosses the Rocky Mountains by another pass near the 56th par- 
allel. There are numerous lakes in the province. The best 
harbor is at Esquimault. Vancouver Island and the coast along 
the Gulf of Georgia would be a good wheat country if the rains 
were not so profuse. Oats and barley do better, and the root 
crops are very good. North of this island there is much fine 
grazing land. The fisheries on the coast are very important. 
Cod, haddock, herring, halibut, salmon trout, sturgeon, anchovies, 
and, above all, salmon, are very abundant. There are many- 
gold mines on the Frazer, Salmon, Simpson and Stickine rivers, 
and the yield is large. Silver, copper, zinc, and quicksilver are 
also mined to some extent. There is coal on the mainland, but 
not of as good quality as that on the Queen Charlotte Islands. 
Marble of great excellence is found in the southern part of the 
province. There is an abundance of good timber. This province 
and Alaska are now, and are likely to be for many years to come, 
the chief seats of the fur trade. 

The population of British Columbia in 1871 was: whites, 14,- 
043 ; Indians and Creoles, about 36,000. The Indians have not 
increased materially in the last decade, but the white population 
now probably exceeds 25,000. The capital is Victoria, in the- 
southeastern point of Vancouver Island. New Westminster is 
the next town in size, and is the see of an English bishop. 
There are a number of torts, but few other towns of considerable 
size. The province has a lieutenant-governor, and is repre- 
sented in the Dominion Parliament by three senators and six 
representatives. 

II. The Northzvestern Ter^'itories. — This has been until re- 
cently the titular designation of all that part of the Dominion of 
Canada which lay north of the United States and west of the 
province of Ontario and Hudson's bay, except the provinces of 
British Columbia and Manitoba. The Parliament of 1880, how- 
ever, made some changes which restrict the extent of this vast 
and almost unknown domain. It still retains more than 2,000,000 
ot square miles; but while it extends from the 49th parallel to 
the Arctic Ocean, its eastern limit is found in the chain of lakes 



THE NORTHWESTERN TERRITORIES. 1285 

which mark the rim of the Hudson Bay basin — Lake Winnipeg-, 
Lake Nelson, Deer lake, Lake Wollaston, etc. All the land 
east of Manitoba and Lake Winnipeg, to the boundaries of On- 
tario (which have been considerably extended westward and 
northwestward), are comprised in the new and as yet not fully 
organized province of Keewatin, or Kewaydin. 

This vast Territory of the Northwest is but little known except 
by the hunter and trapper. It is a land of great lakes and 
mighty rivers. Between the foothills of the Rocky Mountains 
and the Great Arctic Plain and the rim of the Great Hudson Bay 
basin stretches the Low Central Plain, which extends from the 
Arctic Ocean, at the broad delta of the Mackenzie river, south- 
ward through all the long valley of that river, the Slave river and 
lake, the Athabasca, the Peace, the Saskatchewan and the Red 
river, with all the lakes in their course, to the head waters of the 
Mississippi, in Minnesota (which are not two miles distant from 
those of the Red river), and thence down the Mississippi Valley 
to the gulf. Nowhere else in the world is there such a continu- 
ous valley through the whole length of a continent. The soil 
of these river valleys is very good, even up to the limit where the 
cold season is too protracted for most agricultural products. 
There are great tracts, called barrens, and which deserve the 
name, where hardy lichens and mosses form the only vegetation ; 
but the valleys of the Saskatchewan, the Peace river, the Atha- 
basca and the Nelson, have a good soil, and a climate said to be 
better than that of Manitoba* or Northern Minnesota. In this 
valley, as far north as Peace river and Athabasca lake, it is 
asserted that one-half the prairie land is arable, and most of this 
is suitable for wheat-growing, or at least for the cultivation of 
some of the cereals. Along the foothills of the Rocky or Chip- 
pewayan Mountains the soil is not so good, and the water has a 
tendency to be alkaline. The northern portion, and, indeed, 
nearly the whole of this vast Territory, has been the favorite 
hunting-ground of the Indians, the French voyageurs, and the 

* Battleford, in latitude 53°, 700 miles northwest of Winnipeg, has a climate averaging 
seven degrees warmer than that city, and the whole north Saskatchewan Valley is materially 
warmer than Manitoba. 



J 286 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Scotch traders and trappers. It is, with the provinces and Terri- 
tories west of it, the main dependence of the civilized world for 
furs. Buffalo, beavers, sables, martens, wolves, foxes, bears, otter, 
fishers, etc., are very numerous, and the uttermost diligence of 
the hunters and trappers does not materially diminish their num- 
bers. The musk ox, the polar bear, and the blue and Arctic foxes 
are found toward the mouth of the Mackenzie river and alone 
the coasts and islands of the Arctic Archipelago. Deer are 
abundant in the south and west, and the elk and moose are often 
seen. Geese, ducks, swans, ptarmigans and various kinds of 
grouse are found in great quantities on and near the numerous 
lakes. The lakes and streams are well stocked with fish. 

The population until 1871 was mainly Indian, with a small 
number of Canadian-French voyageurs, Scotch, Irish and Ameri- 
can trappers and hunters, and some half-breeds. Within the last 
decade, however, the immigration to Manitoba has very largely 
migrated from that province to the better and dryer lands along 
the Qui Appelle, or Assiniboine, and the Saskatchewan rivers, and 
the land has been found well adapted to wheat culture, and the 
climate more favorable than that of Manitoba. The white popu^ 
lation of the southern part of the Territory has thus largely in- 
creased. It was computed in 1871 that there were about 67,000 
Indians in the Territory, and not over 1,000 whites. There may 
be now 10,000 whites in the Territory. 

The completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway through the 
southern portion of the Territory within a few years will probably 
greatly accelerate its growth. Battleford is the capital, though 
until very recently the lieutenant-governor and the bishop of the 
diocese resided at Winnipeg, in Manitoba. It is not represented 
in the Dominion Parliament. 

III. Keewatin, or Kewavdin. — Of this new and unorganized 
Territory there is little to be said. It is almost wholly in the 
basin of Hudson's bay, and its numerous lakes and rivers all 
drain, directly or indirectly, into that bay. Its southern boundary 
under the report of the commissioners is not lower than 52° 
of latitude, and this in that loncritude insures for it a rioorous 
climate. The Canadian almanacs state its area as about 500,000 



RESTRICTED AREA OF MANITOBA. 1287 

square miles, of which not more than 30,000 are fit for culture. 
It is probably a good country for hunters and trappers. VVe have 
no means of ascertaining its population, though we know it to be 
mostly Indians and trappers;-'' but the census of the whole Do- 
minion will be taken during the present year (1881). If there is 
mineral wealth in this Territory, it is as yet undiscovered. 

IV. Manitoba. — This province of the Dominion of Canada was 
organized, with its present boundaries, in 1871. The circum- 
stances attending its organization probably had much to do with 
its somewhat restricted area. That in a regfion where it was as 
easy to carve out a territory or province of 75,000 or 100,000 
square miles as of any less extent, and still leave immense tracts 
of unorganized territory, it does seem surprising that the founders 
of the province should have contented themselves with an area 
of only 14,340 square miles, less than one-third of that of Penn- 
sylvania, and only one-sixth of that of Minnesota, its nearest 
neighbor on the south. And this wonder is heightened when we 
find that its present limits exclude almost the whole of the two 
great lakes, Winnipeg and Manitoba, as well as the large rivers, 
whose valleys are so fertile, and whose lands are so much more 
desirable than those Included within its boundaries. The first 
requisites for a new Territory are : that it shall have an abun- 
dance of good, arable land, wich large, navigable rivers. If possible; 
a climate not too moist, even if It is somewhat cold ; and good 
grazing lands and timber, as well as a large farming area. All 
of these Manitoba might easily have had by extending Its boun- 
daries northward and westward. Manitoba Is bounded on the 
north and west by the Northwest Territory; on the east by Kee- 
watln, or Kewaydin, which interposes a narrow tract between it 
and Ontario ; and on the south by the State of Minnesota and the 
Territory of Dakota, or, as it will speedily be called, the Terri- 
tory of Pembina. It lies between the parallels of 49° and 50° 30' 
north latitude, and between the meridians of 96° and 99° west 
longitude from Greenwich. Its area, as already stated. Is 14,340 
square miles, or 9,177,600 acres.f 

*Whitakei's Almanac for i88l estimates the population at about io,000. 

f An official statement in Whitaker's Almanac for 1881 gives the area as 13,923 square miles. 



J 288 ^^^ WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Surface, Soil, and Geology. — The province lies almost entirely 
in the valley of the Red river, and is nearly a dead level, though 
rising very gendy toward the south. Lake Winnipeg, on its 
northern boundary, is a little more than loo feet lower than the 
Red river where it enters the province on the southern boun- 
dary ; the surface of the lake being 628 feet above the sea ; Fort 
Garry, which is at some height above the river banks, 724 feet, 
while the Red river at Emerson is about 760 feet. So level 
is the area around Winnipeg that it is often overflowed by the 
Red river when it is swollen by the melting of the winter snows. 
West of the river, the streams have cut their way through the 
yielding soil and flow in deep troughs, or, as they are called in 
the provincial Canadian voyageur's French, coulees, a corruption 
of coulisses. The roads, in the spring and autumn especially, are 
miry and wretched, and animals, carriages, and wagons are fre- 
quently stuck in the mire. 

Most of the country where not culdvated is covered with tall, 
coarse grass. There is a sufficiency of timber in the province 
for all immediate wants, and the banks of the lakes and rivers 
outside of the province are heavily wooded. The soil is alluvial, 
this whole region having once been the bed of a great lake. 
The floods in the lower Red river may make the soil richer, but 
they interfere at times very seriously with the crops and with the 
comfort of the setders. East of the Red river, there is more 
forest than west of it, and the land is not quite so uniformly level. 
There are, however, extensive marshes. 

The climate is remarkably healthful, but the winters are very 
severe. The rainfall is slightly greater than at Pembina, Dakota, 
on the southern border, and with the humid atmosphere from the 
adjacent lakes, is amply sufficient. We give on page 1289 the 
reports of the Canadian Signal Service of the temperature at Fort 
Garry, Winnipeg, Manitoba, and as the Canadian authorities do 
not report the rainfall, we have added that at Pembina, which 
is only a litde less than that of Fort Garry. 

Agriculture and Agricidtural Productions. — There is hardly 
any inhabited region of the globe about which so many conflict- 
ing- statements have been made, as Manitoba. These contradic- 



TEMPERATURE AT FORT GARRY. 



1289 



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1200 ^UR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

tions concern Its climate, its soil, its farm products and its graz- 
ing lands, and live-stock. Here are some brief specimens from 
two Manitoban farmers, one signing himself "an English farmer," 
the other "a Canadian." "The English farmer" says: 

" In my opinion a good farming country should possess the 
following essentials — viz., good soil, a regular succession of sea- 
sons and a climate that will admit of outdoor work being per- 
formed during at least eight or nine months in each year." He 
admits that the land in Manitoba is much of it good, but com- 
plains that most of that which is worth anything is either " half- 
breed reserve," or bought up by speculators; and says that if 
settlers want free-grant land worth working, they will have to go 
beyond Manitoba into the Northwest Territory to get it. Hav- 
ing obtained this, he says, the list of advantages becomes ex- 
hausted, for good land is absolutely all that the Canadian North- 
west can give the settler. 

" In the next essential, the regular succession of the seasons, 
those who come here are woefully disappointed — there being 
only one season that you can reckon upon with any degree of 
certainty, and that is a winter extending over more than half the 
year, and surpassing in its frequency of storms and intensity of 
cold any region yet discovered outside of the Arctic Circle. It 
is a winter that Europeans can form no adequate conception of, 
exceeding in its severity even the cold of Iceland. This is no 
random assertion, as the following will show : — At the latter end 
of last winter I was transacting some business with an Icelander, 
who has been living in Manitoba for the last five years, and in 
the course of conversation I asked him if it was much colder in 
Iceland than it was in Manitoba? With a look of mingled aston- 
ishment and amusement he said : — ' What ! colder in Iceland ? 
Oh, dear, no ! We not haf so mooch steady cold in Iceland as we 
haf here in Manitoba.' So if any who happen to read this letter 
are desirous of coming to a country colder than Iceland let them 
by all means pack up and start off at once, so as to be in time for 
the beginning of the ' beautiful winter,' which will soon be upon 
us.* But if any such be heads of families, I virould urge upon them 

*This complaint of the severity of the winter climate seems to be well founded. Rev. H *. 



AN ^^ENGLISH FARMER'S" COMPLAINTS OF MANITOBA. 1291 

to spend one winter here themselves before bringing the wife and 
Htde ones, or, Uke some of us who are here now, they may have 
to reo-ret with a Hfelong sorrow the folly of bringing delicate or- 
o-anizations to suffer the rigors of a winter such as only hardy 
men could hope to endure. It is not only humanity that suffers 
durino- the winter, but the horses and cattle get into a miserable 
condidon through the intense cold and poor food. The hand- 
books for emigrants describe in glowing terms 'the beautiful 
meadow^s, the vast fields of rich prairie hay.' I have been here 
since June, 1879, and have travelled during that dme over a con- 
siderable portion of Manitoba and for some distance into the 
Northwest Territory, and have not yet met with anything that I 
could call good hay. There is an abundance of hay here, but it 
is very inferior ; it is a long, coarse grass, dry and tasteless, hav- 
ing none of the sweet aroma that good hay always gives out. 
It is also sadly wanting in nutritive properdes, but what it is 
deficient here may be made up in bulk, as there is an abundance 
of it, such as it is. Any one who has had an opportunity of test- 
ing his teeth upon Manitoba beef can easily understand that the 
food must be coarse indeed tg produce such hard, dry, almost 
tasteless meat. 

"Sheep-farming, sheep-breeding, and wool-growing, are also 
urged upon the settler as being the most profitable branches of 
industry the settler with capital can engage in. Estimates are 
made and long calculations are worked out proving beyond a 
doubt that there is a fortune in it. What is the truth in reladon 
to this matter? Just this. Several attempts have been made in 
this direcdon, but the result has been pretty much the same in 
every instance that I have heard of — either complete failure or 
a success that was very little better. I have seen three flocks of 
sheep since I came here, and of all the ragged, scabby, attenu- 
ated embodiments of sheep-life they were the worst. I have seen 
sheep trying to bite a living off a hillside in Spain where there 

Vandyke, Jr., who visited Manitoba in the autumn of 1879, found very conchisive evidence of it. 
The table of the Signal Service, page 1289, indicates a very severe winter climate and a brief 
but hot summer. Think of a climate where the thermometer sinks below zero (and more than 
43° below) for five successive months, where the mean temperature is 34°5, and the annual range 
138°. 



J2Q2 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

was scarce grass enough for a half-grown rabbit. I have watched 
the Httle Welsh mountain sheep browsing upon the nourishing 
refuse of a slate quarry. Yet any of these would have stood 
forth as veritable Southdowns compared with the sheep I have 
seen in Manitoba. And then the quality of the mutton! Imagine 
the flavor of 'seven-day veal' combined with the firmness of fif- 
teen-year-old male mutton and you have it exactly. Some will 
wonder why this should be the case. The reasons are simple, 
but yet they are such as cannot be easily overcome. In the first 
place the prairie grass is too coarse for sheep. In the next place 
there is a fatal enemy to sheep here in the form of a weed called 
'wild barley.' It seems to be growing all over the prairie. The 
seed of this weed is scarcely a fourth the size of a barleycorn, 
and it is armed with a hard, sharp spear. This goes into the 
sheep and the point breaking remains in the skin, causing contin- 
uous irritation and pain quite sufficient to prevent sheep trom 
ever thriving where such a pest prevails. 

"Another difficulty that the settlers in Manitoba and the North- 
west will have to contend with is alkali. It is present in such 
large quantities throughout the soil that the water everywhere 
is impregnated with it. To such an extent does this prevail in 
some places that I have frequendy known settlers have to dig 
five or six wells before they could get one sufficiently free from 
alkali to admit of its being used. This bad water is, I feel cer- 
tain, the principal cause of the death of such a large propordon 
(eight out of every ten) of the horses that are brought into Man- 
itoba from Ontario and elsewhere, within eighteen months of 
their arrival. In fact I know of one famil3^ father and sons, who 
brought fourteen horses with them from Ontario, and in two 
years there was only one alive out of the fourteen. These are 
matters that should certainly be made known among intending 
emicf rants. 

"When the three seasons — /. c, the spring, summ.er, and au- 
tumn — are squeezed into some four or five months at the miost, 
the thoughtful mind will easily realize diat this alone is sufficien; 
to prevent Manitoba from ever being a good farming country;, 
for you must bear in rriind that within this four or five months th& 



LENGTH OF THE COLD SEASON. 1203 

whole of the farm work for the year has to be completed. 
Breaking the sod, backsetting, sowing, planting, fencing, haying, 
harvesdng, well-digging, house-building, besides a long list of 
other jobs that cannot possibly be done while land and water lie 
in the icy grip of winter. All these have to be done in the brief 
interval occurring between the beginning of June and the middle 
or end of October. Take the last spring as an instance of the 
wonderful adaptation of this country for farming. May was 
nearly gone before spring was really come, and for a fortnight 
or three weeks after the surface of the ground had thawed the 
whole country was so saturated that, except in a few instances 
where the land lay high, it was quite impossible either to plough 
or sow, and the result was that by the end of seed-time the ma- 
jority of the farmers of Manitoba had put in only one-half the 
number of acres of wheat and oats they had intended doing. 
The consequence of this will be that our farmers, who are heavily 
indebted to the machine agents for implements of various kinds 
bought on time, will be unable to meet their notes, and will 
either have a visit from the sheriff or will be forced to get cash 
from the money-lenders at from fifteen to twenty per cent., oiv 
by giving a mortgage on their property they may get the money 
at twelve percent, and this I am assured is already the condition 
of more than half the farmers of Manitoba. This state of thines 
is not at all surprising when we consider that the resources of 
the country are limited to the producdon of wheat, oats, pota-, 
toes and beets." 

As a means of health and enjoyment for the family, as well as 
a source of profit to the farmer, fruit culture, where practicable, 
is really a necessity. The Clerk of the Legisladve Assembly, 
Mr. Thomas Spence, in a book for emigrants endded " Prairie 
Lands of Canada," asserts " that there is no reason why every 
farm may not have its orchard in this as in other parts of the 
Dominion." 

The "English farmer" replies, "If Manitoba is so well adapted 
to the growth of fruit, how is it that at the Provincial Agri- 
cultural Exhibition, held at Portage la Prairie in October, 1879, 
the whole display of Manitoba-grown fruit amounted to two 



I2Q4 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

plates of crab apples almost as large as walnuts — having a smell 
and taste that would give any one the idea that they were grown 
in a bed of iron filings and watered with vinegar? 

"The general testimony of those I have met, who have been here 
five, six, and seven years, is that ' scarcely any of the fruit-trees 
planted here outlive the second winter.' This is no hearsay, but 
the testimony of men thoroughly conversant with fruit culture, 
who have tried over and over again to grow apples, pears, 
peaches, etc., but always with the same results — failure and dis- 
appointment. I met with a nursery agent here last spring, who 
told me that he had sold several thousand fruit trees of various 
kinds during his trip through Manitoba, but he rather thought 
he should not come again, for from what he saw and heard of 
the winter he should not expect to find any of the trees alive 
next year. So the settler in Manitoba will save time and money 
by leaving the fruit trees alone, as an orchard here is totally out 
of the question." 

Per contra, a "Canadian" says, of the climate: 

"As to Manitoba it possesses a climate exactly the same as 
Minnesota, at Moorehead, or Dakota, at Fargo. The winters are 
known to be severe, that is, as the thermometer shows; but they 
are probably less trying than the more humid winters on the 
seaboard. The snowfall is very light, not more than a foot and 
a half. The horses of the country gra^ out all winter ; and 
sometimes, after havino- been turned out in the fall, return in the 
spring with increased numbers, from the mares having foaled. 
They paw the light, mealy snow off the grass and find plenty of 
nutritious food." 

Of the lands, he says, "They are contiguous to those of Minne- 
sota and Dakota, and the same, being only separated by an as- 
tronomical line. If there is any difference in as far as the lands 
themselves are concerned, it is that the farther you proceed down 
the Red river of the North, say from the point of Moorehead or 
Fargo, the nearer you get to what was undoubtedly in previous 
eeoloeic aijes the centre of the ofreat lake which at one time 
covered the whole of this territory, and the deeper you find the 
alluvium resting on a lacustrine clay formation. This fact gives 



THE MANITOBAN MARSHY LANDS VERY VALUABLE. i2ge 

the advantage to Manitoba, although it is undoubted that the 
banks of the river above the boundary Hne are of the same for- 
mation. This deep alluvium, held by a closely retentive clay 
sub-soil, has been enriched by ashes from fires, decaying vegeta- 
tion and the droppings by animals and birds, for ages, until it 
has naturally become the richest on the face of the globe, and 
especially adapted to the growth of wheat. It would be folly 
for anybody to attempt to deny this fact, so well known to thou- 
sands and susceptible of such easy proof. 

"The country is, however, quite new, and English farmers may 
find many things which are both new and strange to them; for 
instance, the roads are of the most primitive kind, and in the 
early spring, when the snow and frost go away, before the sur- 
face dries, it is not so easy to drive over them as it is over the 
roads of the Central Park, New York. But as the season ad- 
vances they do dry, and then the roads become as smooth and 
hard as any in the world. All this is fully stated in the gov- 
ernment pamphlets referred to, and the very clearest and fullest 
warnings are given to emigrants as to the kind of difficulties 
they may have to encounter. A section of the Canadian Pacific 
Railway, loo miles west of Winnipeg, will be completed this 
fall; and this will open up very great facilities for setders along 
its line. 

" There are undoubtedly many marshes in the province of Man- 
itoba, and these are very fully set forth in the government pam- 
phlets and maps. But they are all susceptible of very easy 
drainage ; and large drainage operations are now being carried 
on by the provincial government, under an arrangement with the 
Dominion government. Your correspondent says that these can- 
not be drained because the rivers are too near the level of the 
prairies. A difference of four feet is given. It is folly to make 
such an assertion as this in the face of the fact that the Red 
river and the Assiniboine have cut their winding ways very deep 
below the level of the prairies, twenty-five or thirty feet at the 
very least, and there are everywhere natural coulies entering 
these rivers, making the task of drainage very easy and inexpen- 
sive, while the land so drained will become the most valuable in 
the province and naturally the richest in the world. 



i2q6 our western empire. 

"As to the government land regulations, It is perhaps not of 
very much interest to discuss these at length in your cokimns; 
but in view of the reference your correspondent has made to 
them, perhaps you will permit me to say that they are the same 
as those of the United States government, with the exception 
that the fees are a little less. Any man can get a homestead of 
1 60 acres free on any unoccupied surveyed government lands on 
condition of three years settlement, and he can pre-empt 160 
acres more. The lands granted for railway purposes are sold in 
the same way as in the United States. The government lands 
open for free settlement are divided in alternate sections with 
the railway lands. The ' eighty acre ' restriction, to which your 
correspondent refers, was done away with about a year ago." 

It seems, however, that there is some ground of complaint 
even now, in regard to land grants in Manitoba, and the migra- 
tion of some large bands of Mennonites across the line to Minne- 
sota and Dakota on this account the last year would indicate that 
there had been some favoritism, at least. 

The descriptions of the region north and west of Manitoba by 
Mr. Vernon Smith in the "Nineteenth Century," and by Lord 
Dufferin, at Winnipeg, are very eloquent, and though perhaps a 
little overstated are worthy of quotation here : 

"In the very centre of this great Dominion of Canada, equi- 
distant from the Gulf of Mexico and the Arctic Ocean, and mid- 
way in the other direction between the Atlantic and Pacific, lies 
the low depression of Lake Winnipeg, 300 miles long, fifty to 
sixty miles wide — the future Black Sea of Canada. Its shape is 
roughly a parallelogram lying north and south ; at three of its 
four corners it receives the waters of a large river; the main trunk 
of a hundred smaller ones. At the remaining northeast angle a 
fourth and larger river — the Dardanelles of the system — conveys 
the accumulated waters of nearly a million square miles into 
Hudson's bay. This Lake Winnipeg receives the drainage of 
the future wheat-field of the world. The Red River of the North, 
with its affluents, the Assiniboine, the Ouiappelle, the Red Lake 
river, the Souris and a score of others, discharge their waters into 
it throuofh the sfrass-covered deltas at the southwest ano;le. At 



EARL DUFFERIN ON WINNIPEG LAKE AND ITS RIVERS. 1297 

rilfe southeast, and only twenty-five miles distant along the shores 
of the lake, the large, impetuous river, which gives its name to 
the fresh-water sea into which it rushes, pours its wild majestic 
flood from the Lawrentian highlands, which separate the waters of 
Lake Superior and the affluents of the St. Lawrence from those 
that seek Lake Winnipeg. In Lord Dufferin's speech at the capital 
of Manitoba, he describes so felicitously this noble river that any 
* more meagre description than his appears almost presumptuous. 
After describing the route of the traveller from Lake Superior 
up the Kamanistaguia, over the height of land, down the beautiful 
Rainy river into the loVely Lake of the Woods — 

" * For the last eighty miles of his voyage (he says) he will be 
consoled by sailing through a succession of land-locked channels, 
the beauty of whose scenery, while it resembles, certainly excels 
the far-famed Thousand Islands of the St^ Lawrence. From this 
lacustrine Paradise of sylvan beauty we are able at once to trans- 
fer our friend to the Winnipeg, a river whose existence in the 
very heart of the continent is in itself one of nature's most de- 
lightful miracles, so beautiful and varied are its rocky banks, its 
tufted islands ; so broad, so deep, so fervid is the volume of its 
waters, the extent of their lake-like expansions and the tremen- 
dous power of their rapids.' 

"The Winnipeg, in its short but picturesque course of 1 25 miles 
from the Lake of the Woods, falls 500 feet, and though not navi- 
gable, in consequence, for steamers, was for over two centuries 
the route by which all the trade of the interior continent was con- 
ducted by the great fur companies from and to their depots at 
Mackinaw and Montreal. The Lake of the Woods itself is a 
noble expanse of water, and with its 2,000 islands offers some 
lovely places for setdement. At th^ outlet to the river an Ice- 
landic colony has been lately formed, and its Indian name of 
Keewatin has been attached now to the whole province, which 
covers the area between the old province of Ontario and Mani- 
toba, the pioneer of the new western provinces. 

"This (the Winnipeg) is the body of water that falls into 
the southeastern angle of Lake Winnipeg. Passing now to the 
northwest corner of the same inland reservoir, the mouths of the 

82 



J2g8 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

two rivers being diagonally across the lake, about 275 miles 
apart, we find another great river — the Danube of North Amer- 
ica — stretching its long twofold channel, each 1,000 miles in 
kngth, to the foot of the Rocky Mountains of the West. This 
is the Saskatchewan, whose two arms or branches, rising not very 
far asunder in the great backbone of the continent, gradually di- 
verge until the distance between them is over 300 miles, and then 
converging up, finally join at a point ']']2i miles from the source* 
of the north branch, and 810 by the south branch, from whence 
the united stream runs 282 miles to its debouchure in Lake Win- 
nipeg, making the total length from the lake 1,054 miles by one 
branch, and 1,092 by the other, to their sources in the Rocky 
Mountains. Both these rivers run their whole length through the 
prairie land of the Northwest, and it is from isolated settlements 
on these rivers, such as Prince Albert and Carlton, that the largest 
returns of agricultural yields have been received. Both rivers are 
navigable throughout, excepting the three and a half miles near 
the mouth, where the river passes over rapids and falls of a total 
height of forty-four feet into the lake. Last year the Hudson's 
Bay Company constructed a tramway four miles long to overcome 
these obstructions, and they also placed a steamer, the ' North- 
cote,' at the head of this tramway, which during the season made 
five double trips from the Grand Rapids to Carlton, 550 miles, 
and one trip up to Edmonton, over 1,000 miles from the lake, 
along the north branch. 

" Last season a second steamer was placed on the river, and 
during the year the navigation of both branches was thoroughly 
tested. The two Saskatchewans drain what is especially known 
as the ' fertile belt,' containing not less than 90,000,000 acres of 
as fine wheat land as can be found in any country. 

'• Such are the three main rivers that pour their accumulated 
waters into Lake Winnipeg, all of them of a size and capacity 
which in Europe would class them as first-class rivers. Their 
united length, with their most important affluents, is not less than 
■10,000 miles, of which, certainly, 4,000 are available for steam 
navigation. The outlet of this magnificent and comprehensive 
water system is the large but little known Nelson, which, issuing 



CAN OCEAN STEAMERS ASCEND THE NELSON? 1299 

from the northeast angle of the lake, discharges its surplus waters 
into Hudson's bay. This river — broad, deep, first-class in every 
respect — may have probably an important bearing on the future 
prospects of this northern section of America. Lake Winnipeg 
is 700 feet above the ocean level; as far as known the Nelson has 
neither rock, nor shoal, nor excessive rapid to interfere with its 
navigation by properly constructed steamers. Its even gradual 
slope of twenty inches to the mile is not more than is constantly 
and safely worked on other American rivers. The Upper Mis- 
souri and Yellowstone, with far worse water to contend with, were 
constandy navigated in 1877 by twenty-seven steamers; whilst 
the old Danube at its Iron Gate has water quite as strong to 
contend with, and not half the breadth and depth of water for a 
vessel to pick her way in. The question remains to be solved 
whether this river is really available or not for ocean steamers to 
work through to the lake above, and, if not, whether the lake 
.steamers can be trusted to bring their cargoes down with a cer- 
tainty of being able to reascend again. The outlet of Nelson 
river is a harbor, a mile wide, and with any depth of water. It is 
called Port Nelson, and not very far from it is the old York Fac- 
tory, for a long time the head-quarters of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany, and from which, for the last 200 years, from two to five 
vessels have annually sailed for England, and not unfrequently 
under the convoy of a man-of-war. Port Nelson, although situ- 
ated in ninety-three degrees of west longitude, in the very heart 
of the continent, is eighty miles nearer to Liverpool than New 
York is. For four certainly, probably five months in the year, 
it is as clear of ice as any other of the North Atlantic ports. 
There is no question about its accessibility for ordinary ocean 
steamers from June to October, and it only remains to be proved 
whether these same vessels cannot force their way up the great 
Nelson river and load their cargoes directly at the mouth of the 
Saskatchewan, the Red river or the Winnipeg, in the very centre 
and heart of this great wheat-field of the Northwest, where 200,- 
000,000 acres now await the advent of the farmer to be rapidly 
brought into cultivation. 

" Mr. Vernon Smith says of the yield of cereal and root 



I^OO O^R WESTERN EMPIRE. 

crops in this Northwestern region, not confining his statements, 
it will be observed, to Manitoba : The fact established by clima- 
tologists, that the cultivated plants yield the greatest products 
near the northernmost limit at which they grow, is fully illustrated 
in the productions of the Canadian Territories ; and the returns 
from Prince Albert and other new settlements on the Saskatche- 
wan show a yield of 40 bushels of spring wheat to the acre, 
averaging 63 pounds to the bushel, whilst one exceptional field 
showed 68 pounds to the bushel, and another lot of 2,000 bushels 
weighed 66 pounds, producing respectively 46 and 42^ pounds 
of dressed flour to the bushel of wheat. In southern latitude? 
the warm spring develops the juices of the plants too rapidly. 
They run into stalk and leaf, to the detriment of the seed. Corn 
maize, for example, in the West Indies runs often thirty feet high, 
but it produces only a few grains at the bottom of a spongy cob 
too coarse for human food. 

" Whatever be the cause, the ascertained results in this new- 
Northwest seem to prove that its soil possesses unusually pro- 
lific powers. In 1877 carefully prepared reports were made by 
thirty-four different settlements, and although lessened in many 
cases by circumstances local and exceptional — as, for instance, a 
series of very heavy rain-storms which caught the wheat just as 
it was ripening — the yields per acre were : Of wheat, from 25 to 
35 bushels, with an average of 32^ ; barley, from 40 to 50, aver- 
age 42^ ; oats, 40 to 60, average 51 ; peas average 32^, pota- 
toes 229, and turnips 662 bushels to the acre. Individual cases 
were enumerated of 100 bushels of oats per acre, barley as high 
as 60 bushels, and weighing from 50 to 55 pounds to the 
bushel. Potatoes have yielded as high as 600 bushels to the 
acre, and of a quality unsurpassed, as are all the root crops. 
Turnips have yielded 1,000 bushels to the acre, 700 being com- 
mon, whilst cabbage, cauliflower and celery grow to an enormous 
size, and of excellent quality and flavor." 

We regret that we are unable to procure later statistics of the 
crops of the Northwestern wheat region. The earlier crops on 
these northern alluvial prairies are generally much larger than 
later ones. But for spring wheat and some of the other cereals 



THE CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY. j^or 

there Is probably no more prolific region than the Red River 
Valley and the Saskatchewan country. 

Transportation. — As yet the larger part of the grain product 
of Manitoba finds a market by way of the railway which connects 
Winnipeg with the Northern Pacific, and then carries it either to 
Duluth or Chicago. What may be its route when the Canadian 
Pacific is completed to the Saskatchewan country, or when the 
ocean steamers shall ascend the Nelson from Hudson's bay to 
Lake Winnipeg,, cannot now be predicted. 

The Canadian Pacific Railway demands a notice as one of the 
five great trunk lines now constructed or in process of construc- 
tion to the Pacific coast. It has been for some years in progress, 
but has been embarrassed by the lack of means and efficient gov- 
ernment aid. It is now taken up by an association of English 
and American capitalists, the Dominion government rendering 
liberal assistance by land grants, subsidies, and the gift to the 
company of the portions of the road already completed. The 
chief points of the compact are alleged to be : 

The total length of the projected system is to be 2,200 miles, 
of which it may be said that 600 miles are either completed or 
under construction. The government, it is announced, are pre- 
pared to grant a subsidy of ^20,000,000 in cash, payment to be 
spread over the period of ten years, assumed to be necessary for 
the construction of the line, an amount equal to $10,000 per 
mile, or about one-third of the estimated cost. A further grant 
will be made of 35,000,000 acres of land, to be located in alter- 
nate sections along the route, as was done in the case of the 
Union and Central Pacific companies. The 600 miles under con- 
struction will be handed over to the company without cost. 

Two hundred and twenty-two miles more were placed under 
contract before the new company took charge of it. The total 
cost is estimated at <^64,750,ooo. A submarine telegraph from 
Vancouver's Island to Yeddo, Japan, is also projected as a part of 
this system of communication. 

Religion, Education, etc, — Manitoba has a large Roman Cath^' 
olic population, that religious system having been long ago estab- ' 
lished here by the missionaries among the Indians. A Roman 



1302 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

Catholic archbishop has his see at St. Boniface. There is also an 
Anglican bishop, whose see is at Fort Garry. The board of edu- 
cation is composed of equal numbers of Catholic and Protestant 
members. Separate schools are established, and are maintained 
partly by fees and assessments and partly by a provincial grant, 
St. John's College (Anglican) and St. Boniface's (Roman Cath- 
olic) were incorporated in 1872. There is a very considerable 
Scotch- Presbyterian element in the population, and Methodists, 
Baptists, Congregationalists and Mennonites are also represented 
in the province. 

Principal Tow7is. — Winnipeg, the capital, has grown up around 
Fort Garry within the past decade. It is reported as having about 
1 2,000 inhabitants, and has considerable business and enterprise. 
St. Boniface, Selkirk, Shelley, Emerson, Arnaud and Dufrost an* 
growing towns. 

Historical Notes. — Manitoba is the northern part of the regioi\ 
purchased by Thomas Douglas, Earl of Selkirk, in 18 10, from the 
Hudson's Bay Company. He planted here the famous " Red 
River Settlement," called also "Pembina," and later "Assiniboia." 
The first settlers here were Scotch Highlanders. In 181 5 a con- 
siderable number of Canadians, of English, Scotch and French 
descent, and some half-breed Indians, joined the colony. When, 
some years later, the United States boundary line was run 
through, it was found that the greater part of the colony was 
south of that line, and especially that what are now Pembina, 
Dakota, and St. Vincent, Minnesota, were peopled by these 
colonists. 

Meanwhile the population did not increase rapidly, owing to 
tlie attacks of the Northwest Company, then hostile to the Hud- 
son's Bay Company, the severity of the winters, and repeated 
destructive visitations of grasshoppers, which destroyed their 
crops. The Hudson Bay Company at length took possession of 
so much of the colony as remained north of the boundary, and 
established a local government, with the title of "The Council 
of Assiniboia," which continued to administer the eovernment 
till March, 1871. In 1869 and 1870 there was a movement to 
transfer the authority to the Dominion of Canada, then just 



THE CLASSES WHO PREFER NOT TO GO WEST. 1 303 

organized. This was opposed by the French Canadians and 
half-breeds, and under a Canadian-French leader, Louis Riel, 
they organized an armed resistance, took possession of the treas- 
ury, and imprisoned many of their opponents. In July, 1870, an 
armed force from Canada appeared in the province, captured the 
insurgent leaders, and gave opportunity for an elective govern- 
ment, which soon united with the Dominion, and is represented 
in the Dominion Parliament. The growth of the province since 
that time has been rapid. 



CHAPTER II. 

EOUES FOR IMMIGRANTS ON THE ATLANTIC SLOPE. 

Why many Immigrants do not like to go to the West— Views of many of 
OUR own People on the Subject— Are there not Homes for these on 
.THE Atlantic Slope?— Advantages of the East— Wisconsin and Michi- 
gan—Ohio, Indiana and Illinois — Tennessee— Maine, New Hampshire 
and Vermont — Massachusetts and Connecticut— Northern Nkw Yo^k 
— Long Island — Advantages of New System of Ensilage here and in 
New Jersey— New Jersey— The Southern Counties— West Virginia 
—North Carolina— East Tennessee— Northern Georgia— Florida- 
Conclusion. 

While we have given a full and fair description of the advan. 
tages which the West offers to the intending immigrant, and have 
demonstrated its superiority to any other portion of the globe 
which is now inviting immigration, we are not unmindful of the 
fact that there are very many of the nearly 600,000 immigrants 
who have landed on our shores during the past year to whom the 
continuation of their journey to the far West is either a very great 
hardship or an impossibility. They have friends in the Eastern 
States, who are comfortably situated, and who desire to have 
them near them ; or they are somewhat advanced in life and have 
but scanty means, which would be entirely exhausted on reaching 
the West ; or they have children or grandchildren whose homes 
are on the Atlantic slope, and to whom they would be again 
united ; or they are not in robust health, and the Western lands 



I304 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



seem SO far, the climate so unlike that to which they have been 
accustomed, and all the little comforts of an old civilization have 
become so indispensable to them, that they dread, as those ad- 
vanced in life always do, the privations to which they will be ex- 
posed. These things did not seem so real and formidable when 
they were on the other side of the Atlantic as they do now; and 
if they persist in going West, these matters will grow more and 
more distasteful to them, till they develop into a genuine home- 
sickness and serious discontent. 

There are also very large numbers of our Eastern people who, 
after all, make up the larger part of the emigration to the West, 
who, for one reason or another, while they do not care particu- 
larly about going to the West, prefer some change, and for many 
reasons, would be better satisfied with an Eastern than a Western 
location. Their friends and acquaintance are here. They can 
find here good schools and churches, the land is all broken, ready 
for their crops, and there is a home market, readily accessible, 
where they can sell at fair prices all they have to sell, and buy at 
a reasonable rate all they need to buy. 

It is from these classes that we oftenest hear the inquiry: " Is 
there not some region east of the Mississippi where, all things 
being taken into the account, a man or a family can live as well 
and make as much money as in the West, and at the same time 
avoid the hardships, inconveniences and discomforts of a life on 
the frontier ? " 

We answer: That depends upon several considerations; 
money is not made quite as rapidly in agricultural and pastoral 
pursuits in the East as in the West, because a larger capital is 
required for extensive operations, and it is more difficult to pro- 
cure the necessary quantity of land ; but with the same resolute 
will, there is nothing impossible (as Kossuth says) to him who 
wills ; and the achievement of a great fortune is not a task which 
is more impossible to a resolute spirit at the East than at the 
West. It is also to be considered that many men are not ambi- 
tious to accumulate large fortunes, if to do this they must forego 
all the comforts and pleasures of society for a considerable time. 
To them a competence is the extent of their ambition, and with 



DESIRABLE LOCATIONS ON THE ATLANTIC SLOPE. ^-ijQt 

it, if they can have friends, society and abundant advantages of 
intellectual and moral culture, they are as happy as men well can 
be in this life. 

To these classes we have to say: You will find a larger meas- 
ure of enjoyment east of the Mississippi than you would west of 
it. There is the same choice of occupations here as at the West. 
Land is not quite so low, generally, but on the other hand you 
avoid the long and expensive journey to the West. The agri- 
cultural production, under favorable circumstances, does not 
differ materially; but there prices are low and the cost of trans- 
portation to a better and higher market is very heavy, while here 
you have a market almost at your doors, and that one which 
pays the highest price for produce. If there is a difference, as 
there certainly is in some sections, the Eastern climate is healthier, 
neither the heat nor the cold so oppressive, the rainfall sufficient 
to prevent any apprehension of a drought, the insect pests much 
less formidable, and the danger from malarial fevers less serious. 
The intensity of the cold of winter is greater in the northern tier 
of States and Territories of the West than in the middle Atlantic 
States, and the heat of the Southwestern States and Territories 
in summer has no parallel in the East. 

" But where," it may be asked, " are these lands which are so 
desirable?" It is, we answer, hardly possible to go amiss of 
them. Wisconsin and Michigan are as truly States for immi- 
grants as Iowa and Minnesota; more so than Missouri. North- 
ern Wisconsin and the Northern Peninsula of Michigan have, it 
is true, a severe winter climate, though not more so than North- 
ern Minnesota or Dakota, and in general the winter mean 
temperature is not lower than that of Iowa. In both States there 
are good lands, yielding with proper culture as large crops of 
wheat, barley, oats, and, in ordinary seasons, Indian corn, and as 
many bushels of the root crops as the trans-Mississippi States. 
In both these States there are extensive grazing lands, and both 
stock-raising and dairy-farming are already conducted on an ex- 
tensive scale. Both States are rich in minerals ; gold and silver 
are found in moderate quantities ; but copper, zinc, iron and lead 
abound, and so nearly pure as to be easily reduced; while the 



1306 OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 

rarer metals are found in ample quantities. Coal is less abun- 
dant as yet, but the immense forests furnish not only vast amounts 
of timber and lumber, but all the fuel which will be required for 
many years. Those who prefer the isolation of a new country 
can find homes here reasonably free from neighbors, while their 
crops can be speedily conveyed to market at a very moderate 
cost. 

Ohio, Indiaiia and lUuiois have now no desirable government 
lands for sale, but there are valuable State lands (school and 
swamp lands), and Illinois especially has yet some excellent rail- 
road lands which can be purchased at moderate prices. A 
skilful farmer, buying his land low, can always be sure of making 
his farm pay in either of these States. There are also extensive 
coal and iron mines in all three. 

Portions of Kentucky are desirable for immigrants, but both 
Middle and Eastern Temiessee are more so. The soil is not as 
rich as in some of the Western States, but there is a close clay 
sub-soil, and the land retains and is permanently benefited by 
manures, and under their influence yields liberal crops. There 
is much heavy timber, and most of the land has to be cleared before 
cultivation. Hitherto much of this region, especially the Cum- 
berland Plateau of Middle Tennessee, has been inaccessible to 
markets; but now railroads have been built, and several colonies 
have established themselves there. One of these, sent out under 
the direction of an association of which Thomas Hughes, M. P., 
(" Tom Brown at Rugby ") is President, have founded a colony 
called Rugby, and are making very fair progress in developing 
the region, for the time which has elapsed since their colonial 
enterprise was commenced. The English members of the colony 
are satisfied that they can accumulate property much faster than 
they could have done in England. 

East Tennessee has not a rich soil, but its mineral wealth is 
very great, especially in coal and iron of the best quality. There 
are also some gold and silver ores, though the mining for them 
is only moderately profitable. These mineral deposits exist 
throughout the region occupied by the Appalachian chain of 
mountains, and render West Virginia, Western North and Sozith 



LONG ISLAND AS A HOME FOR IMMIGRANTS. 1307 

Cai'olina, and Northei'n Georgia arid Alabama desirable localities 
for those who desire to engage in mining, or who prefer to prose- 
cute the timber or lumber trade. But while the principal deposits 
of gold and silver are found in North Carolina, South Carolina 
and Northern Georgia, West Virginia and East Tennessee have 
the most inexhaustible resources in coal, iron and lime in close 
proximity to each other and to the railways ; and the best salt 
springs and petroleum springs and wells in the country, with 
large tracts of black walnut and other hard-wood timber. When 
cleared, the lands with proper tillage yield good crops, and will 
continue to do so permanently. 

East of the Alleghany or Appalachian range there are many 
desirable localiues. In Mame the Scandinavians, Finns and 
Northern Russians will find a climate much like their own, an 
abundance of timber, and land which, with good farming, will yield 
fair crops. The other New England States have many old farms 
which are capable of becoming profitable under intelligent cultiva- 
tion. There are here also opportunides for employment for me- 
chanics and operatives in manufactories. In Northern New York 
the vast area known as the " North Woods," " John Brown's 
Tract," "The Adirondacks," etc., offers some desirable lands to 
an industrious farmer. The country is well watered, and its 
numerous lakes abound in fish and its forests in deer and other 
game. With the completion of some projected roads, it will be 
easily accessible. 

But the best region for immigrants in the State of New 
York is on Lofig Island, and mainly in Suffolk county. It seems 
almost incredible that 600,000 acres of land, lying between thirty- 
five and ninety miles from New York city, the best and most 
inexhaustible market in the world, with a good soil, a very 
, healthful climate, well watered, and having a sufficient but not 
excessive annual rainfall, should, from the apathy of its owners 
lie unimproved, and be at the present time for sale at from five to 
fifteen dollars per acre. And the wonder is all the greater, when 
we find that a railroad passes through the whole length of this 
tract, with several branches, and that no part of it is more than 
twelve miles from the railroad, and much of it within from one to 



I30S <^^'>^ IVESTFIN EMPIRE. 

five miles of it, and that this railroad is now offering ever}' facility 
to farmers to transport their produce to market, and to brini^f 
from the city the needed fertilizers. The shores of the island 
abound in the best qualities of edible fish, oysters, clams, mussels, 
scollops, lobsters, crabs, etc., and the game-birds and four-footed 
game of the whole region are abundant. On the island are forty 
factories for the production of oil from the menhaden, and the 
fi; h-scrap, or guano, one of the best fertilizers known, is now 
sent away from the island, because there is little or no demand 
for it there. This apathetic condition is now passing away and 
the Long Island farms are in demand. 

The land can be cleared at from five to ten dollars per acre, 
some of the timber being large enough for building purposes or 
for railroad ties. It will yield from twenty-five to thirty-five 
bushels of wheat, or from twenty to twenty-eight bushels of rye, 
to the acre, from 250 to 350 bushels of potatoes of the best 
quality, and with good cultivation and fair manuring, the whole 
region can be transformed into market gardens, fruit orchards, 
and strawberry, blackberry and raspberry lands of the greatest 
productiveness, and for all these products there is an unfailing 
demand, at the highest prices, in New York and Brooklyn and 
the cities adjacent. 

This is a very paradise for the market-gardener. The great 
cities of New York, Brooklyn, Jersey City and Newark, and the 
smaller cities and towns of Hoboken, Bergen, Bayonne, Long 
I.sland City, Yonkers, Garden City, Breslau, Hempstead, Flush- 
ing, Jamaica and Huntington — having together a population of 
two and a half millions — are all largely dependent upon this re- 
gion for market-garden produce. The great summer resorts of 
Coney Island, Rockaway Beach, Long Beach, Fire Island, Mon- 
tauk, etc., all on Long Island, which are visited by more than 
two millions of people every season, furnish additional markets 
for all the fruits, vegetables and root crops which can be raised. 

The new system of Ensilage is destined to work wonders on 
these Long Island and New Jersey lands.* By its use and the 

* Ensilage is the name given to a preparation of green forage plants for winter feeding. Thie 
plants may be corn (the taller and larger growing varieties preferred), cut when it is " in the &ilk ;" 



A'£IF JERSEY AS A HOME FOU IMMIGKAXTS. 1309 

soiling of the cattle in summer a farmer can keep a dairy nerd of 
from eighty to one hundred cows on a farm of fifty acres, and 
raise in addition at least ^2,500 or ^3,000 worth of market 
vegetables and small fruits, while in the West, on the old system, 
he would require at least 640 acres for the same purpose. At 
the same time, the large amount of manure produced will enable 
him to keep his whole farm in the highest condition for produc- 
tiveness. The system is very simple, and not beyond the means 
of even the poor emigrant; for the returns are so speedy that the 
cost of the necessary structures can be paid for from the milk 
receipts of the first year. 

The island affords also great opportunities for successful manu- 
facturing. The great city of Brooklyn, at its western extremity, 
has more than *^2 50,000,000 invested in manufacturing, and ther<^ 
is now rapid progress in the establishment of manufactories in 
the counties of Queens and Suffolk. 

The climate of Long Island is healthful and mild, the mean 
annual temperature being 50° and the extremes 98° or rarely 
100°, and zero, or at lowest — 5°. The cool sea-breezes moderate, 
the summer heat and mitiofate the winter's cold. 

Another region which possesses exceptional advantages for 
fruit-culture and market-gardening and dairy-farming is Southern 
New Jersey. The Secretary of the Bureau of Statistics of Labor 
and Industry of New Jersey furnishes us the following interesting 
facts relative to this reg^ion. " 

There are more than a million acres of uncleared lands in the 
eight southern counties of New Jersey, which can be purchased 
at from five to twenty dollars per acre. They have been held 
by large proprietors, and most of them have their tides direct 
from the "Lords Proprietors," Penn, Fenwick, Byllinge and 
others, who received their q^rants from Charles II. These e^reat 

Alfalfa, Hungarian grass, Egyptian rice corn, pearl millet or sorghum. Either should be sowed 
very thick and cut up at the roots, chopped up, ears and all, into pieces an inch and a half in 
length and then placed in a close pit with cemented walls and floor, trampled down well till the 
pit (which is called a silo) is well filled, when it is covered with six inches of straw, and upon 
this are laid heavy planks, jointed or tongued and grooved, and heavy weights put upon the top 
either of stone or grain. It keeps perfectly and is fed through the winter, rendering any use of 
hay unnecessary. 



I3IO 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



estates are now broken up, and the use of anthracite and other 
coals for the furnaces and glass-works, and for fuel, has rendered 
their former business less productive. 

The soil of these lands is good, a light loam, but easily culti- 
vated ; it can be readily fertilized by the use of marl, which is 
abundant in the immediate vicinity, and is worth from ^i to $1.75 
per ton ; lime, which is worth from twelve to fifteen cents a 
bushel ; or fish guano, which is a very powerful manure, worth 
from ^15 to ^18 per ton. It will produce almost any crop which 
you may desire to cultivate, and yields fine crops of the cereals 
and Indian corn (thirty to sixty bushels of the latter), root crops, 
melons, market-garden vegetables of excellent quality, fruit of 
great excellence, and all the small fruits. Railroads traverse all 
these counties, and both New York and Philadelphia furnish ex- 
cellent markets. 

The climate is very mild, the mean annual range of the ther- 
mometer being only 435^°, the mean average being about 51°, 
and the extremes being about 90° and 15° Fahrenheit. 

The rainfall is about forty-eight inches. Ploughing can be 
done every month in the year. The culture of the grape is a 
favorite industry, and the grape attains great perfection from the 
long season without frost. The region is remarkably healthy and 
free from all malarious influences. It is especially commended 
for sufferers from pulmonary complaints. 

Here are glass-works, silk factories, iron mines, artificial-stone 
works, iron furnaces, and a great variety of other manufacturing 
and mining industries. 

There are desirable lands at moderate prices also in Central 
Pennsylvania, Northern Maryland, and large tracts of some of 
the best lands the sun shines on, though now exhausted by the 
slovenly farming of the period before the war, in Virginia. 
These lands can be easily reclaimed, and can be bought at 
reasonable prices. 

The lands in Eastern North Carolina, though fertile, are very 
often subject to malarial fevers. Where they can be freed from 
these by drainage or the extensive planting of the Eucalyptus, 
there are no better farming lands on the Atlantic coast. 



CONCLUSION. J,, I 

Florida has received more emigrants and settlers from the 
North than any other Southern State. Its fine dimate, which 
has had quite as much reputation as it deserves for the rehef of 
pulmonary diseases, its orange culture, and its fine hunting and 
fishing, have been its great attractions. The cultivation of the 
orange has been gready developed, and is profitable to those who 
can wait for the maturity of the orange groves. They should 
not be permitted to bear a full crop till they are ten years old, 
and from the tenth to the thirtieth year they are very profitable. 
At long intervals, however, a severe frost destroys the fruit, and 
kills or blights many of the trees. The present winter (1880- 
1881) has been most destructive to the crop. Some parts of the 
peninsula are subject to malarial diseases. 

I hear the tread of pioneers 

Of nations yet to be ; 
The first low wash of waves, where soon 

Shall roll a human sea. 
I hear the far-off voyager's horn ; 

I see the Yankee's trail — 
His foot on every mouniain-pass, 

On every stream his sail. 
Behind the scared squaw's birch canoe, 

The steamer smokes and raves, 
And city lots are staked for sale 

Above old Indian graves. 
The rudiments of empire here 

Are plastic yet and warm ; 
The chaos of a mighty world 

Is rounding into form ! — J. G. Whittier. 

Our task is done, our work completed. For the first time 
since we became a nation has an attempt been made to portray 
with accuracy and completeness of detail, the region beyond the 
Mississippi. We have sought to show its vast extent, its mineral 
wealth, its varied climate, the bountiful production of its fields of 
golden grain, the flocks and herds on its myriad hills and moun- 
tain slopes, its rapid progress in civilization and material devel- 
opment, the manner of men who are occupying this vast empire 
of the future, their advance in population, organization, education, 
morals and reliorion. We have shown the phenomena which 



I3I2 



OUR WESTERN EMPIRE. 



make this Western Empire the wonderland, not alone of the 
globe, as it is to-day, but of all the ages ; we have uncovered the 
graves of the geologic races of animals, and described the mon- 
sters of the ages before there were any measurements of time ; 
and we have searched the leaves of unwritten history to learn 
something of the races who reared, ages ago, the temples and 
shrines, the fortresses and towers, which are now without record 
or inhabitant. 

And not content with this, but looking forward to that not dis- 
tant future, when this continent, from the Arctic sea to the Mexi- 
can gulf, and from Atlantic's surf-beat to the pulsating waves of 
the Pacific, shall all be part and parcel of the mightiest and 
grandest of empires ; we have briefly sketched the provinces of 
the Frozen Zone, and the western portion of that Dominion to 
the north of us, to whom we stretch forth the hand of welcome ; 
and yet more briefly, have noticed the advantages which still 
attract immigrants to our Atlantic States. 

The efforts of the railroad companies. State boards and emi- 
gration societies to picture each State and Territory with which 
they were connected as an earthly paradise, and the unwarranta- 
ble depreciation of the lands of other organizations, in which they 
and others have indulged, have been ahke foreign to our purpose ; 
and having nothing but the truth to utter, we have sought to 
" nothino- extenuate, nor set down auQ^ht in malice." 

That this fair land may develop far more rapidly than it has 
done in the past, in wealth, intelligence and virtue, is our most 
earnest wish and prayer ; and then shall we rejoice to realize the 
truth of the just uttered prediction of the genial and witty 
Holmes : 

" I see the living tide roll on ; 

It crowns with flaming towers 
The icy cape of Labrador, 

The Spaniard's land of flowers. 
It streams beyond the splintered ridge 

That parts the Northern showers; 
From Eastern rock to sunset wave, 

The continent is ours ! " 

THE END. 



LB D 14 



